Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 (311–341) 311

Probable Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Sites in India: XXI. The Malabar Region1

Anurudh K Singh

H.No. 2924, Sector-23, Gurgaon 122017, Haryana, India (email:[email protected])

Abstract Malabar, the southwestern coastal region of India, is the wettest and biodiversity-richest region in the country. Agriculture has been practiced in the region from ancient times, involving the majority of the people. The ingenuity of the people in evolving agriculture is refl ected in the extensive water management system, the backwaters in the low-lying areas of the coastal region, and in harmoniously using the conditions for wet cultivation of rice by developing systems such as ‘pokkali’ and ‘kaipad’, and ‘home garden’ suiting to the tropical conditions of the region. Further, the region can be credited for the domestication and introduction of a number of crop species from different parts of the world, enriching its agrobiodiversity. Its rich spice-diversity has led to the region being called the ‘land of spices’. Cultivation of enriched agrobiodiversity under diverse agroecosystems and production systems has generated rich genetic diversity in most crops, to the extent that the region has been considered one of the secondary centers of diversity for rice, primary center of origin and diversity for black pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, jackfruit, etc., and important center of diversity for several other crops such as turmeric, ginger, bitter gourd, banana, etc. For these contributions of the local communities, providing livelihood support and conserving genetic diversity in a large number of crops, the region is being proposed as another National Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site. The present article discusses some of these contributions in brief.

The Malabar region is a long and narrow and related activities. Because of these coastline on the southwestern shore of the reasons the majority of the population Indian subcontinent. It is part of the recently has been involved in diverse agricultural (2012) recognized UNESCO World Heritage activities from ancient times. Globally, the Site, the Western Ghats, and comprises the region was known as the land of spices. wettest regions of southern India with the Like the neighboring Konkan region, it was richest biodiversity, and therefore offers another major Indian trading hub having very congenial conditions for agriculture commercial interactions with other parts

1. This is the last paper in the series on “Probable agricultural biodiversity heritage sites in India” published in Asian Agri-History. 312 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites of the world, such as China, Mesopotamia, systems with diverse mixed cropping in Egypt, Greece, Rome, Jerusalem, Persia, canopies, with tree species such as coconut and Arabia from ancient times. The region in the fi rst canopy, and herbaceous ginger, has several old and still functional port turmeric, pineapple, vegetables, grasses, cities, which have been the centers of global etc., in the last, as basal crops, enriching trade and which played an important role in the agrobiodiversity and generating genetic the introduction of exotic crops into India, diversity, particularly in cash crops like enriching the plant agrobiodiversity. The spices and providing new avenues to the region is credited for the development of a local people for livelihood support both unique system for the management of the at farm and home garden level. For these excessive water and backwaters (created contributions – evolving natural resource by high rainfall and the tides and flash management and sustainable agricultural fl ooding of sea water into the mainland in systems, enrichment of crop diversity with the coastal areas), with a chain of networks domestication of indigenous economic of both natural and man-made water species, and introduction of exotic crops and channels (canals) and meticulously using genetic diversity with their cultivation under them for transport and productive upland diverse agroecosystems/production systems and aqua agriculture. The local communities of prevailing wet micro-agroclimatic have further utilized the situation with conditions, and their conservation – the ingenuity for ecofriendly farming by region is being proposed as another National developing harmonious and unique tropical Agricultural Biodiversity Heritage Site wet cultivation systems of rice, such as based on the indices described by Singh and ‘pokkali’ and ‘kaipad’, with the selection Varaprasad (2008). of salinity- and submergence-tolerant rice landraces/varieties for cultivation in saline Location and extent water and below the sea level, and suiting to diverse agroecosystems of the region, In the ancient times, the term Malabar thereby evolving and enriching the rice was used to denote the entire southwestern genetic diversity to the extent that the region coast of the Indian peninsula. Today it is being proposed for another secondary refers to the Malabar region, which broadly center of diversity. These systems are consists of parts of the coastal plain of being further enriched with the integration Karnataka and most of Kerala, between the of aquaculture of rice–shrimp/prawn Western Ghats range and the Arabian Sea farming. Similarly, the positive interaction (Fig. 1). As per the present administrative of local communities with horticultural boundaries, the region extends over the crop species and the undulating, hilly, coastal Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, and slopy terrain with high rainfall has and Mysore districts of Karnataka, all resulted in the domestication of several the districts of Kerala, and parts of the species, particularly the one with spice bordering Western Ghats mountain districts properties and development of a number of Tamil Nadu, Udhagamandalam (Nilgiri), of unique tropical agricultural/farming and Kanyakumari (Fig. 1). Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 313

Figure 1. Location and extent of the Malabar region.

Landscape sea level. The highest peaks of the Western Ghats, Anamudi (2695 m) and Dodabetta The landscape of the region is characterized (2636 m) are part of the region. The region by an asymmetrical topography that includes is well-drained by many streams and rivers lowlands bordering the sea, the midlands because of the undulating topography dominated by undulating subdued hills of most of the areas. The coast presents and steep scarp slopes and forests, and the a continuous belt of sand dunes, behind highlands on the east, in parts of the Western which lie many lagoons paralleling with the Ghats. The altitude ranges from below coast and linked by canals to form inland mean sea level to 2694 meters above mean waterways. 314 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

