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Diet-Derived Antioxidants and Their Role in Inflammation, Obesity And antioxidants Review Diet-Derived Antioxidants and Their Role in Inflammation, Obesity and Gut Microbiota Modulation Andrea Deledda 1 , Giuseppe Annunziata 2,* , Gian Carlo Tenore 2 , Vanessa Palmas 3, Aldo Manzin 3 and Fernanda Velluzzi 1 1 Obesity Unit, Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, Ospedale San Giovanni di Dio, Via Ospedale 54, 09124 Cagliari, Italy; [email protected] (A.D.); [email protected] (F.V.) 2 Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy; [email protected] 3 Microbiology and Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Cagliari, Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, 09042 Monserrato, Italy; [email protected] (V.P.); [email protected] (A.M.) * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-340-001-6504 Abstract: It is generally accepted that gut microbiota, inflammation and obesity are linked to the development of cardiovascular diseases and other chronic/non-communicable pathological condi- tions, including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases and ageing-related disorders. In this scenario, oxidative stress plays a pivotal role. Evidence suggests that the global dietary patterns may represent a tool in counteracting oxidative stress, thus preventing the onset of diseases related to oxidative stress. More specifically, dietary patterns based on the regular consumption of fruits and vegetables (i.e., Mediterranean diet) have been licensed by various national nutritional guidelines in many Citation: Deledda, A.; Annunziata, countries for their health-promoting effects. Such patterns, indeed, result in being rich in specific G.; Tenore, G.C.; Palmas, V.; Manzin, components, such as fiber, minerals, vitamins and antioxidants, whose beneficial effects on human A.; Velluzzi, F. Diet-Derived health have been widely reported. This suggests a potential nutraceutical power of specific dietary Antioxidants and Their Role in components. In this manuscript, we summarize the most relevant evidence reporting the impact of Inflammation, Obesity and Gut dietary antioxidants on gut microbiota composition, inflammation and obesity, and we underline Microbiota Modulation. Antioxidants that antioxidants are implicated in a complex interplay between gut microbiota, inflammation and 2021, 10, 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/ antiox10050708 obesity, thus suggesting their possible role in the development and modulation of chronic diseases related to oxidative stress and in the maintenance of wellness. Do all roads lead to Rome? Academic Editor: Gianluca Rizzo Keywords: inflammation; obesity; gut microbiota; oxidative stress; antioxidants; polyphenols; Received: 30 March 2021 ageing; nutraceutical Accepted: 25 April 2021 Published: 29 April 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction with regard to jurisdictional claims in Vegetables, particularly if they do not receive chemical/technological treatments, con- published maps and institutional affil- tain large amounts of substances with antioxidant properties that are capable of reducing iations. the negative effects of the redox processes which each cell undergoes due to its biochemical reactions. Therefore, vegetable-based diets, such as the Mediterranean diet [1], DASH [2] or even more restrictive ones such as vegetarian and vegan diets [3], are able to bring greater quantities of these substances than more common ones, such as the so called “cafeteria Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. diet” or a Western diet often undertaken by most people. The aforementioned diets could Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. be characterized by the presence of vegetable-derived foods which have lost some of their This article is an open access article antioxidant properties and are rich in “empty” calories due to their refined/industrially distributed under the terms and modified form; moreover, the excess of animal-derived foods is linked to microbial al- conditions of the Creative Commons terations and the production of inflammatory metabolites (TMAO), contributing to the Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// increased risk of obesity and so-called non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ diabetes, osteoarthritis, asthma, etc.) [4–6]. Processed food is also a source of additives 4.0/). Antioxidants 2021, 10, 708. