MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
SPRING 2014
MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
A Project
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
Approved by:
______, Committee Chair Dr. Serge Lee
______Date
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Student: Kellie Anne Curnutt
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the project.
______, Graduate Coordinator ______Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW Date
Division of Social Work
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Abstract of
of
MILITARY SEXUAL TRAUMA: A CONTENT ANALYSIS
by
Kellie Anne Curnutt
Military Sexual Trauma (MST) is a term used by the Department of Defense to describe sexual assault and harassment. MST has negative consequences that include the degradation of morale, health, and family. MST has been present during all wars and conflicts throughout the history of warfare. In addition, history shows that women have participated in warfare and combat all over the world. Using peer reviewed journals and articles, as well as books that detail the history of women’s roles in warfare, this researcher has illustrated the contributions of women to war, as well as a content analysis on the prevalence and effects that MST has on women. In conclusion, this content analysis has shown that additional research must be done to determine the effectiveness of programs currently in place to decrease MST.
______, Committee Chair Dr. Serge Lee
______Date
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TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………...viii
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION…………...……………………………………………………….1
Background of the Problem...... 1
Statement of the Research Problem……………………………………………….5
Study Purpose……………………………………………………………………..6
Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………7
Definition of Terms………………………………………………………………..8
Assumptions……………………………………………………………………….8
Social work research justification……………………………………………...….8
Study limitations…………………………………………………………………..9
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE………………………………………………….10
A Brief History of Women in Warfare…………………………………………..10
Amazons of Black Sparta……………………………...... 11
Women in Early Imperial China………………………………………………....13
Women of the Long March………………………………………………………14
Women of Chongqing’s Resistance in World War II……………………………16
Russia’s Women Soldiers of World War I………………………………………19
Women Soldiers of the American Civil War…………………………………….24 v
History of Aggression within the Military Culture……………………………...29
Women in Modern Warfare……………………………………………...... 30
Sexual Harassment, Assault, Trauma, and its Effects on Women………………31
Lack of Reporting of Military Sexual Trauma…………………………………..33
Female Veterans not Seeking Services…………………………………………..35
What is Being Done?...... 36
Summary…………………………………………………………………………36
3. METHODS…………………………………………………………………………..38
Study Objectives…………………………………………………………………38
Study Design……………………………………………………………………..38
Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………………39
Instruments……………………………………………………………………….40
Data Analysis…………………………………………………………………….40
Protection of Human Subjects…………………………………………...... 40
4. STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS………………………………………...42
Overall Findings…………………………………………………………………42
Specific Findings………………………………………………………………...43
Interpretations of the Findings…………………………………………...... 48
5. CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS……………………49
Summary of Study……………………………………………………………….49
Implications for Social Work…………………………………………………….51
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Recommendations………………………………………………………………..52
Limitations……………………………………………………………………….53
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….53
Appendix A. Human Subjects Approval Letter…………………………………54
References……………………………………………………………………….56
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Page
1. Number of times key terms mentioned in 2009 article..…………………………43
2. Number of times key terms used in 2011(a) article……………………………...44
3. Number of times key terms used in 2011(b) article……………………………...45
4. Number of times key terms used in 2013 article……………………………...... 46
5. Overall number of times key terms used……………………………………...... 47
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Military Sexual Trauma (MST) is a term used to describe sexual assault or repeated sexual harassment. It occurs across all branches of the military, and the victims can be officer or enlisted, woman or man. Not only does MST degrade morale and mission effectiveness, it also comprises the individual’s health and his or her family’s well-being (Snyder, Fisher, Scherer, & Daigle, 2012). Although there seems to be an increase in the reporting of MST, the consequences of reporting MST still outweighs the benefit to a majority of the victims. Often, it is the victim of MST who suffers more than the perpetrator when the abuse comes to light. This is due to the victim being unable to transfer workstations without permission, the perpetrator may be a coworker, supervisor, or someone of higher rank, and the victim may have repeated contact with the perpetrator
(Suris & Lind, 2008).
Background of the Problem
Women have taken on many roles in early American society. One of the important roles women took on was that of a wife and mother. Many women found that once they were married, their role of having and caring for children, taking care of the sick, and running the household was now legitimized, whereas these domestic duties were something they did before marriage, but without any authority or responsibility of being head of the household. According to Hurtado (2001) the amount of time women spent in the home managing domestic duties, enabled men to work on the homestead,
2 goldmines, or timber, and this contributed to economic growth in the West. Many women also found themselves learning their new husband’s business and even running it while he was away (Smith, 2010). In Gold Rush California, both women and men found themselves working alongside each other, running businesses such as bars, restaurants, and boarding houses (Hurtado).
According to Woloch (1994), the legal policies in early American history were similar to one another, but there were no policies that were exactly the same. The early legal system benefited women by ensuring that she could support herself if impoverished, but the laws did not facilitate independence, and still needed approval of men to exercise any legal standing. Smith (2010) goes on to mention the role women did participate in the early legal system. While women were not able to practice law, be judges, serve on juries, or write legislation, they were often called to court to testify and settle disputes about property and guardianships. Women who were midwives were called on to provide expertise on cases of infanticide and rape as well. These women would often examine the bodies and provide testimony. Women found themselves in occupational roles as well. These roles included retail, property management, teachers, bakers, brew masters, and saddlers. If a woman was married to a craftsman, she would find herself working in the shop, and if her husband was a farmer, she may have found herself working in the field (Woloch). Occasionally, women found themselves running their homes as unlicensed inns and taverns depending on the proximity of their house to ferries, markets,
3 and other places of trade. Many women found this to be a viable option for making extra income for her family (Smith).
Smith adds that in the eighteenth century women played an essential role in establishing new congregations and churches for their communities as well. When a settlement was initially established, the town meeting hall and church was generally put in the center. As the town grew, people built their houses farther and farther away from the center or established new towns. In these cases women were often behind the push to establish new congregations. This was due to women who were pregnant, nursing children, or taking care of toddlers finding it difficult to walk several miles to church.
Women also viewed church memberships and the weekly meetings that went along with them, as a relief from the patriarchal family (Woloch).
According to Long (1975), during the mid-1600’s the home was where education initially took place, before being farmed out to grammar schools that were modeled after
English grammar schools. Smith states further that during the eighteenth century, women found more opportunities for education. Towns began hiring female school teachers, which in turn led to a greater number of women receiving an education. In addition, an increase of reading material, the creation of new schools, and the belief that both boys and girls should be educated led a higher rate of literacy. Even with the belief that girls as well as boys should be educated, boys received a more comprehensive education.
While girls learned practical skills such as reading and spelling, boys learned these skills as well as additional skills such as Greek and Latin. Girls also learned what was then
4 considered gender specific skills such as needlework, churning butter, and cutting fabric.
If the girls came from wealthy families, their education included dancing and music lessons in addition to domestic skills (Smith).
Beyond these domestic roles and responsibilities, women also played a role in war and politics during the eighteenth century, as war was not an uncommon occurrence.
Women would find themselves caught up in small skirmishes on the frontier to war on a larger scale. Women were sometimes the victim of rape or taken captive, and women participated in boycotts and political events. According to Kerber (1986), mistreatment and the threat of rape was a constant threat whenever armies were present. During the eighteenth century women and their families would sometimes find themselves under threat of attack from indigenous native peoples and other Europeans (Smith). Women also found ways to participate in politics during the 18th century. In some cases, women would choose a spouse based on his political beliefs (Zagarri, 2007). During the War of
1812, Republican leaders understood the importance of women’s convictions. According to Zagarri (2007) a woman’s opposition to the war could deter her husband or sons from enlisting, or if she supported the efforts, she may convince him to join.