One of the unique and delightful landscapes that have come to exist in the region are the Like the neighboring Konkan region, it backwaters. These are a chain of brackish was another major Indian trading hub lagoons and lakes lying parallel to the having commercial interactions with Arabian Sea coast (the Malabar Coast), other parts of the world, such as China, and extending to half the length of the Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, region in Kerala. The fi ve large lakes of the Jerusalem, Persia, and Arabia from backwaters are linked by natural and man- ancient times. made canals, which are fed by 38 rivers. The backwaters were formed by the action of waves and shore currents creating low summers, a long rainy season and very mild barrier islands across the mouths of many short winters. Geographically, the region rivers fl owing down from the Western Ghats represents the wettest regions of southern range. In the midst of this landscape there India, in which the Western Ghats intercept are a number of towns and cities that serve the moisture-laden monsoon clouds to bring as the starting and end points of backwater rain, especially on their westward-facing cruises. The backwaters offer a unique mountain slopes. Thus, most of the region’s aquatic biodiversity including crabs, frogs average annual precipitation exceeds and mudskippers, otters, turtles, and water 2000 mm, which is incessant and comes birds such as terns, kingfi shers, darters, in varying amounts throughout the year, and cormorants. The very rich fl ora lends fi rstly because of the southwest monsoon a green hue to the surrounding landscape, from June to September (experiencing which includes palm trees, Pandanus heavy rainfall), followed by the northeast shrubs, various leafy plants, and bushes. monsoon, which sets in during October and November. The rainfall covers the entire annual potential evapotranspiration. Agroclimate However, due to seasonal dry spells, The Malabar region is a hot, humid-perhumid especially during February to April, there ecoregion. The climate is humid with tropical may be some moisture-defi cit affected areas. monsoon and is characterized by hot to mild For these reasons, the region facilitates a long growing season, which may extend to more than 270 days. In addition, there The Malabar region is a long and is availability of abundant water due to the narrow coastline on the southwestern extensive network of rivers, streams, lakes, shore of the Indian subcontinent. It is and backwaters to facilitate agricultural part of the recently (2012) recognized activities. The region experiences a mild UNESCO World Heritage Site, the winter during the months of December to Western Ghats, and comprises the February. The temperature during summer wettest regions of southern India with (March to May) ranges between 29°C and the richest biodiversity. 39°C. It remains low during the rest of the year, due to incessant rains. During winters, Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 315 the maximum temperature is 25°C and the mangroves. As per Champion and Seth’s minimum is 14°C. classifi cation (2005), the natural vegetation comprises, tropical moist wet evergreen Based on the morphological and physico- forests, tropical semi-evergreen forests, chemical properties, the soils of the region tropical moist deciduous forests, tropical dry are divided into ten groups. However, the deciduous, montane and shola forests. The major soils are red loams, lateritic soils, top canopy of the tropical wet evergreen and the alluvium-derived soils in the forests is represented by Acrocarpus coastal plains. The soils are deep, clayey, fraxinifolius Wt. & Arn., Artocarpus profoundly to moderately acidic in nature hirsutus Lam., Antiaris toxicaria Lesch., and are poor in base saturation. Calophyllum tomentosum Wight, Canarium strictum Roxb., Cinnamomum zeylancium Floristic diversity Bl., Cullenia excelsa Wight, Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd., Dysoxylum malabaricum Being part of one of the global biodiversity Bedd. ex Hiern, Michelia champaca L., hotspots, the Western Ghats is recognized Mesua ferrea L., Palaquium ellipticum as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO for (Dalz.) Baill., Tetrameles nudifl ora R.Br., being an “Evolutionary Ecotone”, with Vateria indica L., etc. The tropical semi- exceptional levels of biological diversity evergreen forests include species, like and species endemism. The region is very Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br., Artocarpus rich in fl oristic diversity with 4681 fl owering hirsutus, Hydnocarpus pentandra (Buch.- species belonging to 1415 genera and 188 Ham.) Oken, Knema attenuata (J.Hk. & Th.) families (Nayar et al., 2006), and with unique Warb., Sterculia guttata Roxb., Terminalia and diverse microclimates support 1286 paniculata Roth, etc. The tropical moist endemic species compared to about 234 in deciduous forests consist of Adina the Northern Western Ghats (Nayar, 1996). cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f., Albizia amara Ecologically, the region has been referred (Roxb.) Boivin, Bombax ceiba L., Dalbergia to as belonging to tropical and subtropical latifolia Roxb., Dillenia pentagyna Roxb., moist broad-leaf forests of southwestern Ficus glomerata Roxb., Kydia calicyna India. However, the vegetation of the region Roxb., Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall., varies with climatic, altitudinal, and other Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Müll.Arg., edaphic factors. The hilly zone contains Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb., Tectona maximum forests/vegetation, midlands only grandis L.f., etc. The tropical riparian little, while the coastal regions have mostly forests consist of Calophyllum apetalum Willd., Garcinia gummigutta (L.) Roxb., Homonoia riparia Lour., Ochreinauclea The region is credited for the missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) Ridsd., development of a unique system for the Holigarna arnottiana Hook. f., etc. The management of the excessive water and tropical hilltop forests consist of Cullenia backwaters. exarillata Robyns, Elaeocarpus serratus L., Mesua ferrea, Gluta travancorica Bedd., 316 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

to 43 families and 104 genera in Kerala. The Malabar region is a hot, humid- Rice is the staple food and the main crop. perhumid ecoregion. The climate is Other crops are coconut, banana, mango, humid with tropical monsoon and is cashew, black pepper, arecanut, cardamom, characterized by hot to mild summers, vanilla, cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, a long rainy season and very mild short clove and commercial crops such as rubber, winters. tea, and coffee.

Tea, coffee, and cardamom are predominantly etc. The tropical dry deciduous forests cultivated in the highlands. Teak and rubber consist of Acacia Mill. spp., Azadirachta are cultivated in the lower slopes of the indica A. Juss., Butea frondosa Roxb., highland region. The midlands are mainly Cassia fistula L., Dalbergia paniculata occupied by coconut palms, with paddy, Roxb., Sterculia urens Roxb., etc. The tapioca (cassava), pepper, pineapple, and montane wet semi-temperate forests in pulses. Banana, ginger, and rubber are also the sholas are represented by species such grown in the midlands. However, rubber, as Ilex wightiana Wall. ex Wt., Michelia coconut, and tapioca are predominantly nilagirica Zenk., Vaccinium leschenaultia grown at low elevations under humid- Wt., Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Aiton) tropical conditions. In the laterite dry zone, Hassk., Eurya nitida Korth., etc. tapioca used to be cultivated and was the second most important crop and major food of the region, occupying around 10% of the Agriculture and agricultural cultivated area; however, now it is replaced biodiversity by rubber. Broadly based on micro-agriculture There are three major cropping systems, characteristics, the region has two zones, based on the primary crop and way of the northern Malabar Coast and the southern cultivation: Malabar Coast. The terrain of the region is heterogeneous with varied topography and 1. Coconut-based cropping systems: In heavy rainfall, which causes fl ash fl ooding this system, coconut is the major crop and inundation in the coastal areas. Thus, intercropped with crops such as pepper, because of the location and altitudinal arecanut, cocoa, banana, turmeric, variations, the region has been blessed with ginger, small tubers, and fodder, and in a wide range of agroecological conditions, some areas with upland rice, pulses, and which can be divided into three broad zones: oilseeds (Fig. 2). the hilly zones with slopes (highland), the midlands, and the coastal zones (lowland). 2. Rice-based cropping systems The agriculture and agricultural practices (particularly in lowlands): Either a have evolved as per these variations in single or two crops of rice are grown, climate, altitude, and the edaphic conditions. depending on the availability of water, Nayar (2011) counted 142 crops belonging as in the central area of the region, or Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 317

after dewatering of impounded water, as growing of a wide variety of crops in the kayal lands of Kuttanad. In some (Fig. 4). In this system, farmers choose areas, vegetables, pulses, and oilseeds their crop combinations and livestock are grown in fallows or as summer crops or fi sh farming as per the prevailing (Fig. 3). Fish farming or prawn culture conditions. is practiced, after the rice crop, in the Rice cultivation traditionally occupies the coastal areas of water inundation. pride of place. It was cultivated in almost all parts of the region in all three seasons: 3. Homestead farming systems: The in Viruppu (kharif/autumn/fi rst crop season) traditional system of home garden, as April–October, in Mundakan (rabi/winter/ per the agroclimatic conditions, favors second crop season) October–January, and in Puncha (summer/third crop season) January–April. Taking into consideration the topography, soil, and abiotic factors and seasonal differences, rice is grown in eight distinct agroecosystems (Nair, 2000, as cited by Leena Kumari, 2012), including the pokkali system (see p. 332). Based on four parameters – altitude, rainfall pattern, soil type, and topography – the Kerala area has Figure 2. Coconut-based cropping system been delineated into thirteen agroclimatic (Source: www.coconutboard.nic.in). zones: Onattukara, Coastal sandy, Southern

