GEOLOGICA BALCANlCA, 20. 6, Sofia, Dccemb. 1990, p. 15- 24
Geomorphological observations concernmg the evolution of the Basin of Athens
Theodoros Gournelos, Hampik Maroukian
Deparlmenl of Geography and Climatology, Unil•ersily of Athens, 15784 Athens, Greece
(Accepted /or publication October 5, 1989)
T . roypue;wc, X . MapyKmt - reoMoptjjonozu
Introduction
Numerous'studies ofintermountane basins have been done in almost all parts of the world. There have always been a few locations of particular interest, however, which for various reasons have not been studied as thoroughly as necessary. One such basin is that of Athens (Fig. 1). 15 I \ r; rI -~ I
f" I I
( I ', I I I I
/ Water div1de Contour 1ntervol 100 m
Fig. 1. Topographic map of the Basin of Athens
The intermountane Basin of Athens is one of the oldest inhabited by man in Greece. The oldest permanent settlements known thus far are about 5.000 years old and were situat ed near a spring on the northwest slopes of the Acropolis (Camp II, 1977, p. 33).
16 One of the reasons that made the Basin of Athens a favourable settlement location was its physical setting. lt is trending northeast-southwest, has a plain sloping gently towards the sea, and is surrounded by three mountain masses. In the east, there is the elongated Ymit tos with it s highest elevation, 1026 meters, in its northern half. The mountain is divided in a northern higher mass and in a southern lower one. In the northeast of the basi n, there is a more massive mountain, though smaller in extent, named Pendeli. The highest peak, 1107 meters, is near the middle. In the north-northwest, there is the third and highest area, Par nitha, with a height of 1413 meters, although it is a little farther from the plain than the previous two. A fourth lower "mountain" mass is Egaleo, 468 meters, located in the west and much closer to the plain than Parnitha. In addition to thest;; important highlands surrounding the Athens basin, there is a group of alligned hills in the basin trending northeast-southwest with decreasing elevations to the southwest. These are Tourkovounia (323 meters), Lykavitos (265 meters), Acropolis (142 meters) and Filopappou (161 meters). It is around these hills that the first permanent settle ments occurred, particularly around Acropolis where a number of springs were issuing. The present study attempts to reconstruct the physical environment of the Basin of Athens from ancient geologic time to the present day. It is apparent that, as one moves to more recent times, the geo-evolutionary stages become more and more detailed and better documented. Hence, this study concentrates more heavily upon the Neogene and Quaternary evolution of the basin and the surrounding mountains. Most of the study was done in the field (city). Almost the whole basin has been built up today. This is unfortunate because it is impossible to get a general picture of the topogra phy"au nature!" but also fortunate because a large number of buildings,new roads, sewerage systems, and underground tunnels are under construction providing a relatively good pic ture of the subsurface geology and landforms that exist in the basin. In addition to field work, various geologic maps, old and new topographic sheets having scales ranging from 1:5.000 to 1:200.000, and airphotos were utilized. Some laboratory analysis of sediment samples and fossil identifications were also carried out. Many scientists have studied the geology and tectonics of Attica. The most important studies are considered to be those by L e p s i u s (1893), K ten as (1907), Negri s (1912-1915), Kober (1929), Sind ow ski (1949), Philipps on (1954), Re n z (1955), T r i k k a I in o s (1955), Marinos (1955, 1956) and Kat s i kat so s (1976). The main geologic formations recognized in the Basin of Athens are (Fig. 2): 1. The Metamorphic system (Ymittos) 2. The Sedimentary system (Egaleo, Parnitha) 3. The Athenian schists and Cretaceous limestones, and 4. The Neogene and Quaternary deposits The structural relations between these units have not been fully understood or explain ed. L e p s i u s (1893), T r i k k a I i n o s (1955) and others maintain that the age of the metamorphic system is pre-Paleozoic because it underlies Paleozoic formations (Parnitha). K o b e r (1929), who was the first to describe Attica as a tectonic window, believed to the mesozoic age of the metamorphic system, as the more recent scientists Marinos (1955) and K at s i k at s o s (1976) did. Few scientists have studied the geomorphology of the basin of Athens and the surroun ding highlands. Renier is (1933, 1937, 1938) studied the lateritic and terra-rossa soils of the Attiki area in general. But more importantly, it was M i s tar d i s (1954, 1959f61a, 1959 f61b, 1964a, 1964b, 1964c) who studied the Quaternary formations of the basin and the adjacent areas. In both cases, however, the studies were mostly de scriptive. Other studies related to the geomorphology and evolution of the Athens area are by R o u bani s (1961), Higgin s (1962), Van de Weer d (1972), Mit saki (1973), De B r u i j n and Van der Meulen (1975), Symeonidi sand Zapfe (1977) , Symeonidi sand De V o s (1977) and K. Doukas (1981).