While women served many roles in early American history that helped shaped the future of the United States, they also served in the military. Unfortunately, while serving in the United States military, women sometimes have become victims of Military Sexual
Trauma. While both men and women fall victim to incidents of Military Sexual Trauma
(MST), it is more likely to happen to women than men (Street, Stafford, Mahan, &
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Hendricks, 2008). As reported by Bastian, Lancaster, and Reyest (1996) in a large scale survey, 78% of women and 38% of men have reported at least one instance of unwanted sexual behavior, more commonly referred to as “sexual harassment” and 6% of women and 1% of men have reported sexual assault in the past year. These authors added that many cases go unreported as well. This is due to not wanting anyone to know, feeling uncomfortable making a report, and believing that the report would not be kept confidential (Department of Defense, 2012).
Women have played an important role in combat and warfare throughout history, not only during the inception of the United States, but also throughout the history of the world. There are examples of women bearing on the front lines, such as the Dahomey women of the Amazons and the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death, to behind the scenes roles such as the European camp women.
Statement of the Research Problem
Women are put at an elevated risk as their roles in the military continue to expand
(Kelly et al., 2008).Throughout the history of the United States military, women have played a vital and changing role. For example, during World War II approximately
350,000 women served in the United States Armed Forces. One of the biggest problems felt by the women stationed overseas was pressure they felt put onto them by men. The women were outnumbered 10 to 1 (Campbell, 1990). During this time women were excluded from combat positions, and were often put in positions such as nursing, secretaries, and pilots. Although women were technically not assigned combat positions,
6 they still found themselves in combat zones alongside their male counterparts (Gold, et al., 2007). According to Feczer and Bjorklund (2009), trauma and sexual stress is common in female veterans. They referenced a study done in 1998 which indicates that
93% of veteran women had been exposed to sexual stress, 63% had been sexually harassed, and 43.1% had been sexually assaulted (Fontana & Rosenheck, 1998).
Most importantly, women veterans have a lower likelihood of reporting when they have been sexually harassed or assaulted. For example, Valente and Wight (2007) state that three quarters of women who served in Operation Desert Storm, the Iraqi War, who reported being raped did not report the incident. They rationalized that this was due to not knowing how to report the incident, or having the belief that rape was sometimes to be expected while serving in the military.
Study Purpose
The purpose of this study was to conduct a content analysis. The qualitative portion looked at the history and culture of women in the United States Armed Forces, as well as the history of women participating in warfare in other countries and cultures.
Additionally, this study looked at the effects of MST on female veterans, the lack of reporting of MST by female veterans, and what is being done to combat the rise of MST.
The content analysis portion of this study also examined the increase of key terms used in scholarly articles. By the end of the research project, the researcher expects to identify/or find the following outcomes:
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(1.) Able to identify the rates of sexual assaults against women in the military
during the past five years
(2.) Able to identify the most common reason for lack of reporting of military
sexual assaults against women
(3.) Able to identify common physical and mental problems associated with
military sexual trauma
Theoretical Framework. The theoretical frameworks that this Master’s Project utilized was the Ecological Systems and Family Systems (as cited by Hutchinson, 2013).
According to Hutchinson, the focus of Ecological Systems theory centers on how persons interact with their environment. The major concepts of this theory is that persons are in continual transaction with their environment, systems are interrelated parts or subsystems constituting an ordered whole, all subsystems impact all or other parts of the whole system, and systems can have closed or opened boundaries. The Family Systems Theory focuses on how the family system affects the individual and family functioning. The main concepts are that boundaries, roles, structure and communication influence family functioning (Hutchinson). These system theories are particularly relevant to military culture and functioning due to the system (also called family) structure of the military, as well as persons continually impacting and being impacted by his or her environment.
Often, individuals diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) are likely to have problems with substance abuse and are at increased risk for suicide. This is associated with relationship difficulties, as well as difficulties with parenting (Tanielian
8 et al., 2008). In some cases, PTSD can be attributed to MST which directly affects the individual and that individual’s family functioning. Deployment is another issue that affects the family system. In today’s military, deployment length and frequency can last as long as 15 months. In addition to the burdens of deployment, the family must also endure frequent geographic relocation which occurs every two to three years. Because of this, children and their families experience changes in school, friends, and separation from their extended families (Johnson & Rhodes, 2010; Herzog, 2008).
Definition of terms.
MST – Military Sexua Trauma
PTSD – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
TBI – Traumatic Brain Injury
Assumptions. The assumption of this research is that MST is a problem that has always existed, yet it is not getting a higher profile due to a lack of attention in social media and a greater access to online, published resources, and governmental reports.
Social work research justification. This research will benefit the social work profession by increasing awareness of the problems and their presentations faced by women veterans who have experienced MST. With multiple overseas operations winding down and coming to a close, there will be an increase of women veterans that will need professional services due to MST. Social workers will need to be aware of the difficulties that these women face mentally, socially, and physically, as well as an understanding about how it affects themselves and their families.
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Study limitations. This study aims to inform the reader about the prevalence, causes, and effects of MST both physically and mentally. It will also touch on the history and role of women serving in the United States Military, as well as the history of women’s roles in other countries and their militaries. This study is not about the most effective ways of treating victims or perpetrators of MST, or about men’s experiences with MST, or about identifying resources within the community.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This literature review included a brief history of women from around the globe who have actively contributed or participated in warfare. The purpose of this is to give a historical overview of women and their contributions to combat and warfare, as well as illustrate that women had always participated in combat and warfare. The literature will then discuss the history of aggression within the military culture, women in modern warfare, sexual harassment, assault, trauma and the effects on women, lack of reporting of Military Sexual Trauma (MST), female veterans not seeking services, and what is being done to address the issue and consequences of MST.
A Brief History of Women in Warfare
According to Herrmann and Palmieri (2010), because women are more peaceable and givers of life, they are usually perceived as involuntary victims in war. In early modern Europe, women also played a role as camp women. These women endured the severities of marching, injuries, and illness, and were responsible for agricultural work, going to the market, washing and preparing clothes, and tending to the sick. History also shows that women have played a role in warfare, whether it is through armed hostilities, the main protagonists, or symbolically (Herrmann & Palmieri, 2010; Lynn, 2008). Some of the historical events on women who have served in the military are highlighted below.
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Amazons of Black Sparta
Greek stories about the amazons of Asia Minor vary, but there are similarities that also emerge. Alpern (1998) talked about the stories of a fierce women army. Some of these stories discussed in Greek literature about two princes that were expelled from their homelands, and migrated to the Caucasus region. In this region, they tried to oppress the local people, but the local people drew up arms and slayed every man. What was most amazing about these local people that drew up arms, were that they were women.
Because of this incidence, women of that era became known as “Amazons” which means
“without a breast” (Alpern, 1998). According to Greek mythology, the Amazon women warriors would cut off their right breast to better shoot a bow and arrow (Alpern).
Alpern explains that along with the removal of the right breast, the Amazon women denounced marriage as servitude, took two months off out of the year to procreate with men of neighboring tribes, at random and in the dark. The Amazon women could only give up her virginity if she had killed a man in battle. If the women ended up having male children, they were either crippled at birth, kept as slaves, or sacrificed to the gods of war. According to Greek legend, these Amazon women conquered many great people, but met their demise with the Greek heroes Bellerophon,
Hercules, Theseus, and Achilles (Alpern).
This legend served as a cautionary tale to the Greek society about what would happen if the gender roles became reversed. This legend was to show that the Greek patriarchal life was normal, orderly, and civilized. If women were to lose their servitude,
12 modesty, and tameness, then society was to be doomed; society would become uncivilized, barbaric, and unnatural (Alpern).