Figure 3. Rice-based production systems (Source: Sasidharan et al., Kerala Agriculture University, 2012). 318 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Figure 4. Homestead garden in Wayanad (left) (Source: www.pappysnet.com); traditional coffee-based homestead garden with pepper (right) (Source: A V Santoshkumar). midlands, Central midlands, Northern (8) rice–rice–legumes; and (9) rice–rice– midlands, Malappuram type, Malayorum, water fallow rice–fish (Leena Kumari, Palakkad plains, Red loam, Chittoor black 2012). The important rice varieties soil, Kuttanad, Riverbank alluvium, and cultivated in Kerala are Jyothi, Rohini, High ranges. In these zones, rice is cultivated Annapurna, Triveni, Jaya, Aswathy, Sabari, in the following distinct cropping systems: Bharathy, Mahsuri, Navara, Ponni, and (1) rice–rice–legumes/rice–rice–sesame/ Samba, while the important rice varieties rice–rice–vegetables; (2) rice–rice–fallow; in Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu, and Mysore (3) rice–prawn/rice–fallow; (4) rice–rice- are Annapurna, Mangala, Jaya, Puspa, fallow/rice–rice–vegetables; (5) fallow Madhu, Pankanj, Vani, Sona, Pakash, and rice–fallow; (6) rice–rice–fallow/rice–rice– Phalguna. In recent times rice is being vegetables; (7) rice–rice–vegetables; replaced with other remunerative crops.

‘Home gardens’ comprise a significant Nayar (2011) counted 142 crops portion of the agricultural sector of the belonging to 43 families and 104 region, catering to the subsistence needs genera in Kerala. Rice is the staple food of farmers’ families. Nearly 50% of the and the main crop. Other crops are holdings falling in this category belong to the coconut, banana, mango, cashew, black marginal farmers (FIB, 1992). This system pepper, arecanut, cardamom, vanilla, has high-density farming involving several cinnamon, ginger, turmeric, nutmeg, species of seasonal, annual, and perennial clove and commercial crops such as crops to meet the household demands and rubber, tea, and coffee. to achieve highly effi cient use of resources. The crop components in ‘home gardens’ Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 319 are infl uenced by the climate, household 3. Involving uplands associated with preferences, requirements, and dietary adjoining lowlands with crops only; habits. Under home gardens, coconut-based 4. Involving uplands associated with cropping system is predominant to most of adjoining lowlands with both crops and the agroclimate, except in the high ranges. livestock; An array of intercrops is raised, resulting in a multistory cropping pattern with canopy 5. Involving uplands with adjoining stratifi cation. Perennial tree crops such as backwaters with crops, livestock, and coconut, arecanut, jack, mango, cashew, agro-based industries. tamarind, and forest tree species occupy the upper layer; pepper, clove, nutmeg, Commercial/cash crops are the major cinnamon, cocoa, etc. occupy the second constituents of the agriculture and layer; banana, cassava, yam, cocoyam, etc. agrobiodiversity, and play an important occupy the third layer; and ginger, turmeric, role in the economy of the region. The pineapple, vegetables, grain legumes, and main cash crops are spices, coconut, guinea grass occupy the ground layer rubber, tea, coffee, arecanut, cashewnut, (Fig. 4). This nearly approaches the tropical ginger, etc. The region is traditionally the rainforest structure and species diversity main producer of spices, which together (Shehana et al., 1992). form the number one cash crop. The region has been known for the trade of Animal husbandry is also an important spices for more than three millennia, and activity, which has been integrated with is geographically associated with the fresh other farming systems and has been aroma of superb-quality spices. This has considered a means for poverty alleviation lured foreigners into the country since as among marginalized and landless farmers, early as in the Medieval Age. The region and unemployed women. Therefore, produces 96% of the pepper in India. The the home gardens of the region often other important spices are cardamom, combined with livestock rearing, interacting cinnamon, clove, turmeric, nutmeg, ginger, synergistically for sustained productivity and vanilla. Cardamom exports bring (Salam and Sreekumar, 1990). Cows, high revenues. Coconut occupies 25% buffaloes, goats, poultry, pig, etc. are the of the cropped area and provides 70% common livestock components as per of the Indian output. It provides not only the prevailing environmental conditions the coconut fruit, the principal source of and situation. As per Salam et al. (2008), income, but also raw material for the coir based on biological and physical factors, industry and coconut shell for artifacts and the following home garden systems are handicraft. The region holds a monopoly common in the region: with regard to rubber, accounting for 85% out of the total area under natural rubber in 1. Involving uplands with crops only; the country, and produces 91% of India’s 2. Involving uplands with crops and rubber. Kottayam district has extensive livestock; areas producing and processing rubber. The 320 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

or Guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.), ‘Home gardens’ comprise a signifi cant napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum portion of the agricultural sector of Schum.), pillipesara [Vigna trilobata (L.) the region, catering to the subsistence Verdc.], Stylosanthes humilis H.B.K. and S. needs of farmers’ families. Nearly 50% scabra Vogel (recent introductions), etc. of the holdings falling in this category belong to the marginal farmers. Vegetables. Caulifl ower [Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis (L.) Metzg.] (recent introduction), churakka or bottle gourd [Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standley], Kerala area is the single largest producer cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), koval or of banana also, occuping nearly 30% of the little gourd [Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt; total cropped area. syn. C. indica Wight & Arn.], kumbalam or ash gourd (Benincasa hispida Thunb.), Representative crop species in various lablab bean [Dolichos bifl orus Lin.; syn. crop groups Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet.], mathan Cereals. Chama or little millet (Panicum or pumpkin [Cucurbita moschata (Duch.) sumatrense Roth), cholam (Zea mays Poir.], mulaku or green chili [Capsicum L.), koovaraku or fi nger millet [Eleucine annuum L.; syn. C. annuum var. frutescens coracana (L.) Gaertn.], nellu or rice (L.) Kuntze.], oriental pickling melon (Oryza sativa L.), and varagu or kodo (Cucumis melo L. var. acidulus), muttakose millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.). Apart or cabbage (Brassica oleracea L. var. from rice, the area under other crops has capitata L.), padavalam or snake gourd (Trichosanthes anguina L.), paval or drastically reduced. bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.), Grain legumes and oilseeds. Cherupayar or peechanga or ridge gourd [Luffa acutangula green gram [Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek], (L.) Roxb.], seemachakka or bread fruit ellu or sesame (Sesamum indicum L.), [Artocarpus altilis (Park.) Fosberg] – unripe French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), kudzu fruit used as vegetable, sonjna or drumstick [Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth.], (Moringa oleifera Lam.), spine gourd grown as cover crop in rubber estates, (Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.) from muthira or horse gram [Macrotyloma uniflorum (Lam.) Verdc.], nilakkadala or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), Animal husbandry is also an important perumpayar or cowpea (Vigna unguiculata activity, which has been integrated L.), thuvarappayar or pigeonpea [Cajanus with other farming systems and has cajan (L.) Millsp.], and uzhunnu or black been considered a means for poverty gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper]. alleviation among marginalized and landless farmers, and unemployed Fodder crops. Karuka or Bermuda grass women. [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.], kuthirappullu Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 321 wild, sponge gourd (Luffa cylindrica Roxb.; Presl; syn. C. zeylanicum Blume), clove tree syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.), sword bean [Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M. [Canavalia gladiata (Jacq.) DC.], thakkali Perry; syn. S. caryophyllata Thunb.], ginger or tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.; (Zingiber officinale Roscoe), Malabar syn. Solanum lycopersicum L.), vazhuthana tamarind [Garcinia cambogia (Gaertn.) or brinjal (Solanum melongena L.), venda Desr.; syn. G. gummi-gutta], mango or bhindi [Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) ginger (Curcuma amada Roxb.), nutmeg Moench], and yardlong bean [Vigna (Myristica fragrans Houtt.), Trachyspermum unguiculata Walp. var. sesquipedalis (L.) strictocarpum L. (syn. Carum strictocarpum H.Ohashi]. Leafy vegetables: cheera or Clarke) (rare), turmeric (Curcuma longa amaranthus (Amaranthus cruentus L.; syn. A. L.; syn. C. domestica Valet.), and vanilla paniculatus L.), Chinese spinach (A. tricolor (Vanilla planifolia Jacks. ex Andrews; syn. L.), Malabar spinach (Basella alba L.; syn. V. fragrans Ames). B. rubra L.), Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr., and spleen amaranth (Amaranthus dubius Fruits. Avocado (Persea americana Mart. ex Thell.). Roots, bulbs and tubers: Mill.), Baccaurea courtallensis (Wt.) carrot (Daucus carota L.), cheenikizhangu Muell-Arg. (from wild), Buchanania or sweet potato [Ipomoea batatas (L.) barberi Gamble (edible fruits), chakka or Poir.], chembu or arvi [Colocasia esculenta jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.), (L.) Schott var. antiquorum (Schott) cherunaranga or lime [Citrus aurantifolia Hubbard & Rehder.] – with several cultivars (Christm.) Swingle], custard apple (Annona and morphotypes, chena or elephant- squamosa L.) (rare), Elaeocarpus oblongus foot yam [Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Gaertn., E. serratus L., elantha or jujube (Dennst.) Nicolson; syn. A. campanulatus (Zizyphus jujuba Miller), guava (Psidium Decne., A. bulbifer], Chinese or giant taro guajava L.), star gooseberry [Phyllanthus [Alocasia cucullata (Lour.) G. Don], A. acidus (L.) Skeels] – accidental in home macrorrhizos (L.) G. Don], Chinese potato gardens, Indian gooseberry (Emblica [Solenostemon rotundifolius (Poir.) J.K. offi cinalis Gaertn.; syn. Phyllanthus emblica Morton.], kachil or yam (Dioscorea alata L. Wall. ex Stapf.), jamun [Syzygium cumini and D. bulbifera L; syn. D. sativa L.), koova (L.) Skeels; syn. Eugenia jambolana Lam.], (Maranta arundinacea L.), lesser yam karaunda [Carissa macrocarpum (Eckl.) (Dioscorea esculenta Lour.), maracheeni A.DC., C. macrophylla Wall. (‘Bonsai’)], or tapioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz), khirni [Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) mullangi or radish (Raphanus sativus L.), Dubard], mahua [Madhuca bourdillonii seemamullangi or turnip (Brassica rapa (Gamble) H.J. Lam, M. longifolia (Koenig) L.), and urulakizhangu or potato (Solanum J.F. Macb. var. longifolia] wild, malaunthiri tuberosum L.). or bullock heart (Annona reticulata L.) – home gardens, mango (Mangifera indica Spices. Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), L.), mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.), cardamom [Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Lansium domesticum Correa, munthiringa Maton], cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. or grapes (Vitis vinfera L.), naranga [Citrus 322 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites limon (L.) Burm. f.], papaya (Carica papaya Rhododendron arboreum Roxb. ssp. L.), persimmon [Diospyros nilagirica Bedd., nilagiricum, and water lily (Nymphaea D. bourdillonii Brand., D. malabarica nouchali N.L. Burman, N. rubra L.). (Desr.) Kostel., D. pruriens Dalz.] – from wild, rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.), Medicinal and aromatic plants. Arjun sapota [Achras sapota L.; syn. Manilkara (Terminalia arjuna), Boehmeria malabarica zapota (L.) P.Royen], Spanish cherry Wedd., brahmi [Bacopa monnieri (L.) (Mimusops elengi L.), vazha or banana Wettst.], chittamruthu [Tinospora cordifolia (Musa sapientum L., M. acuminata Colla, (Willd.) Miers], kacholam (Kaempferia M. rosacea Jacq; syn. M. balbisiana Colla), galanga Linn.), karinochi (Vitex negundo West Indies cherry (Malpighia glabra L.; L.), kudangal [Centella asiatica (L.) Urban], syn. M. punicifolia L.), and wood apple lemon grass [Cymbopogon flexuosus (Limonia acidissima L.). (Steud.) Wats. var. coimbatorensis, C. martini Roxb. var. tofia,], narunandi Plantation crops. Cashewnut (Anacardium (Hemidesmus indicus L. R.Br.), njavaral occidentale L.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao panikoorka (Coleus amboinicus Lour.), L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), coffee orila (Desmodium gangeticum L.DC.), (Coffea arabica L.), kamuku or arecanut pelipparuthy [Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) (Areca catechu L.), oil palm (Elaeis Chiov.], ramacham [Vetiveria zizanioides guineensis Jacq.) (recent introduction), (L.) Nash; syn. Andropogon zizanioides rubber [Hevea brasiliensis Willd. ex A. Linn.], sarpagandhi [Rauvolfi a serpentina Juss.) Mull. Arg.], tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) Benth. ex Kurz.], sathappu/arutha (Ruta (L.) Kuntze], and vettila or betel vine (Piper graveolens Linn.), sathavari [Asparagus betle L.). racemosus var. javanicus (Kunth) Baker. J. Linn.], thippali (Piper longum Linn.), thulsi Ornamentals. Champak (Michelia (Ocimum sanctum L.; syn. O. tenuifl orum champaca), dwarf date palm (Phoenix L.), vallippala [Tylophora indica (Burm. pusilla Roxb.), Elaeocarpus L. spp. (tree), f.) Merrill.], and white dammar (Vateria feather palm [Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) indica L.). Merr.; syn. A. saccharifera], fi shtail palm (Caryota urens L.), ixora (Ixora coccinea Timber and bamboos. Timber: Anjali L., I. notoniana Wall. ex G. Don), jacaranda (Artocarpus hirsutus), ebony (Diospyros (Jacaranda acutifolia Humb. & Bonpl.; syn. ebenum Koenig), eetty or Indian rosewood J. mimosifolia D.Don), jasmine [Jasminum (Dalbergia latifolia), irul (Xylia dolabriformis grandiflorum L.; syn. J. officinale f. Benth.), kambakam (Hopea parviflora grandifl orum (L.) Kobuski, J. auriculatum Bedd.), kadam [Haldinia cordifolia Roxb. Vahl., J. multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr., Ridsd.; syn. Adina cordifolia], kattupunna J. malabaricum Wight.], lily (Lilium or poon (Calophyllum polyanthum Wall. ex neilgherrense Wight), Millettia splendens Choisy), mahogany (Swietenia mahogany Wight & Arn. (tree), palm (Arenga wightii L.), Malabar mahogany [Kingiodendron Griff.), Pelargonium graveolens L. Heritt., pinnatum (Roxb. ex DC.) Harms], Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 323 perumaram or tree of heaven (Ailanthus Lamk., Cajanus candollei Wight & Arn., C. excels Roxb.), Pterocarpus marsupium lineatus (Wight & Arn.) Maesen, Carissa Roxb., rosewood (Dalbergia volubilis paucinervia A.DC. (syn. Carissa spinarum Roxb., D. beddomei Thoth., D. travancorica L.), Cinnamomum fi lipedicellatum Kosterm., Thoth.), teak (Tectona grandis Linn.), C. heyneanum Nees, C. macrocarpum vella ayani or gurjun (Dipterocarpus Hook. f., C. malabatrum (Burm. f.) J.Presl, indicus), vellamaruthu or kindal (Terminalia C. riparium Gamble, C. travancoricum paniculata), white cedar (Dysoxylum Gamble., C. wightii Meissn., Colocasia malabaricum, D. beddomei Hiern), and esculenta (L.) Schott (taro), Corchorus Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) W.Theob. Bamboo: pseudo-olitorius Islam and Zaid, Crotalaria Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees., clarkei Gamble, C. digitata Hook, C. Ochlandra beddomei Gamble and few more grahamiana Wight & Arn., Curcuma species, Oxytenanthera stocksii Munro, aromatica Salisb., C. aurantiaca Van Zijp, Pseudotenanthera bourdillonii (Gamble) C. caesia Roxb. (syn. C. malabarica Velay., R.B.Majumdar, Schizostachyum beddomei Amalraj & Mural.), C. coriacea Mangaly & (C.E.C. Fisch.) R.B. Majumdar, and M.Sabu, C. decipiens Dalzell, C. ecalcarata Yushania wightiana (Nees) R.B.Majumdar. Sivar. & Balach., C. haritha Mangaly & In addition, rattans, used as cane, belonging Sabu, C. karnatakensis Amalraj, Velay. & to genera of tribe Calameae of family Mural., C. kudagensis Velay., V.S.Pillai & Arecaceae are represented by a number of Amalraj, C. nilamburensis Velay., Mural., Calamus Auct. ex L. species. Amalraj, P.L.Gautam & S.Mandal, C. neilgherrensis Wight., C. oligantha Trimen Multipurpose species. Falcataria moluccana (syn. C. cannanorensis R.Ansari et al.), C. (Miq.) Barneby & J.W. Grimes, Leucaena raktakanta Mangaly & Sabu., C. reclinata leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit [syn. Acacia Roxb., C. thalakaveriensis Velay., Amalraj leucocephala (Lam.) Link], Morus alba & Mural., C. vamana M.Sabu & Mangaly, L., and vaka or siris [Acacia lebbeck (L.) Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f., D. hispida Willd.]. Dennst (syn. D. daemona Roxb.), D. intermedia Thw., D. oppositifolia L., D. Wild relatives of cultivated species. Due to pentaphylla L. (syn. D. jacquemontii Hook. rich phytobiodiversity, the region has a large f.), D. spicata Roth, D. tomentosa Koenig number of wild relatives of crop species, ex Spreng., D. wallichii Hook. f., D. wightii Abelmoschus angulosus Wall. ex Wight & Hook. f., Dolichos unifl orus Lam., Ensete Arn., A. manihot (L.) Medik. ssp. tetraphyllus, superbum Roxb., Eugenia singampattiana Amorphophallus bonoccordensis Yadav Bedd., Fragaria nilgerrensis Schlecht. et al., A. commutatus (Schott) Engl., A. ex J.Gay, Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) hohenakeri (Schott.) Engl. & Gehrm, A. Desr., G. travancorica Bedd., G. wightii mysorensis E. Barnes & C.E.C. Fisch., A. T. Anders., G. xanthochymus Hook. f. nicolsianus Sivadasan, A. smithsonianus ex T.Anderson, Jasminum angustifolium Sivadasan, Artocarpus gomezianus Wall. (L.) Willd., J. flexile, J. malabaricum, ex Trecul ssp. zeylanicus Jarrett, A. hirsutus J. mesnyi Hance., Linum mysorense 324 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