2 Geologica Balcanica, 20.6 17 SARONIKOS GULF
4 bkm
LEGE ND
At ~ '2"fl '- hcstn water div ide au at~rna ry olluvk .: c ones ani.J ton:;. ---- :..c ca l w a t er ciiv ide- Pr ~ - Quate-rnary e ro~ionn : s St~p SlO P ~ • Advanc ing co'Jst ti n~ ~;k '~r= i ed m ont• slope-s S chists ot A t;~,.-r. ~_. Nf."'§ f!' n ~ one! Se dim(-· n~a r y uni:: Ou : ~ . ~~ :-,o r:,- d~ pc .1 ·!s (t: ~a ! Q C Porn; t !"".::: ) r::------:-~ MC't~ l"',(' rr- 1· · -:: L· . t_ L--L~d :~ · r-. ; ~! ;:-.s . r .: .- : :..i; t ld Fig. 2. Geologic and geomorphologic sketch map of the areas studied in the basin of Athens Geology, tectonism and geomorphology of the basin of Athens Geology The Basin of Athens is surrounded by the metamorphic system of Attica (Ymittos, Pandeli) in the east and northeast, and by the sedimentary formations of Egaleo and Parnitha in the west and northwest. The lithostratigraphy of the basin of Athens, from bottom to top, is as follows: I. The Athenian schi sts (mica, chloritic and argillaceous schists) of probable Maastrichtian age (Geological Map of Athina-Pireas, l :50.000, I. G. M. E.). Within the Athens schists we find thin limestone layers. The Athenian hills (Lykavitos, Acropolis, etc.) are Upper Cretaceous limestones, thrust over the Athenian schists (Kober, 1929). 2. Unconformally overlying formations composed of fluvio-torrential deposits and over them Upper Miocene sediments (Pap p et al., 1978) in the northeast of the basin, and limestones with marls in the northwest (Frey berg, 1951). 3. Pliocene formations rich in characteristic fossils (L e psi us, 1893) unconformally over lain by sandstones, marls and conglomerats which extend to the south of the basin. At Palio Faliro (Fig. 3), along a small cut, it is possible to observe alternating layers of sands, marls and conglomerates. Going up the layers of the series it appears that the depth of the sea increases. The upper layers are composed of relatively fine sediments (thin-bedded marls, sands and thin limestone intercalations). These Pliocene formations with rich fauna (Ra fina) are very widespread and are found along the eastern coasts of Attica. 4. The Pleistocene sediments arefluvio-torrential and we find them mainly in the southwest ern area of the basin (Nea Smyrni). They are composed of alternating layers of con glomerates, sands and yellow to brown sandy marls (Fig. 4). 5. In the Middle and Upper Pleistocene we have fluvio-torrential deposits, old cones (Nea Smyrni) and red clayey soils in small faulted openings (Tour k o v o u n i a-D o u k as, 1981). Furthermore, we have the more recent alluvial sediments of both terrestrial and marine (beachrocks) and anthropogenic (Lykavitos) origin. PAL lO FAL!RO SW LEG EN 0 ~I Con;;tomera t es · ~ 2 Sqnc/s a77d ~~~e es O J Sands 0 4 J..lads and Sa ??ds { ydfow) B s Jlarts --- 6 F.._._uCts Fig. 3. Stratigraphic column and section at Palio Faliro 19 NE A SMYHNI s ooo c o 0 0 0 ~ 0 L EGEND o oo o o ---- Fig. 4. Stratigraphic column and section at Nea Smyrni Tectonism The recent evolution of the Basin of Athens in the result of discontinuous deformation (faults and joints) which followed the Alpine tectonism. In the pre-Upper Miocene period we have a fault tectonism with normal faults (direction mainly NE, NNE for Ymittos and Egaleo), sinking of the region and transgression of the Miocene sea. Consequently, we have the unconformally lying Pliocene sediments. In the latter, we frequently observe reverse faults or open fold s, which is a n indication of a slight compression during the post-Pliocene period (Palio Faliro, Fig. 3). Following thi s we have normal faults, indicating exten sional forces. The Pleistocene sediments (Fig. 4) show a dip towards the north which should not be primary but due to tectonic deformation. Moreover, normal faults are observed in these se diments (Nea Smyrni) but also in the relatively younger deposits (Kifissia, Fig. 5). In sum mary, we can say: I. Normal faulting following extension before the Upper Miocene. 