Alpern discussed further that documentation of an actual women army does exist.
These women were of the Dahomey, an eighteenth and nineteenth century West African kingdom. This kingdom was referred to as a “small black Sparta” due to its dedication to warfare and slave-raiding. It was European visitors of the kingdom that referred to the women soldiers of Dahomey as amazons in the 1840’s.
The women of the Dahomey army can be traced back to the early 18th century as elephant hunters. The women would hunt elephants for their meat and ivory for their
King’s royal feast. These women were later appointed to guard the King’s palace. The only men allowed in the king’s palace besides the king were Eunuchs, who shared guard duty with the women. These women of the Dahomey army were taught to fight from an early age, handle weapons, and withstand suffering. The women’s main weapons were muskets, clubs, and machetes, and unlike Greek legend, they kept their breasts intact.
The Dahomey women warriors fought in an army, but the majority of the army was male and the women were led by male officers.
The Dahomey kingdom waged war annually. These wars included raiding isolated, near defenseless villages, as well as powerful neighbors for slave raids and to avenge insults (Alpern). The women warriors of the Dahomey were noted by European visitors to consistently show outstanding performance in battle; the women of Dahomey were noted to be excellent shooters, fearless, indomitable, and relentless. Around the
13 year 1850, the Dahomey king raised the women warriors to an equal status of their male counterparts (Newark, 1989). The demise of the Dahomey kingdom and its women army can be traced to the year 1889, the Dahomey army raided a village that the French used as an outpost. This caused tension between the French and the Dahomey, and by 1892 the
French had conquered the Dahomey kingdom (Alpern).
Women in Early Imperial China
The roles of women in China date back thousands of years. Contemporary theatrical plays, movies, and documentary drama illustrated the important roles of
Chinese women in war. According to Hinsch (2010), in ancient China, a woman’s role in warfare was logistically supported. She was depicted not only as carrying provisions and building shelters, but being side-by-side with men in combat zones. Chinese women’s roles in warfare were modified during the Han Dynasty. This was due to the fact that during the Han dynasty strategies of warfare changed; mainly because wars generally were not fought with rival states, but they were being fought on distant frontiers. Women also became more civilized. Because of civilization some women could no longer be depended on for logistical support, but instead more Chinese women became fighters
(Hinsch, 2010).
According to Hinsch (2010) under these new circumstances and regional tensions, rebellions took place frequently that gave women a chance to participate in warfare. One notable rebellion was the Red Eyebrow rebellion. This rebellion was named due to the red war paint that the rebels painted on their foreheads. This rebellion was led by a
14 woman named Mother Lu, who started the rebellion due to a vendetta she had against an official. The official was responsible for the execution of her son, and with several thousand supporters she was able to storm the capital and behead the administrator.
Mother Lu died soon afterward, but her uprising continued to gain momentum and merged with other local rebellions. These uprisings directly contributed to the restoration of the Han imperial house (Hinsch, 2010).
Women of the Long March
In the mid 1930’s, the Chinese Red Army was forced to leave their Base Areas in
Central and Eastern China by the Nationalist troops (Young, 2001). Young states that the
Chinese Red Army attempted to join their comrades in the North, but was stopped from doing so by their enemy. The Chinese Red Army trekked to the Southwestern border of
China, and eventually made it through to the northern Shaanxi Province and met with other Red Army soldiers. Based upon the courage, endurance, and perseverance of the
Red Army, the Long March became a tool to amass support for the Chinese Communist
Party and the army itself (Young).
Young explains further that among the 100,000 people that participated in the
Long March, 2,000 (2%) of them were women. These women held various titles while participating in the March that ranged from decoding telegrams, doing propaganda work in the villages, as well as having medical duties such as caring for wounded soldiers, carrying stretchers, and preparing medicines, as well as security and leading women’s working groups and working security positions. Many of the women who participated in
15 the Long March did so because it meant freedom from exploitation, as well as escaping from poverty and avoiding arranged marriages. To many women it also meant the opportunity to work towards social justice and receive an education. Women would get the opportunity to learn about the revolution from Communist underground workers and listening to the men who were already participating in the revolution, as well as progressive teachers (Young).
During this era, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organized schools and literacy classes for women and peasants, as well as advocated for the end of child marriages. The effects of this promised equality and the idea that there were alternatives to being a wife was also a factor in in why women joined the Red Army. As part of the
Communist Revolution, women were able to show their independence by cutting off their hair and leaving their families that they had been sold into. The army paid off the families that the women ran from in order to join, and gave women jobs as well as taught them to read and write. The revolution was able to help women escape from physical abuse, marriage, hunger, and provide them with a sense of purpose and patriotism
(Young).
The jobs women fulfilled on the Long March were different from person to person. Women who were used to working in the fields carried boxes of medicine and replenished supplies. Women who had an education worked on changing the attitudes of peasants towards communists, soldiers, and the national government. Educated women also created propaganda in the form of posters, street drama, created slogans, and made
16 speeches in the towns and villages that they were traveling through. The educated women also went into the homes of the peasant women to convince them to let their husbands and sons join the revolution (Young).
Women also cared for the sick and wounded soldiers. Not only did the women find people to help carry the soldiers, but helped carry the stretchers when they could not elicit help. Women were also responsible for finding village families that would take in the wounded soldiers that were too sick to carry along. Another aspect of medical care that women provided was gender specific, such as delivering babies. This was due to men not assisting with childbirth. The work of the women of the Red Army included sewing clothing, procuring food, delivering babies, and medical work. It also included the same work that men of the Red Army did such as transport work, carrying stretchers and guns, and decoding telegrams, as well as propaganda work and soldier recruitment.
These women soldiers were also able to move beyond the traditional view of being thought of as fragile, shy, and modest and proved themselves to be soldiers (Young).
Women of Chongqing’s Resistance in World War II
According to Li (2010), women were essential during World War II (WWII), and without their contributions, China would not have been able to sustain itself. Li states that the elite women of China were not affected by the war the same way the working class women were. The war for the elite women usually meant that their college life was interrupted. The working class women faced many more hardships which included bombardment by the Japanese, as well as food and medical shortages. Sometimes
17 survival for a woman and her family, especially refugee women, meant that she had to trade sex for protection of her and her family. Survival strategies also included going to garbage dumps and fields, salvaging for food (Li).
Li further states that during WWII, tens of thousands of people fled the Japanese captured northern and central China to Chongqing. With the fragmenting of many women and their families, the meaning of motherhood began to change. One woman in particular tells the story of having to watch as her child dies in her arms in the midst of a
Japanese bombing. This was due to the shortage of adequate food and water, and not being able to nurse her infant child. Although the war tore families apart, it also fostered political action on the part of women (Li).
According to Li (2010), the Zhongguo zhanshi ertong baoyuhui (China Child
Welfare Protection Association), ZZEB, functioned as families to over 30,000 homeless refugee children, and had thousands of teachers and staff members from all over the country. The ZZEB was established in March of 1938 by women activists and held the support of many women, as well as men from all political camps, and was based in
Chongqing. The women teachers and staff members were addressed as “mothers” by the refugee children. The ZZEB was recognized as the most accomplished war effort by women because it not only housed homeless refugee children, but it also instilled in them a sense of nationalism.
Li further explains that for women in the Chongqing region, it was their socially assigned responsibility to feed and care for their families. These women cultivated crops
18 in their front or backyards, or salvaged food from fields and garbage dumps. Women also participated in informal economies such as preparing handmade goods, and buying and selling cooked food in order to turn a small profit. Without the women driven informal economy, China’s wartime economy would have greatly suffered (Li).