B.Heyne ex Wall., Luffa umbellata (Klein) Endemic species. Being a mega-center of M.Roem. (dry areas bordering Tamil Nadu), species endemism, the region has a large spine gourd (Momordica dioica Roxb. number of economically important endemic ex Willd.) – harvested, M. sahyadrica plant species. Some of the representative Kattuk. & V.T.Antony, Musa superba endemic species are Ammomum muricatum Roxb., Myristica dactyloides Gaertn., M. Bedd., Amorphophallus bonaccordensis, A. malabarica Lamk., Olea glandulifera commutatus, A. smithsonianus, Andropogon Wall. ex G. Don., Oryza meyeriana (Zoll. longipes Hack., Arenga wightii Griff., & Moritzi) Baill., O. offi cinalis Wall. ex Artocarpus hirsutus, Celmatis bourdillonii Watt. [syn. Oryza offi cinalis Wall. ex Watt. Dunn., Chlorophytum malabaricum ssp. malampuzhaenensis (Krish) Tateoka], Dalz., Cinnamomum keralense Koster, Piper argyrophyllum Miq., P. barberi C. macrocarpum, C. malabatrum, C. Gamble, P. galeatum C.DC., P. hapnium travancoricum, and many more, Croton Buch.-Ham. ex Hook. f., P. hookeri Miq., P. malabaricus Bedd., Curcuma cannanorensis pykarahense C.DC., P. schmidtii Hook. f., P. R. Ansari et al., C. cannanorensis var. lutea silentvalleyensis P.N. Ravindran, M.K. Nair R. Ansari, C. kudagensis, and more species, Cymbopogon flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) & R. Ashokan, P. trichostachyon DC., and Wts. var. coimbatorensis Gupta, C. martini more (Parthasarathy et al., 2006), Pueraria (Roxb.) Wats var. tofi aq Gupta, Diospyros tuberosa DC. (Indian kudzu), Sesamum nilagirica Bedd., D. pruriens Delz., laciniatum Willd., S. malabaricum L., S. Dipterocarpus indicus Bedd., Elaeocarpus mulayanum Nair., S. radiatum Schumach., munronii (Wight) Mast., E. recurvatus Solanum anguivi Lam. (syn. S. indicum Corner, Eragrostis unioloides var. tremela, L.), S. erianthum D. Don, S. incanum Ruiz Eugenia argentea Bedd., E. discifera & Pav., S. nigrum L., S. pubescens Willd. Gamble, Ficus dalhousiae Miq., F. beddomei (syn. S. torvum), S. viarum Dunal, Syzygium King., Garcinia travancorica, G. wightii, and arnottianum (Wight) Walp., S. beddomei more species, Hopea glabra Wt. & Arn., H. (Duthie) Chithra, S. malabaricum (Bedd.) parvifl ora Bedd., Ixora notoniana Wall. ex Gamble, Trichosanthes anamalaiensis D. Don, Jasminum malabaricum and more Bedd., T. cucumeriana L., T. nervifolia L., T. species, Lilium neilgherrense, Mucuna tricuspidata Lour. [syn. T. bracteata (Lam.) pruriens var. hirsuta, Myristica malabarica Voigt], T. villosula Cogn., T. wallichiana (van-jayphal), Ochlandra travancorica, (Ser.) Wight., Vigna bournaea Gamble, Piper barberi, P. galeatum, P. hapinum, V. pilosa (Willd.) Benth., V. vexillata (L.) P. schmidtii, P. trichostachyon, P. wighti A.Rich. var. wightii Benth. ex Baker, Vitis Miq., and more species, Polyalthia fragrans pedata Wall., V. repanda W & A. (syn. Cissus (Dalz.) Bedd., Pterospermum reticulatum repanda Vahl.), Zingiber cernuum Dalz., Wt. & Arn., Ranunculus subpinnatus Wt. & Z. neesanum (Grah.) Ramamoorthy (syn. Arn., Rauvolfi a hookeri Srinivasan & Chitra, Z. macrostachyum Dalz.), Z. purpureum Rhododendron arboreum ssp. nilagiricum Roscoe., Z. roseum (Roxb.) Roscoe, Z. (Zenker) Tagg., Syzygium bourdillonii wightianum Thwaites, and Z. zerumbet L. (Gamble) Rathakr & N.C. Nair, S. chavaran Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 325