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox10050708 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/antioxidants Antioxidants 2021, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 22 Antioxidants 2021, 10, 708 2 of 22 (TMAO), contributing to the increased risk of obesity and so-called non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, osteoarthritis, asthma, etc.) [4–6]. Processed food is also a source of additives that have a negative effect on the intestine, microbiota, that have a negative effect on the intestine, microbiota, liver and nervous system, mainly becauseliver and of nervous oxidative system, stress mainly [7]. because of oxidative stress [7]. Fruits and vegetables are characterizedcharacterized byby lowlow caloriecalorie densitydensity andand areare highhigh inin micromicro nutrients [[8].8]. Diet, dietarydietary antioxidants,antioxidants, inflammation inflammation and and body body composition composition (obesity) (obesity) are are strictly strictly in- terwoveninterwoven with with reciprocal–bidirectional reciprocal–bidirectional relations relations that that reflect reflect on the on overall the overall health health condition con- (Figuredition (Figure1). 1). Figure 1. Central role of antioxidants-rich diets in the interplay between microbiota, inflammation Figure 1. Central role of antioxidants-rich diets in the interplay between microbiota, inflammation and obesity. and obesity. One of the great debates within nutrition concerns whether including animal foods is One of the great debates within nutrition concerns whether including animal foods necessary or suitable for health purposes [9]. is necessaryRecently or the suitable debate for has health been thepurposes subject [9]. of a publication which reported the different opinionsRecently on the the matter. debate Many has been agreed the on subject the fact of thata publication vegetable-based which dietsreported are associatedthe differ- withent opinions a lower bodyon the weight matter. and Many reduced agreed risk on of the diabetes; fact that saturated vegetable-based fats and heme diets iron, are asso- typi- callyciated present with a in lower animal-derived body weight food, and can reduced be particularly risk of diabetes; harmful tosaturated part of thefats population; and heme however,iron, typically care mustpresent be in taken animal-derived of foods’ quality food, and can their be particularly culinary use harmful must be to supervised part of the inpopulation; order not however, to lose nutrients care must and, be most taken importantly, of foods’ quality not to and reduce their the culinary income use of essential must be micro-supervised and macronutrients,in order not to lose regardless nutrients of and, the diet most type importantly, [9]. not to reduce the income of essentialIt is strongly micro- advised and macronutrients that vegetables, regardless be unprocessed; of the diet therefore, type [9]. whole grains, tubers, legumes,It is fruitsstrongly and advised nuts are that recommended. vegetables be Moreover, unprocessed; the use therefore, of proteins whole of plant grains, origin tu- hasbers, recently legumes, been fruits linked and to nuts a lower are incidencerecommended. of chronic Moreover diseases, the and use lower of proteins mortality of [10 plant]. It isorigin widely has reported recently that been polyphenols, linked to a alower large incidence family of phytochemicalsof chronic diseases mainly and coming lower frommor- plant-basedtality [10]. It foods, is widely possess reported numerous that beneficial polyphenols, biological a large activities family and of theirphytochemicals prolonged intakemainly exerts coming protective from plant-based effects on foods, health possess [11]. On numerous this issue, beneficial a recent biological systematic activities review documentedand their prolonged an inverse intake association exerts protective between polyphenolseffects on health or flavonoids [11]. On this intake issue, and a riskrecent of diabetes,systematic cardiovascular review documented diseases an and inverse mortality, association reporting between also several polyphenols promising or effectsflavo- onnoids age-related intake and diseases, risk of but diabetes, no effects cardiovascular on various types diseases of cancer. and mortality, Regarding reporting subclasses also of polyphenols,several promising a wide effects range on of age-related flavonoids, diseases, including but flavonols, no effects anthocyanidins, on various types proantho- of can- cyanidins,cer. Regarding flavones, subclasses flavanones of polyphenols, and flavan-3-ols, a wide have range been of shown flavon tooids, be linked including to reduced flavo- cardiovascularnols, anthocyanidins, events andproanthocyanidins, total mortality, but, flavones, due to the flavanones heterogeneity and offlavan-3-ols, studies, data have are stillbeen conflicting shown to be and linked not definitive to reduced about cardiovascul the optimalar events dietary and intake total mortality, of these compounds. but, due to Nevertheless,the heterogeneity a polyphenol-rich of studies, data dietary are still pattern conflicting should and be not recommended definitive about [12]. the optimal
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