Chongqing also became the wartime capital, with many major industries relocating to the area (Li). In Songji, which is in the Yongchuan county of Chongqing, the Women’s Directive Committee of the New Life Movement established an experimental zone. This mobilized women to take part in wartime production, and included a textile factory that hired eight hundred workers, mostly women, as well as a farm, medical clinic, library, a consumer’s cooperative, and a school for refugee children, a school for female factory workers, and an elementary and middle school for the community. The case of Songji demonstrates that women in the Chongqing region participated and contributed to China’s wartime economic transformation, as well as improved public education, healthcare, cultural life, women’s economic lives, as well as the conditions of the town (Li).
According to Li (2010), women of the Chongqing region also participated in
China’s wartime politics and worked at the grassroots level of the war mobilization.
Wartime political activism and mobilization was carried out by women, and included students and women’s organizations that were able to reach millions of people in the surrounding rural areas in the Chongqing region. Their wartime mobilization activities inspired patriotism and stressed the importance of political participation. Women’s
19 participation in grassroots political activism also took the form of street drama, songs, and wall bulletins (Li).
The street drama, songs, and wall bulletins were considered an aspect of pop culture and served as an important role in war mobilization, as well as empowerment for the women of the Chongqing region (Li). Women contributed to the making and disseminating of wartime popular political culture; the women who participated were very proud of their involvement in wartime propaganda and participated in singing, theatrical groups, and public speech teams. Women also participated in fundraising activities for refugee relief projects. This total war mobilization for women provided opportunities for them to play an active and public role in national politics, as well as provide opportunities for a traditionally marginalized group such as women, and allowed them to have a voice in China’s wartime politics (Li).
Russia’s Women Soldiers of World War I
According to Stoff (2006), World War I (WWI) called for the mobilization of millions of civilians as well as combatants. Due to the enormity of the war, women become involved in levels never before encountered, and Russian women participated in the war effort on a large scale. These women participated by entering a male dominated workforce such as fields, agricultural work, and the urban workforce such as messengers, mechanics, police, janitors, mail carriers, and streetcar conductors.
Stoff further explains that women in Russia also worked to support the war effort.
These women engaged in a variety of organizations that varied from supply to caring for
20 refugees and victims of war. Women volunteered to sew uniforms, cut bandages, make care packages, and work in soup kitchens. One of the most popular forms of service during WWI was nursing. This area of female participation was strongly supported due to its consistency with idea of feminine nature. Nurses worked in mobile field hospitals, regimental aid stations, and on battlefields. Women also worked as stretcher carriers and would retrieve wounded soldiers from the battlefield (Stoff).
Peasant women were also recruited to dig trenches for the troops, as well as perform duties behind the lines and advanced positions such as cooks, supply clerks, drivers, and scouts (Stoff). Women requesting to enlist in active duty were assigned auxiliary duties rather than combat duties. This was due to these positions being considered less hazardous and more suited for women than combat. Women were not attached to the army, but worked through civilian-governmental organizations such as the
Union of Zemstvos, that recruited women for war work (Stoff).
In the spring of 1917, the creation of all-female military formations began to take shape (Stoff). This was largely due to the efforts of grassroots women’s groups, and the approval of the Russian military administration. The political and social conditions that made the creation of all-female military units had to do with the fall of the imperial government, the increasing instability of the army, and the introduction of new political and social freedoms. War-weariness and declining morale among the majority of the
Russian army also played a part. The peasant soldiers, as well as the elite’s enthusiasm for the war had begun to dissipate by the end of 1915, and the defeats endured by the
21 army were demoralizing once it became clear that the war was not to be short and triumphant. The soldiers were less willing to go on the offensive, and with no sign of peace from the new government, the situation on the front began to deteriorate (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), the idea of using women in the front gained acceptance from significant members of the Russian society. The idea then began to circulate in the women’s and military organization which began to consider it a possibility. Additionally, the idea gained movement due to a larger effort to utilize all available resources for the war, including those previously considered unacceptable. The creation of units of disabled veterans was particularly significant to understanding why a majority of
Russians found it acceptable to utilize women in this capacity. The purposes of these types of units were to provide examples of courage, as well as to shame soldiers into returning to their combat duties (Stoff).
Women were also becoming unhappy with the mishandling of the war by men.
They felt that the army needed a morale boost to recover (Stoff). The women were concerned with the perceptions of cowardice of the male soldiers who refused to fight.
Active involvement of women in combat was thought necessary in order to stop the demoralization and renew the fighting spirit of the army, and the presence to women in combat would serve to motivate the troops. The Committee for the Organization of
Women’s Military Detachments requested the Ministry of War to assign them experienced command personnel in order to create special detachments of women. In
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May of 1917, the Ministry of War gave its permission for the creation of the first women’s military formation called the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), the organization of the 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death was assisted by the Petrograd Women’s Military Organization. This organization launched a public campaign that attracted women volunteers by posters declaring that it was a woman’s duty to join the effort, as well as publish announcements in the periodical press with the time and place of recruitment and informational meetings.
This campaign resulted in thousands of women attended these meetings, both in public and private quarters. The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death was open to women who were 18 and older, and those under 21 required permission from her parents. All recruits were given a physical examination, and the majority of them were Russian, but a small percentage were Polish, Estonian, Latvian, or Jewish. While the women’s units were supposed to show that the men’s refusal to fight made it essential for the women to come to the defense of their country, many women joined for other reasons such as patriotism, the desire to aid the motherland, and the desire to avenge their loved ones
(Stoff).
The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death was commanded by a woman by the name of Maria Bochkareva who had served for two years during World War I as part of a male combat unit (Stoff). The women were trained daily by Bochkareva and this consisted of physical exercises, marching drills, hand to hand combat, and rifle training.
The women were also given crew cuts and their personal hygiene items, such as
23 toothbrushes were taken away. Bochkareva felt that all aspects of femininity were to be removed from the battlefield. After training for a month, the women’s unit received notification from the Ministry of War that it would be dispatched to the front towards the end of June (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), on June 21st, 1917, the Russian Women’s Battalion of
Death, which consisted of 300 female volunteers, marched through Petrograd fully outfitted in gear. The women’s battalion was assigned to the Tenth Army, I Siberian
Army Corps, 132nd Infantry Division, and their destination was Molodechno. The men were anxious to see the women and acted bewildered and amused by their presence. The men shouted insults and curses, but Bochkareva returned their insults and forced the men to clear a path for the women. The first night was hostile for the women. A group of male soldiers pounded on the walls of the women’s barracks, shouted insults, shattered the glass of the windows, and grabbed at the women. This was one of many numerous hostilities suffered by the women while stationed with men at the front (Stoff).
The 1st Russian Women’s Battalion of Death’s offensive was launched on July 9th
, 1917 (Stoff). With women crouched in trenches that were almost a mile long, and the enemy 800 feet away, the order was given to attack, yet no one moved. The officers pleaded with the hesitant soldiers to act, but instead, the troops of the 1st, 62nd, and 63rd
Siberian Regiments met with their soldiers’ committee and debated the necessity of the dangerous maneuver. The women soldiers who were anxious to prove themselves in battle, decided to advance with or without the support of the males. They hoped the male
24 soldiers would be inspired by their actions and follow them into battle. With the small force of women, as well as officers and some male soldiers rushing into enemy fire, they managed to advance the battlefield with only a handful of casualties. Their success inspired more than half of the reluctant soldiers to join them, and the Russian troops were able to take the first and second lines of German trenches (Stoff).