2. Compression with reverse foults in the Plio-Pleistocene. 3. Normal faulting, following the compressional phase, during the Pleistocene. Evidently many cones found along the footslopes of the surrounding mountai ns arc the result of deposition along faults of the Quaternary as, for example, the fault between West Ymittos (direction N 30 °) and the corresponding alluvial cones. Finally, the main directions of the joints in the region surrounding the Athenian schists a re NNE-SSW, NE-SW, E-W and NW-SE. In the hills of the Athens basi n (Tourkovounia, Lykavitos, Acropolis, Filopappou) the predominant directions are N 50° to N 70°. Geomorphology The physi ography of the intermountane basi n of Athens can be divided into three units (Fig. 2). The first is the surrounding mountain masses, Ymittos, Pendeli, P a rnitha and Egaleo; the second includes the plain of Athens which can be furter subdivided in the peri- 20 pheral piedmont slopes and the lower basin proper; and third, the four in selberg-like forma tions in the plain, namely Tourkovounia, Lykavitos, Acropolis and Filopappou. The mountains: Ymittos, in the east and south, is elongated but not continuous. The southern third is severed from the northern part, appears to have moved to the east and is at a lower elevation. The whole mass exhibits a flat surface along its ridge ranging in height from 600 to900meters. It is believed to represent a pre-Quaternary erosional cycle before faul ting set in this area. It is also possible to divide Ymittos along a NNE-SSW axis passing a few hundred meters west of the peak but no tectonic evidence has been found to exist yet. Along the western middle part of the mountain there are two deep gorges having depths of 300 me ters or more, the longest being three kilometers, cutting through the erosi onal surface at an elevation of 750-800 meters. Within some of the more gently sloping vallies, an alluvial terrace of 5-6 meters is observed, too. Pendeli is located in the northeast of the Basin of Athens. It is a symmetrical mountain with steep slopes, especially on the northeastern side. The southwestern part has steep si ded but not deep valleys which end in a bajada-Iike apron of fluvio-torrential sediments. Parnitha mountain in the north-northeast is much more extensive and higher. A relati vely extensive erosional surface is observed between 800 and 1.000 meters. There are three deep gorges with depths of up to 300 meters that seem to converge near the 400 meter contour. All three reach the erosional surface. Egaleo is an elongated hilly ridge flattening at an elevation of a little more than 300 meters. In this case too, like Ymittos, Egaleo is divided in two parts, the southern being somewhat higher that the northern. The whole area is steeper from 100 to 200 meters, and becomes more gently sloping from 200 to 300 meters. The plain of Athens and the "piedmont" slopes: Between the surrounding highlands and the plain of the basin of Athens there is a "piedmont" zone with gently sloping surfaces dipping towards the plain. This zone is composed of fluvio-torrential sediments but also Neogene marine. brackish and lacustrine deposits in the lower, southern portion of the basin near Egaleo and southwest of Ymittos. Below the "piedmont" slopes there extends the plain of Athens which covers the low land areas below 300 meters. Most of this area is found along the western side of the basin, in front of Pamithaand Egaleo. The average NNE-SSW slope is about 