(Bourd.) Gamble, S. densifl orum Wall. ex Wt. Roem, Madhuca bourdillonii (Gamble) Arn., S. gambleanum Rathakr & Chitra, S. H.J. Lam., M. insignis (Radlk) H.J. Lam., malabaricum, S. mundagam (Bourd.) Chitra, Oryza officinalis ssp. malampuzhaensis, S. palghatense Gamble, S. parameswaranii Phyllanthus talbotii Sedgw., Piper barberi, Mohanan & Henry, S. travancoricum P. hapnium, Rubus fockei Gandhi, Syzygium Gamble, Trichosanthes anamalaienis, Vigna benthamiana (Wight. ex Duthie) Gamble, bourneae Gamble, V. vexillata var. wightii, S. beddomei, S. bourdillonii, S. chavaran, and Zingiber neesanum. Table 1 lists some S. gambleanum, S. occidentalis (Bourd.) economic plant species endemic to the Gandhi, S. palghatense, S. stocksii (Duthie) region. Gamble, S. travancoricum, Trichosanthes anamalaiensis Bedd., Vanda wightii Rchb.f., Threatened species. Natural factors and Vanilla wightiana Lendil. ex Hook.f., and recent development activity has been eroding Zingiber cernuum. Representative economic the biodiversity of the region. Some of the plant species under threat in the region are economically important plant species reported listed in Table 2. to be under threat are: Albizia lathamii Gamble, A. thompsonii Brandis, Amomum microstephanum Baker, Amorphophallus Associated culture and tribes dubius Blume, A. mysorensis, Artocarpus Archaeological studies have identified hirsutus (Mathew et al., 2006), Buchanania many Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Megalithic barberi Gamble, Cajanus lineatus, Calamus sites in the region. The studies suggest a brandisii Becc., Ceropegia barnesii Bruce possible relationship of the region with & Chatterjee, C. beddomei Hook.f., the Indus Valley civilization during the Cinnamomum fi lipedicellatum, C. perrottetii late Bronze Age and early Iron Age. The Meirs, C. riparium, C. travancoricum, Coffea foreign cultural contacts further assisted the crassifolia Gamble, Cordia octandra DC., cultural formation. Therefore, the culture of Crotalaria bourneae Fyson, C. clarkei, C. the region traces its roots to 3rd century CE clavata Wight. & Arn., C. digitata, C. fysonii and earlier. It is a synthesis of Aryan and Dunn. var. fysonii, C. fysonii Dunn. var. Dravidian cultures, developed over centuries glabra Gamble, C. grahamima, Curcuma under infl uences both from within India decipiens, Dioscorea wightii, Diptercarpus and abroad. Agriculture was the dominant bourdillonii Brand., Elaeocarpus recurvatus, activity of the region, is refl ected by the fact E. venustus Bedd., Eugenia argentea, E. that the region had been a prominent spice cotinifolia Jacq. ssp. codyensis (Munro ex exporter from 3000 BCE to 3rd century, Wight) Ashton, E. discifera, E. indica (Wight) which would not have been possible without Chithra, Garcinia trvancorica, G. wightii, identification of the economic potential Hopea erosa (Bedd.) van Slooten, Impatiens of plant species, their domestication, and johnii Barnes, I. macrocarpa Hook.f., development of agricultural practices for Ixora lawsoni Gamble, Jasminum wightii qualitative and quantitative production C.B. Cl., Kingiodendron pinnatum (Roxb. in large quantities for trade/export. The ex DC.) Harms, Luffa umbellata (Kiein) fame of the region as the land of spices 326 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Table 1. Representative economic plant species endemic to the Malabar region, India. Species Family Habit Distribution Use Amorphophallus Araceae Herb Agasthyamalai Genetic resource bonaccordensis hills Amorphophallus Araceae Herb Malabar region Genetic resource commutatus Amorphophallus Araceae Herb Agasthyamalai Genetic resource smithsonianus hills Arenga wightii Arecaceae Tree Malabar region Fermented drink Artocarpus hirsutus Moraceae Tall large tree Malabar region Fruit, wood (threatened) Arundinaria Poaceae Gregarious Anamudi hills Mulipurpose densifl ora bamboo Chlorophytum Agavaceae Herb Southern Western Medicinal malabaricum Ghats Cinnamomum Lauraceae Tree Malabar region Genetic resource macrocarpum Cinnamomum Lauraceae Tree Southern Western Medicinal malabatrum Ghats Cinnamomum Lauraceae Small tree Southern Kerala Genetic resource travancoricum (10–15 m tall) Croton malabaricus Euphorbiaceae Tree Southern Western Medicinal Ghats Curcuma Zingiberaceae Herb Kannur Genetic resource cannanorensis Curcuma malabarica Zingiberaceae Herb Southern Western Medicinal Ghats Cymbopogon martini Poaceae Grass Southern Western Lemon grass var. tofi aq Ghats Diospyros nilagirica Ebenaceae Tree Southern Western Fruit Ghats Diospyros pruriens Ebenaceae Evergreen tree Southern Western Good timber, fruit Ghats Dipterocarpus indicus Dipterocarpaceae Evergreen tree Southern Western Timber, medicinal Ghats Elaeocarpus munronii Elaeocarpaceae Tree Southern Western Edible fruits,wood Ghats continued Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 327