According to Stoff (2010), this victory was short lived due to the Germans regrouping and launching a series of counterattacks. With each attack, greater numbers of male soldiers deserted, and eventually the women ran out of cartridges and were forced to retreat under enemy fire. The actions of the women soldiers of the 1st Russian
Women’s Battalion of Death proved that women were capable of combat duties.
However, men’s hostility and aggression towards women increased and led military authorities responsible for the women’s units to reassess their usefulness. Eventually it was decided that the use of women soldiers failed to provide adequate motivation to men
(Stoff).
Women Soldiers of the American Civil War
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), common knowledge of the part women played during the American Civil War was that of women maintaining the home while the men were away, fighting in the war. History shows that this is not the whole picture.
Women fought and bore arms, lived in camps, and died for their country the same as their male counterparts. These women usually came from working to lower class families that had fewer options outside of marriage. If a woman was from upper class origins, she
25 may find fulfillment through teaching, writing, or being a governess. The employment prospects for the lower class women were more along the lines of sewing, domestic servitude, and prostitution (Blanton & Cook).
Blanton and Cook explain that because there was no recruitment of women during the Civil War, as well as women being prohibited from joining, women had to assume a male identity to become soldiers. During this time period, women would cut their hair, wear male clothing, and find the closest recruiter or regiment. It was not a difficult task for women to join a regiment. This was due to recruiters merely looking for an acceptable height, a trigger finger, and a partial set of teeth. Women also found a way of avoiding the requirements by joining a regiment while it was campaigning. The reasons for women joining the Civil War military ranged from getting away from their home lives, joining their husbands, brothers and fathers, patriotism, and the pay. Farm women and working class women enjoyed the pay, which paid more than what their usual domestic work, such as being a chambermaid and laundressing (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), a minority of women were already living as men before the war started, so they felt the pressure of joining the war just like their male peers. Women living as men before the war were also seeking economic opportunities that were unobtainable as women. Women who assumed male identities to join the war began to realize that they could do numerous things as men that they could not do as women, such as voting. Patriotism played a part, especially for the southern women because it meant protecting their homes from invading northern armies. Women
26 also joined to be with their husbands, brothers, and fathers. Women had a desire for vengeance and revenge as well. Often, a woman would stay with the regiment even if her husband or brother was killed. This commitment to serve honorably until the end of enlistment was as strong in women as it was in their male counterparts (Blanton & Cook).
In order to successfully join the ranks, women had to adopt a masculine personality, learn the job, and complete days filled with drills, and arms practice (Blanton
& Cook). Women also had to adopt the behaviors of the men around them in order to hide the fact that they were women. This was not a difficult task due to the majority of
Civil War armies living in tent cities. In tent cities, latrines were long, open trenches that were so filthy that even the men avoided them. When a woman had to use the bathroom, it did not seem unusual for her to head to the woods or another private place, because so many other soldiers did this too. For dealing with menstruation, women presumably used cotton rags to protect their clothing. It is also possible that women were under such physical and mental distress that they suffered from Amenorrhea, which is the lack of a menstrual period. However, not much is known about this because women in the 19th century did not write about this subject (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), bathing and changing clothes was not much of an issue either. This was because Civil War soldiers on the march went for months without changing their clothes or bathing. Since women soldiers sought privacy to use the toilet, they did not arouse suspicion when seeking privacy to bathe or change and their fellow soldiers assumed they were modest men. The challenge of looking like
27 men proved tougher. Women had to cut their hair and hide their feminine figures. A woman’s high pitched voice and lack of facial hair could pose a problem, but it was not entirely unusual due to the presence of adolescent boys filling the ranks as well (Blanton
& Cook).
Blanton and Cook further explain that women also engaged in activities such as smoking, drinking, and gambling to fit in with other soldiers. Women who were previously farmers and frontier workers were already accustomed to hard work, using firearms, and working with horses. For these women poor living conditions were not a stretch. The duties of the woman soldier included everything a male soldier did such as infantry, guard duty, scouting, artillery, as well as medical duty. Women also served as drummers in infantry regiments. Women soldiers capably participated in every aspect of the regiment and fulfilled every role that a male soldier did (Blanton & Cook).
According to Blanton and Cook (2002), women soldiers becoming casualties of war was not uncommon. Disease, death, and dismemberment were common fate during the Civil war. More than 600,000 deaths were recorded during the four year war. For women, wounds and disease often proved fatal due to not wanting to be discovered and end their military service. If a woman was shot in the chest, shoulder, groin, or thigh, she was usually discovered due to the surgeon having to disrobe her to gain access to the injury. Women also succumbed to diseases such as smallpox, measles, and typhoid. This was due to many women coming from farms and lacking immunity from not having had previous exposure (Blanton & Cook).
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The discovery of a woman in the ranks would lead to immediate dismissal from service (Blanton & Cook). If a woman was not discovered due to injuries, she could be revealed through pregnancy or stereotypical woman behavior of the time. This could include the way she wrung dish cloths, the ability to sew, or having distinctly feminine features. Wearing male clothes could end a woman’s time in service as well. If a woman struggled with how to wear men’s clothes due to having worn Victorian dresses her whole life she could be exposed. Some women were even discovered by men recognizing them from town (Blanton & Cook).
For women who were exposed and ejected from their military service, it was not difficult for them to rejoin (Blanton & Cook). They would simply move on to the next regiment and join. If they could not be soldiers, women would ask to stay on as laundresses or nurses. Sometimes a woman would be labeled as a prostitute once discovered. By doing this, the commanding officer would not be disciplined for allowing a woman to serve. Women soldiers who were fighting in the Union army were more likely to be discharged than Confederate women. This was due to the Confederacy being more desperate for soldiers (Blanton & Cook).
Women serving in the Civil War assumed the same responsibility, dangers, and consequences of men. In order to join the war, women had to assume a new identity and mannerisms. Women were also under no obligations, either culturally or from a social standpoint, to defend their country, yet they did so bravely and sought no special
29 treatment. This shows a considerable amount of valor and unconventional thinking on the part of the women of that time (Blanton & Cook).
History of Aggression within the Military Culture
According to Scurfield and Platoni (2010), “The military is a hierarchal and authoritarian system and military culture places a premium on strength, self-sufficiency, and loyalty” (p. 176). The culture of the U.S. Military teaches that physical aggression and violence is the solution for the problems the soldier will face on the battlefield
(Ackerman, 1998). This begins at enlistment, where individuals are taught that it is not appropriate to show weakness (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010). Societies that have a higher incidence of rape tend to tolerate masculine violence. These societies view physical force a natural extension of masculinity and encourage competitiveness (Sanday, 1981).
Confusion may also arise from the belief that women and warrior are mutually exclusive
(Archer, 2012). According to Paludi, and Denmark (2010), “Men typically hold formal power in organizations, including positions higher in the organization hierarchy as well as positions with greater relevance to the central mission of the organization” (p. 273).
Additionally, women who join a military group are joining a group with decades or even hundreds of years of history with values of masculinity. The women must hide their femininity by dressing like men and meeting the standards of masculinity, as well as deal with double standards and stereotypical understandings of women and their capacities (Sjoberg, 2010). Additionally, regardless of their levels of performance, men associate masculinity with being an effective military leader (Archer).
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During the Vietnam War, combat was limited to a one year tour for each soldier, and the military training received by Vietnam Veterans demanded that men constantly proved their adequacy, but also prohibited intimacy (Eisenhart, 1977). This resulted in
“Short Timer’s Syndrome” (Mee). The soldier would begin counting down the time he had left in Vietnam; he would experience anxiety, preoccupation with death, and became unconcerned with current responsibilities. The focus of the soldier was on returning home, regardless of the outcome of the war (Mee). Men were not the only people to be suffering from these feelings. In 1988 (Norman, 1988), a survey was done that found that seventy five percent of Vietnam era nurses had developed Post Traumatic Stress Disorder in connection to their military service. The majority of the women did not have previous military experience and were unprepared for war. They were exposed to the same dangers as the men in combat, but not equipped with the appropriate combat gear (Feczer
& Bjorklund, 2009).