2";.; but the upper parts, from 100 to 300 meters are deeply dissected, more than 10 meters in some places. This is believed to be related to the climatic change of the last glacial period. The lower parts of these deeply dissected vallyes are "drowned" and filled with recent sediments. Deposition in the plain of Athens seems to have been continuous, at least during the Quaternary, although some hiatuses can be identified with some accompanying tectonism (Fig. 5). The low hill ridge. The four hills outcropping in the plain of Athens are rock remnants of a previous landscape in the early formation of the Athens depression. It is certain that the Neo gene sea reached as far as the Acropolis area and may have surrounded it for a short period of time. Pliocene marls have been found just west of Lykavitos at an elevation of about 120 meters. The Pliocene deposits are much more extensive west of the southern half of Ymittos. This area is rich in terrestrial cone and fan deposits, too. In Tourkovounia, several scien tists have discovered fossil remains of rodents in reddish, clayey sediments found in faults and joints of the marbles (S y me on i d i sand V o s, 1977; S y me on i d i sand Zap f e, 1997; Douka s, 1981). These were dated as Lower to Middle Pleistocene. Finally, a recent sediment cover is found on ancient Greek structures which is eroding quickly today, and uncovering the underlying old roads and buildings. This cover is located north and west of the Acropolis. Of special significance, for the better understanding of the evolution of the Basi~( of Athens, are some landforms that need a more detailed description. Alluvial cones and fans: The more distinct ones are located along the eastern portion o the basin and are related to Ymittos which has been affected most by tectonism. These fans are composed of medium to well cemented sediments, reddish and greyish in colour, very little weathered, displaying some layering but poor sorting and indicating a fluvio-torrential ori- 21 s N KIFISSIA LEGE N 0 ~C2.:l 2 Congf!omerrtfej - sa-nds Fautts Fig. 5. Stratigraphic column and section at Kifissia gin of the sediments. The size of the transported material varies from medium sand to large boulders close to one cubic meter in size. They are medium to well rounded. The lithologic composition is marbles, dolomites, schists and limestones. The oldest of these probably underlie the Pliocene marls, sands and gravels, but most of them overlie them. No fossils have been found in them, yet. Most of these fans are eroding today and the modern drai nage network follows their sides. "Piedmont" slopes: A typical sect ion is that of Kiffissia ( Fig. 5) . It is made of alternating sands and gravels or conglomerates and has at least six soil horizons in between. The paleo sols are reddich-brown, prismatic and include chert gravels. The sands and gravels are me dium to well cemented, very little weathered, greyish in colour but reddish near the soi l hori zons. The lithologic composition is marbles, limestones, dolomites and schists. In some cases large boulders, more than half cubic meter, are included. The matrix in the conglo merates is very limited, composed of medium to coarse sands. The dip of the Kifissia deposits is steeper than today's topographic slope indicating either recent tectonism, which is clearly visible in the road cut, or an intense erosional phase in the upper reaches of Kifi ssia. All these deposits are deeply dissected today. The coastline: It should be noted that a large part of the Saronikos coastline is retreating today, following the most recent transgression until the Middle Holocene. Since then, only the portion between Palio Faliro and eastern Pireas seems to have reversed this