Table 1. continued Species Family Habit Distribution Use Eragrostis unioloides Poaceae Fodder grass Travancore Fodder grass var. tremela Garcinia travancorica Clusiaceae Tree Southern Western Condiment Ghats Hopea glabra Dipterocarpaceae Tree Southern Western Medicinal Ghats Hopea parvifl ora Dipterocarpaceae Evergreen tree Southern Western Medicinal Ghats Ilex malabarica Aquifoliaceae Large tree Southern Western Wood for boxes Ghats Ixora notoniana Rubiaceae Small tree Southern Western Ornamental Ghats Jasminum Oleaceae Straggling Southern Western Ornamental, malabaricum shrub Ghats medicinal Lilium neilgherrense Liliaceae Ornamental Nilgiris to Ornamental plant Travancore Mucuna pruriens var. Fabaceae Climbing Southern Western Genetic resource, hirsuta shrub Ghats medicinal Myristica malabarica Myristiaceae Tall tree Southern Western Medicinal, genetic Ghats resource Piper schmidtii Piperaceae Large climbing Southern Western Genetic resource shrub Ghats Polyalthia fragrans Annonaceae Tree Malabar region Flowers fragrant, wood Pterospermum Sterculiaceae Tree Southern Western Wood, boat making reticulatum Ghats Rhododendron Ericaceae Tree Nilgiri and Idduki Ornamental arboreum ssp. hills nilagiricum Sorghum stapfi i Poaceae Tall herb Kalakad ranges Forage, genetic resource Vateria indica Dipterocarpaceae Tree Southern Western Gum resin, white Ghats dammar Vigna vexillata var. Fabaceae Herb Southern Western Genetic resource wightii Ghats Zingiber neesanum Zingiberaceae Herb Southern Western Genetic resource Ghats 328 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Table 2. Representative economic plant species under threat in the Malabar region, India. Species Family Habit Threat level1 Use Albizia thompsonii2 Fabaceae Tree R Wood Cajanus lineatus Fabaceae Shrub DD Genetic resource for pigeonpea Calamus brandisii Arecaceae Scandent shrub R Construction Cinnamomum Lauraceae Tree R Genetic resource travancoricum Coffea crassifolia Rubiaceae Stiff shrub R Genetic resource of coffee Crotalaria clarkei2 Fabaceae Herb R Genetic resource Crotalaria digitata2 Fabaceae Shrub R Genetic resource Crotalaria grahamima2 Fabaceae Under shrub R Genetic resource Dioscorea wightii Dioscoreaceae Climbing herb R Tubers rich in saponin Elaeocarpus recurvatus2 Elaeocarpaceae Tree VU Endemic, source of wood Eugenia argentea2 Myrtaceae Shrub EN/P.EX Endemic, spice, ornamental Garcinia wightii2 Clusiaceae Tree EN Endemic, fruit Jasminum wightii2 Oleaceae Wiry climber R Endemic, ornamental Madhuca bourdillonii2 Sapotaceae Tree EN Endemic, wood Oryza offi cinalis ssp. Poaceae Tall herb DD Genetic resource, malampuzhaensis forage grass Piper barberi2 Piperaceae Scandent CR Endemic, genetic undershrub resource Piper hapnium Piperaceae Climbing R Endemic, genetic undershrub resource Syzygium bourdillonii2 Myrtaceae Small tree EN Endemic, silvery leaves, spice Syzygium travancoricum2 Myrtaceae Tree CR Ornamental Zingiber cernuum Zingiberaceae Herb DD Genetic resource

1. CR = Critically endangered; EN = Endangered; DD = Data defi cient; R = Rare; VU = Vulnerable; P.EX = Possibly extinct. 2. Listed by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India. attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians, were also successful in establishing their and Egyptians to the region in the 3rd and 2nd prominence. The fi rst powerful state rule millennia BCE. The Arabs and Phoenicians in the region was established with the Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 329

Chera Dynasty. During the Chera period are the most primitive, found only in the the region remained an international spice Malappuram district and are under threat. On trading center. In the last centuries BCE, the the Malabar Coast, fi ve ethnic communities region became famous among the Greeks established from time immemorial are the and Romans for its spices, especially black Nairs or Naimars, the Kurgas or Kudagas, pepper. The Cheras had trading links with the Tulus, the Konkanis and the Kanaras. China, West Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the These people have preserved their language Roman Empire. In the foreign-trade circles, and way of life. The region is predominantly the region was identifi ed by the name Male Hindu, but sizable populations of Muslims or Malabar. Though the name is thought known as Mappilas, as well as of Syrian to be derived from the Malayalam word Christians also live. Mala (hill) and puram (region), derived th or westernized into bar. Later, in the 15 Technology and products century, the lucrative spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to the region, which The excess water caused by excessive rains eventually paved the way for European and regular action of sea waves and shore colonization. Recognizing the importance currents in the coastal areas, including areas of the knowledge the local communities below sea level have been harmoniously had about the value of plants documented managed by the local populations with in Malayalam, a comprehensive treatise ingenuity, creating a network of backwaters. dealing with properties of the fl ora of the The backwaters are a chain of brackish region was translated into Portuguese lagoons connected by natural and artifi cial and Latin over a period of 30 years and canals. They represent a unique ecosystem, published from Amsterdam as the ‘Hortus where freshwater from the rivers meets the Malabaricus’ (1678–1693). seawater from the Arabian Sea. In certain areas, such as the Vembanad Kayal, a Most tribals of the region live in the forests barrage has been built (Kumarakom) to and mountains. Kerala only has around 32 restrict the entry of salt water from the named tribes. Most primitive tribes are still sea to deep inside mainland, keeping food gatherers and honey and firewood the freshwater intact. Such freshwater is collectors from the forest (Malakkuravans, extensively used for irrigation of crops. Malayans, Mannan), but are now involved in farming. The main tribes associated with the region are Adiyan (agricultural workers), Archaeological studies have identifi ed Aranadan (nomadic), Hill Pulaya, Irulan, many Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Kanikar, Kuruman, Malai Pandaram, Megalithic sites in the region. The Paniyan, Ulladar, Jenu Kuruba, Kani studies suggest a possible relationship (herbal medicine), Koraga, Cholanaickans, of the region with the Indus Valley Kadar, Kurumbas, and Kattunaickans. The civilization during the late Bronze Age last fi ve tribes represent 5% of the total and early Iron Age. tribal population, of which Cholanaickans 330 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