Women in Modern Warfare
Modern combat training has changed the culture of the U.S. Military by incorporating programs that come as close to real combat as possible (Ackerman, 1998).
In World War II, soldiers were taught to fire at a bulls-eye target; in modern times, soldiers are taught to fire at man shaped silhouettes (Ackerman). While combat restrictions for women were put in place, women have always served in combat in some form, and combat exposure among military personnel is changing as women assume a greater role in a variety of combat positions (Murdoch et al., 2006; Street, Vogt, & Dutra,
31
2009). These positions included driving trucks, flying planes, directing artillery, disposing of explosive ordinances, street patrol, and running Prisoner of War facilities, all of which take place in combat zones (Murdoch et al; Archer, 2012).
Women have also served as “engagement teams” with Marine infantry patrols in
Afghanistan to gain the trust of the Afghan women, as well as conduct house raids, personnel searches and checkpoint operations, all of which put women in direct contact with enemy forces (Archer; Scurfield & Platoni). Male Marines who witness the all- female engagement teams reported being unsure of the women’s purpose and resentful of the attention the women receive from commanders and the media (Archer). With an increase of women serving in the United States Military, there is an increasing risk for women to become victims of Military Sexual Trauma (Kelly et al., 2008). While female veterans report less exposure to combat, they report an increased exposure to sexual harassment, sexual assault, and interpersonal stressors such as a lack of peer support
(Tsai, Rosencheck, Decker, Desai, & Rotem, 2012). The prevailing attitude in the military is to regard women who report sexual assault as a traitor, slut, or liar (Benedict,
2009). If service members are stationed at a small camp, where there is not much support except their own chain of command, they may be hesitant to come forward as well
(Scurfield & Platoni).
Sexual Harassment, Assault, Trauma and its Effects on Women
Workplaces that are generally tolerant of sexual harassment are traditionally male dominated and have workgroups that are comprised primarily of men (Bryant-Davis &
32
Thema, 2011). Exposure to sexual assault in the military poses a greater risk for negative mental health outcomes and sexual harassment can also lead to symptoms of post- traumatic stress disorder (Landes, Garovoy, and Burkman, 2013; Bryant-Davis &
Thelma). In a study done in 2009 by Feczer and Bjourklund, it was found that of 327 women receiving treatment at a Veteran’s Affairs clinic, 93% had been exposed to some kind of sexual stress during their military service, 63% had been sexually harassed, and
43.1% had been sexually assaulted. While only 11.9% of the female veterans had combat exposure, 58.4% met criteria of post-traumatic stress disorder. (Feczer & Bjorklund,
2009).
Female veterans that have been exposed to sexual trauma and harassment may also experience an overall negative affect on health and well-being (Donohoe, 2005).
These negative effects may present as anxiety, depression, and poor health habits
(Lutwak & Dill). For example, Keskinoglu and colleagues (2007) state that sexual harassment has been linked to heartburn, diarrhea, stomach pains as well as headaches, joint pain, hypertension, and chronic conditions such as diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, female veterans have specific needs in relation to their treatment they receive at the VA. This includes gender appropriate care from providers who are competent and understand women’s anatomy, diseases, and female veterans’ special needs (Washington, Yano, & Horner, 2006). Among female veterans utilizing VA services with a history of sexual assault in the military, reported that the sexual trauma has caused adjustment problems upon discharge from service. These difficulties are
33 found in the form of finding work, substance abuse, and poor psychological and physical health, and homelessness (Skinner et al., 2000; Gamache, Rosenheck, & Tessler, 2003).
According to Snyder, Fisher, Scherer and Daigle (2012), exposure to sexual assault negatively affects victims’ perception of leadership of at all levels of command as well. A study done in 2005 from three U.S. Military Academies was used to examine the extent of unwanted sexual attention. This included sexual harassment, unwanted sexual contact, coercion, and rape within the last academic year, and the effect it had on cadets’ and midshipmen’s perception of leadership. This study found that roughly 60% of cadets and midshipmen experienced at least one type of sexual victimization, and 25% reported multiple types of sexual victimizations, and 86% of the victims were female (Snyder et al., 2012).
Snyder et al. (2012) argue that negative perceptions of leadership could be damaging throughout the military due to a core value is respecting and following the chain of command. If sexual victimization changes perceptions of leadership, long-term effects may undermine military success due to the military academies being training grounds for future leaders. Sexual victimization not only affects the victim’s perception of leadership closest to her, but also affects the perception of leadership in the higher levels of the chain of command.
Lack of Reporting of Military Sexual Trauma
Women who have been victims of military sexual trauma may not report that they have been assaulted. A survey conducted in 2012 by the Department of Defense found
34 that there were 3,373 reports of sexual assault involving service members; however,
DOD estimates that over the past 6 years, fewer than 15% of military members who experience sexual assault report it to military authorities (Department of Defense, 2012).
The survey revealed the following reasons why the assaults were unreported: 70% did not want anyone to know, 66% felt uncomfortable making a report, and 51% did not think the report would be kept confidential (Department of Defense, 2012). Militaristic culture may also normalize sexual victimization as a part of military life, and that perception of acceptance may influence the victim’s confidence in reporting the victimization (Snyder et al., 2012).
Victims of sexual assault may also be subjected to repeated and unavoidable contact with the perpetrator due to living and working in a closed environment. If the perpetrator is a superior, he or she can drastically influence the victim’s military career progression. Victims may not report sexual assault by a superior for fear of not being promoted, not being selected for schools and training opportunities, as well as being denied preferred duty assignments (Suris, Link-Malcolm, Chard, Ahn, and North, 2013;
Scurfield & Platoni, 2010). Victims of military sexual assault also express concerns about having to face the military legal system and the fear of social ostracism (Turchik &
Wilson, 2010). If a conviction is not obtained, the victim feels as though he or she was not heard, not taken seriously, or made out to be lying (Rodman, 2013). Attorneys who have experience in both military and civilian trial work acknowledge that the military trial offers the accused the better advantage (Moyer, 1972).
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Three quarters of women who had served in Operation Desert Shield/Desert
Storm, who reported being raped, did not report the incident to a ranking officer. There were two reasons given for this: not knowing how to report the incident, or believing that rape was sometimes to be expected in the military (Valente & Wight, 2007). Sexual
Assault survivors can also be reluctant to discuss their experiences due to the pain that remerges, as well as the worry that they will be blamed or accused and become victims again (Lutwak & Dill, 2013).
Female Veterans not Seeking Services
Female veterans diagnosed with post-traumatic stress disorder are often treated in a male dominated environment at Veterans Affairs (VA), because of this women can be reluctant to pursue services (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010). Women veterans who have experienced military sexual trauma may be unwilling to utilize VA services due to the fear of encountering the same types of individuals who may have perpetrated the assault
(Mattocks, Haskell, Krebs, Justice, Yano, & Brandt, 2012). Women may also feel unsafe in a male therapy groups or with male doctors and counselors (Benedict, 2009). Soldiers are expected to deal with any physical or emotional injuries which are not related to combat on their own. As a result, female soldiers are unlikely to seek treatment for non- combat injuries, as well as mental health concerns (Lavrov & Nethery). Another common reason for female veterans not utilizing the VA is the lack of knowledge in regards to their eligibility, and inaccurate information from VA employees (Washington et al., 2006; Washington, Kleimann, Michelini, Kleimann, & Canning, 2007).