process. An appropriate proof of the active erosion of most of the coastline is the presence of beach rock s. These are Holocene layered formation s composed of well cemented sands and gravels, many times including pieces of ancient Greek pottery but also Coca Cola tops. In many loca tions the beachrocks have been breached by the advancing sea and the loose sand behind them is eroding. Finally, we have two marine terraces on the Neogene deposit s, one at an 22 elevation of 18-20 meters and the other near 40 meters. It is believed that these we re formed during the last two interglaci al periods. No deposits or fo ssils have been found to sustain this view yet. Evolution of the basin of Athens Combining all the geologic, tectonic and geomorphic observations it is possible to recons truct the evolutionary stages through which the basin of Athens passed to reach to its pre sent form. In pre-Neogene times, the resultant landscape at the end of the Alpine orogeny (mostly folding) was a mountainous physiography very unlike today's landscape. Before the Upper Miocene, the area was affected by extensional tectonism, with normal faults forming the basin with its surrounding mountains. Part of the basin was covered by sea, particula rly the western part which had sunk more than the eastern. Preceding this transgression (Tortonian) we have a period of intense erosion, deposition mainly of conglo merates, along the periphery of the newly formed mountains- first erosional phase. During the Messi ni an Crisis of the Mediterranean basin (end of Miocene, 5-7 m. y. ago) in a warm sub-tropical climate there was a rapid regression of the sea accompanied by active erosion -second erosional phase. Thi s process resulted in the erosion of extensive parts of the Miocene deposits and the deposition of fluvio-torrential sediments, in the form of alluvial cones and fans, on most of the remaining. The Messinian regression was followed by the Pliocene transgression with marine deposits found today at an elevation of more tha n 120 meters. These deposits are sometimes intercalated with fluvio-torrential sediments. indicating shallow marine conditions. During the end of the Pliocene and early Pleistocene a weak compressional phase occur red, resulting in open or reverse faults. In the lower half of the Pleistocene there was a gra dual drop of sea level accompanied by erosion and deposition in the form of alluvial cones and fans- third erosional phase. From the Middle to Upper Pleistocene a period of rapid trangressions and regressions due to the glacial and interglacial periods took place. In this period we have the formation of marine and fluvial terraces- fourth erosional phase, together with continuous extensio nal tectonism. Finally, in the Holocene, we recognize at least one depositional phase with the most recent, post-Hellenistic erosional phase - the fifth, forming the present 5-6 meter terrace in the older valleys. References Arg y ria dis, I., Mercier, J., Verge I y, P . 1976. La fenetre d'Attique-Cyclades et les correlations Hel lenides-Taurides.- C. R. A cad. Sc. Paris, Paris, 283; 599-601 . Bucking, H. 1881. Ober die Lagerungsverhaltnisse der alteren Schichten in Attika. - Sitzungber der Kg!. Preuss. Akad. d. Wiss . zu Berlin, 39; 935- 950. Camp ([, J. M. 1977. The water supply of ancient Athens from 3.000 to 86 B. C. PhD. Dissertation, Princeton University, Princeton, N.J. Char a Iamb a k is, S. 1948. Sur l'iige des formations Neogenes des environs d'Athenes.-Praktika Acad. d'Athenes, Athenes, 23; 322-331 . C I em en t, B. 1983. Evolution geodynamique d'un secteur des Hellenides internes: L 'Attique-Beotie (Grece continentale).- The se Univ. Lille; 521 p. DeB r u i j n, H., Van de r Me u I en, A. J. 1975. The Early Pleistocene Rodents from Tourkobounja-1 (Athens-Greece).