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What is being done?
The VA has focused its efforts on identifying veterans who are victims of MST.
In 1995 in order to aid veterans who may have experienced military sexual assault,
Veterans Affairs made all MST related care free of charge. In the year 2000, the VA mandated that all veterans who receive VA services get screened for military sexual trauma (Lavrov & Nethery, 2010; Turchik, Pavao, Hyun, Mark, & Kimmerling, 2012).
While this is a mandatory screening, non-compliance has been an issue. Reasons for noncompliance have been clinicians reporting being pressured for time, as well as there being no direct incentives associated with the screening because it is not an official performance measure (Murdoch, Polusny, Hodges, & O’Brien, 2004; Hyun, Kimerling,
Cronkite, McCutcheon, & Fraye 2012). With the VA’s universal screening, as well as free MST related services, victims of MST have been able to access care that they might otherwise not have been able, due to lack of insurance and the unavailability of experienced mental health services (Turchik et al.). The Department of Defense has also implemented a policy called Sexual Assault Prevention and Response. This policy was implemented to eliminate sexual assault within the military by changing the culture from within (Department of Defense, 2008).
Summary
Women have maintained a constant presence in the United States Armed Forces from the earliest wars to modern times. Throughout these wars women have played a vital role. They have filled such roles as nursing, mechanics, cooks, pilots, and security
37 just to name a few. Unfortunately, some of these women have suffered atrocities at the hands of their fellow soldiers in the form of sexual violence. Research has been done to discover why this is happening and what can be done to stop the sexual violence, unfortunately sexual assault is on the rise. While there are some programs currently in place, their effectiveness is still being determined.
38
Chapter 3
METHODS
Study Objectives
To reiterate, this researcher conducted a content analysis regarding military sexual trauma encountered by female soldiers in past years. The research study aggregated findings from archival data on the following variables: Sexual harassment encountered by female soldiers as reported in four selected published journal articles, the rate of Military Sexual Trauma (MST) reported by female soldiers as reported in the published journal articles, the degree of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) exposure by female soldiers because of either sexual harassment or sexual trauma as indicated by the authors of the aforementioned articles, and the degree of depression encountered by female soldiers as reported in the articles.
Study Design
The research study utilized the exploratory-quantitative and qualitative methods.
Due to the research purposes, it is more appropriate to combine quantitative findings from published journal articles with the researcher’s qualitative narrative from those sources. Essentially, this research project utilized the mixed methods. According to
Royse (2011), exploratory research is often used when there is a scarce amount of information available. Due to the small sample size of exploratory research, the finding are not conclusive, and is best for providing insights into unanswered questions for future study (Royse, 2011).
39
Data Collection Procedures
The procedures used to collect data for this research study include:
(1) Conduct library search using EBSCO
(2) Using the EBSCO search function, this researcher searched for the following key
terms: PTSD, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, Sexual Harassment, MST, Military
Sexual Trauma, and Depression.
(3) Using the EBSCO search function, this researcher searched for the following key
phrases: Women’s history in the military, women in early American history,
women’s history, history of women combat, history of women in warfare.
(4) Articles were chosen for the content analysis portion of the study based on the
following criteria: articles that were no older than 5 years and articles that
included at least 3 of the 4 key terms.
(5) Once articles were chosen for content analysis, this researcher chose four different
color highlighters to single out the previously identified key terms. Pink was used
for “MST/Military Sexual Trauma, yellow was used for “PTSD/Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder,” orange was used for “Depression,” and blue was used for
“Sexual Harassment.”
(6) This researcher than counted each time the terms were present in each of the four
articles chosen, by their identified colors.
(7) Once terms were counted, this researcher used the “CTRL F” function to utilize
the computer’s search function and verify the number of times each term
40
presented in each article.
(8) After the key terms were highlighted and counted, this research put them into an
excel spreadsheet to analyze data and generate graphs.
Instruments
This researcher determined or identified variables from the published journal articles that best fit with these four research criteria: Rates and proportion of Military
Sexual Trauma (MST), degrees of Post -Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) experienced by victims of sexual trauma, type and symptoms of depression observed by the researchers, existence of sexual harassment as reported by the research of those published journal articles. The search method included key word searches using the CSUS library and Google Scholar. This researcher then downloaded and converted to PDF the most relevant articles, use the “control F” function to search for the previously identified key variables, and cross reference with other articles.
Data Analysis
The plan for data analysis included organizing findings from the published articles into tables and charts using Excel.
Protection of Human Subjects
The Protection of Human Subjects application was prepared by this researcher by downloading the application, and researching the questions that the application contained.
This researcher then determined which 4 articles were to be utilized for the content analysis portion of the research project. Once the 4 articles were determined, this
41 researcher verified what status the project would be considered based on the information contained on the IRB website. This researcher completed the remaining questions, and submitted to Social Work Thesis Advisor, Dr. Lee for consideration.
A Request for Review by the Sacramento State Committee for the Protection of
Human Subjects was then submitted to the Division of Social Work Committee for the
Protection of Human Subjects. After review, the committee approved the study. No data was collected prior to the approval received. Additionally, this research project is considered exempt. Evidence was based on publicly available data; therefore, there was no sensitive data or personally identifiable information present in any of the articles that would identify any of the previous participants. The IRB reviewed and approved this application as exempt, with approval #13-14-012 and an expiration date of 10-17-2014.
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Chapter 4
STUDY FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS
Women have played many vital roles throughout the history of the United States
Military, as well as various other countries. From frontier skirmishes to full blown combat in foreign nations, women have served in roles that range from nursing, cooking, and supply to combat, policing, and piloting. Women have also been subjected to sexual harassments, assaults, and trauma. Unfortunately, there has been a low level of women reporting the traumas they have suffered due to a myriad of reasons. These reasons typically entail a fear of retribution, not being taken seriously, and women feeling as though the assaults, trauma, and harassments were to be expected.
Overall Findings
This study found that the key term “Sexual Harassment” experienced a steady decline in usage from 2009 to 2013. The key term “MST/Military Sexual Trauma” experienced a spike in usage in 2011, but declined in 2013. The key term “PTSD/Post
Traumatic Stress Disorder” declined in use in 2011, but gained some popularity in 2013.
The key term “Depression” was used in 2011, but experienced a decline in usage in 2009 and 2013 (see Figure 1).
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Specific Findings
Figure 1
Number of times key terms mentioned in 2009 article
In 2009, the term “Sexual Harassment” was mentioned 12 times (20%) throughout the articles reviewed for the research study. The term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” was not (0%) mentioned at all. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 47 times (78.3%), and “Depression” was used 1 time (1.7%).
44
Figure 2
Number of times key terms used in 2011(a) article Hyun, 2011
Sexual Harrassment MST/Military Sexual Trauma PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Depression
147
1 15 1
1
In Hyun’s article from 2011, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 1 time (.60%).
The term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” was used 147 times (89.63%). Post-
Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 15 times (9.14%). The key term
“Depression” was used 1 time (.60%).
45
Figure 3
Number of times key terms used in 2011(b) article Mattocks, 2011
Sexual Harrassment MST/Military Sexual Trauma PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Depression
10 9 9 8
1
In Mattock’s article from 2011, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 9 times
(25%). The key term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” was used 8 times (22.22%).
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 10 times (27.77%), and the term
“Depression” was used 9 times (25%).
46
Figure 4
Number of times key terms used in 2013 article Suris, 2013
Sexual Harrassment MST/Military Sexual Trauma PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Depression
49 38
2 4
1
In the article from 2013, the key term “Sexual Harassment” was used 2 times (2.15%).