- l-ll Proc. Konikl. Nederl. Akad. van Wetenschappen, Amsterdam, B78; 25 p. Douk as, K . 1981. Fossil mammal finds in karst depressions and fi ssures in the broader area of Athens.- Announced at the 1 sf Panhellenic Speleological Meeting, 1981, Athens. Unpublished. Fre y berg, B. von . 195 I. Das Neogen-Gebiet Nordwestlich A then. - Ann . Ceo!. Pays. Hellen., Athenes, 3; 65-86. Higgins, C. G. 1962. Caves of the Acropolis of Athens.- Papers, Michigan A cad. of Arts and Letters. 47; 13- 18. 23 Kat s i kat so s, G. 1976. La structure tectonique de l'Attique et de l'ile de Eubee.- Bull. Soc. Gen l. France, Paris, I9; 75- 80. Kat s i kat so s, G., Mercier, J ., Verge I y, P. 1976. 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Investigations into Quaternary superficial formations in the mountains of Attica. II. Bull. Geo/. Soc. Greece, Athens, 6(2): 441-472. M its a k i, Y. 1973 . A geological study of some specimens of stalactites from Tourkovounia cave (Athens).- Bull. Geol. Soc. Greece. Athens, 12; 90- 96 . Neg r i s, Ph. 1912. Sur !'age des schistes d 'Athenes. - C. R. A cad. Sc. Paris, 154; 1838 - 1840. Negri s, Ph. 1915 . Roches cristallophylliennes et tectonique de Ia Grece, Athenes, 310 p. P a p a d e as. G . 1969. Zur Stratigraphie und Alterstellung der Metamorphen Serien Evon A then (Mara thon).-Praktika Akad. d'Athenes, Athenes, 44: 10- 18. P ar ask eva i dis, 11. 1961. Neue funde Quarta rer Wirbeltierreste in Attica.- Amr . Genl. Pays. Hellen. , Athen, 12; 149- 152. Par ask e v o p o u I o s, G. 1957. Die Gesteine des Horizontes des Kaissariani-Schiefers im Pentelikonge birge.- Ann. Geol. Pays. Hellen .. A then, 8; 233- 245 . Phi I i p p son, A. 1954. Kupperberge und verwandtes, in Yerbindung mit Gerollkegeln, in der Aegaeis ; auch Bei spielen aus Ltalien.- Pragmatiae d'Akad. A thenes. 20( I ); 1-48. Renier is, K. 1933 . Das Lateritklima in Attika. - Praktika d'A cad, d'Athenes, Athenes, 8; 271 - 275 . R en i e r i s, K. 1937 a. A contribution to the morphology of the Mediterranean laterites and terra ro ssa (in Greek). Dissertation, Athens; 31 p. R enier is. K . 1937b. Die Entstehung der Mediterran roterde in Attika. - Praktika d'Acad. A thenes, 12; 141-145. Renier i s, K. 1938 . On the epirogenic movements and their influence upon the morphology of Attika (in Greek) PhD .. Dissertation; Athens, 30 p. R en z, C. 1955 . Die vorneogene Stratigraphie der normalsedimenta ren Formationen Griechenlands.- In st. Geol. Subs, Res .; A then, 635 + 55 p. R o u ban i s, B. S. 1961. Geological research on the P arnitha mountain range.- Ann. Ceo!. Pays. Hellen . Athenes, I 2; 18- 101 . Sind ow sk i, K. H . 1949. Der geologische Bau von Attika. - Ann. Ceo!. Pays Hellen., Athenes, 2; 163- 218. Sind ow sk i, K. H . 1951 . Zur Geologie des Lykabettos - Turkovuni - Gebietes bei A then, mit einem Bei trage tiber friihdi lu viale Wirbeltierfunde aus Spalten. - Ann. Ceo!. Pay s. Hellen. , Athenes, 3; 11 - 21. S y me on i dis, N. and DeVos, J. 1977. Grossiiuger Funde aus den Plistozanen Spaltenfiillungen von Tur kovunia in Athen.- Ann. Ceo/. Pays. Hellen. , Athenes, 28; 135- 144. S y me on i d i s, N . and Zap f e, H. 1977. Primate nzii hne (Cercopithecidae) aus einer Pleistoziinen Spaltenfiil lung im Steinbruch Tourkovunia, Athen .- Ann. Ceo/. Pays Hellen. , Athenes, 28: 207- 214 . T r i k k a I in o s, J. 1955. Beit riige zur Erforschung des tektonischen Baus Griechenlands. Dber das Alter der metamorphen Ges teine Attikas.- Ann. Ceo!. Pays Hellen. , Athenes. 6; 193- 198. Weer d. Anne, V a n de. 1972. Rodentia from two Pleistocene fi ssure fillings near Athen s. - Prnc. Knni -1. Nederl. Akad. 1•an Wetensch ., B76; 148- 166. 24