The term “Military Sexual Trauma” or “MST” was used 38 times (40.86%). The term
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) was used 49 times (52.68%). The term
“Depression” was used 4 times (4.30%).
47
Figure 5
Overall number of times key terms used Number of Times Key Words Used
2009 2011 2013
155
47 49 38 25 12 10 2 0 1 10 4
Sexual MST/Military PTSD/Post Depression Harassment Sexual Trauma Traumatic Stress Disorder
Overall the key term “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma” had the most popular usage in the 2011 articles with a total of 155 times (80.13%). In 2009, the term “MST” or
“Military Sexual Trauma” was not used at all (0%). The term “Sexual Harassment” was most popularly used in in 2009 (50%). The term Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) decreased in popularity in the two articles from 2011, and was most popular in 2013
(40.49%). The term “Depression” was more popular in the two articles from 2011
(60.66%).
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Interpretations to the Findings
The specific findings show that the terms in the articles chosen for this study gained popularity in some years, and decreased in others. The term that had the most dramatic increase and decline in usage was “MST” or “Military Sexual Trauma.” This may be due to the articles that were chosen, or the popularity of the term may be decreasing. Additional research would be necessary to determine the cause.
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Chapter 5
CONCLUSION, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Study
Major findings that this researcher found relevant to this study are that women have always played an important, but often overlooked role in military history and warfare throughout the world. Research has shown that women have participated in early
American history of the Civil War, Russia, China, and the Amazons. Women have participated directly in armed hostilities alongside men, as well as participated by fulfilling the role of camp women. These duties often included sustaining the mission by means of agriculture, going to the market, washing clothes and uniforms, and tending to the sick and wounded. In addition, women have faced unique challenges that men have not had to face such as dressing and acting like men in order to enlist, and taking care of families while serving. Women have also had to move past their perceived gender roles, such as modest and fragile, to fulfill their desire of patriotism. Women who are joining their countries armed forces must endure and try to breakdown stereotypes about their gender that have been in place for many years.
Women also experience negative consequences of war that manifest as physical ailments such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, joint pain, headaches, diarrhea, and hypertension. These diseases have been linked to sexual harassment and assault that many women have endured during the course of their enlistment. In addition, women veterans experience problems associated with sexual assault and harassment after their
50 service ends as well. This includes psychological problems, problems adjusting to home life, finding employment, and homelessness.
In addition, women who are victims of sexual harassment and trauma often will not report that they have been harassed or assaulted. Reasons for this include a fear of retribution, the fear of not being believed, feeling as though what they report will not be kept confidential and feeling uncomfortable making a report. Some women feel as though sexual harassment is something that is to be expected in the military and are often subject to repeated contact with the perpetrator. If the perpetrator is a superior, the victim may fear that her career progression will be negatively influenced if she reports harassment or assault. This can include being passed over for promotion, not being selected for schools or training, as well as being denied preferential duty assignments.
Women veterans who have been victimized while serving their country also have a higher likelihood of not seeking services to help them overcome the consequences.
Reasons for this include not wanting to be treated in a male dominated environment, afraid of encountering the same type of individuals who committed the assault, and feeling unsafe with male doctors and counselors. In addition, women veterans have reported not feeling as though their ailments were worthy of seeking care. Women veterans sometimes feel as though they are taking time from other veterans who may need the service more than them. Another common reason for female veterans not seeking services is a lack for knowledge about how to pursue services and misinformation about eligibility from Veterans Affairs employees.
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The VA has implemented policies and procedures to try and eliminate the confusion, as well as adequately treat women veterans. Some of these services include all veterans getting screened for Military Sexual Trauma, as well as free services to veterans who report being victims of sexual assault. In addition, the Department of
Defense has implemented a program called Sexual Assault Prevention and Response.
This program provides training every year for military members, and is intended to change the military culture of sexual assault and harassment from within.
This research project also looked at certain key terms, and the frequency of usage in articles over a short period of time. What the research indicates is that the term
“Military Sexual Trauma” and “MST” had an increase in usage in 2011, and then seemed to decline. This may indicated that certain terms are more popular than others, especially if they are newly coined, but eventually get replaced. A more comprehensive study would need to be done to verify this.
Implications for Social Work
There are many implications for social work, both micro and macro. The micro implications for social work involve an increased need for social workers that are familiar with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), sexual assault, and the effects it has on women veterans. This will become especially urgent with the winding down of
Operation Enduring Freedom and Operation Iraqi Freedom. With more soldiers coming back home from war, there will need to be an increased number of social workers that are familiar with the unique challenges that returning veterans will face. These social
52 workers will need to be familiar with not only the different psychological problems women veterans face such as Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, but also medical problems as well.
Macro implications for social work involve agencies, as well as the VA, involve hiring and employing a greater number of social workers. The need for a greater amount of social workers may cause these agencies to have re-evaluate their budgets and current staffing. In addition, the education requirements necessary for social workers to be able to assist veterans at the VA and hospitals in general is a MSW or LCSW. More than likely, this will cause an increase in students pursuing an MSW. Universities will have to find a way to accommodate an increase in demand for this type of degree. This may involve the inclusion of online courses or the hiring of more full time and part time professors, as well as evaluate the types of courses offered. With an increase of students wanting to pursue an MSW, universities may need to cultivate additional relationships in the community that are willing to take interns and support internships. The quality of these internships will directly affect the quality of social workers the school produces.
Recommendations
Recommendations for future study involve program evaluation, such as studying whether programs funded by the Veterans Affairs department are successfully addressing and reducing the amount of sexual assaults and harassment. Future studies should also be done on what services women veterans would like to see more of to help them deal with the physical and psychological problems they encounter.
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Limitations
Limitations that pertain to this research study are the relatively small sample size of articles selected for this study. In addition, this researcher analyzed the following words: MST/Military Sexual Trauma, Sexual Harassment, PTSD/Post Traumatic Stress
Disorder, and Depression. Limitations to choosing only 4 terms is that it does not represent the magnitude of consequences that women veterans suffer from such as anxiety, eating disorders, and physical ailments. In addition, popularity of the terms may fluctuate, and may have an effect on the outcome
Conclusion
In conclusion, this research study has found that throughout the history of war, women have played a vital part. They have also suffered negative outcomes and consequences from participating in combat and war that include not only illness and injuries, but sexual assaults and harassment as well. In addition, women have not had adequate services to address the issues.
This has directly impacted women veterans and thier physical and psychological health, as well as contributed to issues such as problems with interpersonal relationships, homelessness, and health problems. The Department of Defense has implemented programs to help manage and reduce the number of assaults and harassments, as well as the problems associated with them, but the overall ongoing effectiveness remains to be seen.
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Appendix A
Human Subjects Approval Letter
CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, SACRAMENTO DIVISION OF SOCIAL WORK
To: Kellie Curnutt Date: October 17, 2013
From: Research Review Committee
RE: HUMAN SUBJECTS APPLICATION
Your Human Subjects application for your proposed study, “Military Sexual Trauma: A content Analysis”, is Approved as Exempt. Discuss your next steps with your thesis/project Advisor.
Your human subjects Protocol # is: 13-14-012. Please use this number in all official correspondence and written materials relative to your study. Your approval expires one year from this date. Approval carries with it that you will inform the Committee promptly should an adverse reaction occur, and that you will make no modification in the protocol without prior approval of the Committee.
The committee wishes you the best in your research.
55
Research Review Committee members Professors Maria Dinis, Jude Antonyappan, Serge Lee, Francis Yuen, Kisun Nam, Dale Russell,
Cc: Lee
56
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