The backwater channels have been used for (near Kadalundi) were known from ancient transport, and a large amount of local trade times for the Indian trade through ocean, in the region is carried by inland navigation. while others such as Kozhikode (Calicut), Fishing, fi sh curing, and wet agriculture Cochin, and Kannur (Cannanore) from the are the other important activities that have medieval period serving as trade centers. been performed by the local people in the Many are still functional. These port cities backwaters from centuries. Encouraged were very cosmopolitan and have played with this unique traditional agroecosystem, an important role in cultural diversifi cation, agricultural efforts have been strengthened by hosting some of the first groups of in recent times with the reclamation of more Christians (known as Syrian Christians/ lands for rice cultivation, particularly in the Malabar Nasrani), Jews (known as Cochin Kuttanad area. Further, reconciling with Jews), and Muslims (known as Mappilas). such a landscape, the local communities Also, they hosted the introduction and also developed boat making and the coir adaptation of exotic crop species such as industry and other traditional crafts in the coffee (from Yemen, by the Arabs), tea (from backwaters for livelihood support. China), cassava, pineapple, papaya, sapota, tobacco, chili, potatoes and many others (by The local people have great respect for Mother the Portuguese), cocoa, rubber (from Brazil) Earth and plants, which has facilitated the and even tree spices such as nutmeg, clove, conservation of rich biodiversity in sacred and allspice (Pimenta dioica) during the 18th groves called Kavu or Serpa Kavu. In these century (by the British and Dutch) from sacred groves, sacred plants and serpents Moluccas, enriching the agrobiodiversity are worshipped as per Hindu rituals. During of the region and the country, in addition ancient times, households usually set aside to the crops from northern India and locally the southwest corner of their land for sacred domesticated during ancient period in the groves, which were dedicated to plants and region, such as black pepper, cinnamon, snakes. However, at present, most sacred cardamom, etc. Consequently, the Malabar groves are on the decline along with their region came to be known throughout the precious biodiversity. Under the same ethos, world as the land of spices with a reputation the farmlands were identified with the for quality black pepper, cardamom, ginger, Mother Goddess, and just as women need cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, and other spices. rest after delivery, the farmlands were left It also led to the dispersal of Indian crops fallow to give them rest after the harvest, such as pepper and jackfruit taken by the with all tilling prohibited during this period Portuguese to all tropical regions of the (closed season). Being the part of west world, enriching global agrobiodiversity. coast of the Indian peninsula, where local communities had orientation for maritime Agriculture is very old in the region and commerce, the Malabar Coast also evolved several tribal communities still practice a number of historic port cities over time in primitive slash-and-burn cultivation continuation of the Konkan. Several ports (Kumari cultivation) in the hilly areas such as the Muziris, Beypore, and Thundi of Kerala (Suresh, 2010). Jhum, slash Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 331 and burn cultivation called ‘punamvalal’ or punam is now extinct/banned by the The local people have great respect forest department. While the other oldest for Mother Earth and plants, which and the most enduring form of cultivation has facilitated the conservation of rich in smallholdings adjacent to human biodiversity in sacred groves called settlements, referred as ‘home gardens’ has Kavu or Serpa Kavu. become more prevalent with rich indigenous knowledge about crop characteristics. Otherwise, the region has mainly evolved Parumbu, cereals such as shamay (Panicum and practiced wet and tropical agriculture miliare), pyro-legume (grain legume), on farm and in home gardens. Rice, turmeric, and ginger were grown. Upland being the staple food, was traditionally or hill-paddy (Modun) was cultivated on cultivated both on lowland (Ubayum) and land previously plowed at least three to uplands (Plaealil). Additionally, the local four times. Such a crop was sown in July/ communities had developed cropping August. Sesame followed immediately systems both for rice and other crops after harvest of rice. Rice cultivars suited suited to the topography, availability of as second crops in the region were Maliga water, and edaphic conditions. According or Shiriga, Sambau, Shittany, Bally shittany, to Buchanan’s (1807) descriptions, during and Noman (Buchanan, 1807). The second the 18th and 19th centuries, Malabar farmers crop of rice was always transplanted. preferred transplanted paddy in Ubayum The crop rotations followed in the region lands. On Plaealil lands sprouted seeds depended on the fertility of soils. On hilly were directly sown. Farmers grew several or poor soils, shamay–slindu (black gram) genotypes such as Navara, a short-duration was adopted in a three-year rotation, while medicinal variety maturing in 90 days. Most in a two-year rotation, sesame–shamay or other rice cultigens, such as Watun, Calli, sesame–pulses were common crops. Caruma, Ari modun, Cheru Modan, and Ari Caruma matured within four months. Responding to the undulating landscape, The Ubayum land may have perpetual high rainfall and hot and humid tropical standing water hence it was used only conditions, plantation crops were more for one cropping season. In hilly tracts or frequent in the region. For maximum exploitation of land, most plantations followed multistoried cropping. The coconut Most tribals of the region live in the and betel nut plantations allowed understory forests and mountains. Kerala only has cropping. Commonly suited understory crops around 32 named tribes. Most primitive were shamay (Panicum miliare), sesame, tribes are still food gatherers and honey and legumes such as Vigna species. Spices and fi rewood collectors from the forest such as pepper (Piper nigrum) thrived well (Malakkuravans, Malayans, Mannan), on lateritic soils. In the Travancore region, but are now involved in farming. Parumba (hilly) lands were used for raising fruit trees, such as coconut, jackfruit, and 332 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites mango, and also to produce hill rice, shamay, prawn farming. One rice crop followed by and sesame (Buchanan, 1807). shrimp/prawn capture provides a substantial subsidiary income to the farmer (Jayan and Evolution of innovative farming has Sathyanathan, 2010). This system is also continued in the region (Fig. 3). In the widely practiced in Thrissur and Ernakulam Kuttanad area of the Alappuzha district districts. In the Kannur district of North of South Kerala, the sea ingress increases Kerala, a similar system called ‘kaipad’ the soil salinity, as the area is below the is practiced with the rich biodiversity sea level. However, the local communities of fl ora and fauna, organically rich soil, have interacted harmoniously with this set mangroves, and migratory birds (Fig. of landscape/physical conditions, selecting 5b). It differs from pokkali in the way it and cultivating salinity-tolerant varieties, is carried out, which is purely natural way below sea level (about 4 to 10 feet). As four relying on the monsoon and the sea tides. major rivers, namely Pampa, Meenachil, Besides, it has its own salinity-tolerant Achankovil, and Manimala also fl ow into landraces of rice and high-yielding rice the region, this area is intensively cultivated varieties (Vanaja, 2013). Kaipad is also and is known as the rice bowl of Kerala. Vast practiced in Kasaragod and Kozhikode. stretches of verdant paddy fi elds interlaced These two systems are testimony to the local with enchanting backwaters create some community’s ingenuity in harnessing the unforgettable sights. Cultivation and natural events for farming in an ecofriendly harvesting is done in this area two or even manner. three times in a year. The practice of rice cultivation in waterlogged areas of southern The variation in resource endowments, coastal Kerala (Alappuzha) is called topography, soil, abiotic factors, and ‘pokkali’. It is a unique cultivation system season, and natural and artifi cial selection of salinity-tolerant rice varieties, cultivated pressures operating in various areas, under in an organic way in the waterlogged different agroclimatic conditions, over coastal regions (Fig. 5a). It has been further long periods of time have resulted in the strengthened with integrated rice–shrimp/ evolution of a large number of farmers’

a b Figure 5. Rice cultivation: (a) Pokkali system in South Kerala (Source: The Hindu, KK Mustafah); and (b) Kaipad system in North Kerala (Source: The Hindu, October 2009). Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 333 varieties/landraces suited to each area with maturity (115 to 130 days) in Aswathi, specifi c traits like resistance to biotic and Athira, Aiswarya, Ramya, Kanakam, etc.; abiotic stresses, ability to survive extreme and long maturity (130 days) in Lakshmi, climatic and agro-edaphic situations, and Dhanya, Nila, Rasmi, etc.; with genes with quality attributes such as medicinal conferring resistance to abiotic and biotic value, aroma, and grain characteristics stresses, such as Pokkali and Kaipad suited to special uses, generating a reservoir varieties (Orissa, Cheruchitteni, Orpandy, of genes that are used and can be used in Odiyan, Kuthiru, Orkayama, Mahsuri, development of superior varieties. Leena Mundon, Kundorkutty, and Punchakayama Kumari (2012) presumed that around 2000 from North Kerala); with salinity tolerance genetically diverse traditional rice varieties Ptb21 from Thrissur and Veluthachira with are grown in the Kerala area of the region. gall midge resistance; Ptb 33, a traditional Latha et al. (2013) listed landraces of rice cultivar with gene bph3 conferring a high from the Kerala area and have argued that level of resistance, from Pattambi against the humid tropical coastal and midlands the brown plant hopper populations found of Kerala in the Southern Western Ghats in many Asian countries (Seshu and can be considered as one of the secondary Kaufmann, 1980) and scented varieties such centers of diversity for rice with 7 wild as Jeerakasala and Gandhakasala. This relatives and 623 named landraces. The genetic diversity of landraces/traditional range of characters identified in these varieties has been used in the development landraces/varieties are: crop duration, plant of new varieties, for example the variety height, tillering, pigmentation of various ‘Sagara’ is a pure line selection from plant parts, panicle characters, and grain the traditional variety Orumundakan, characteristics and straw production. There released for cultivation in the saline areas are photo-insensitive and photosensitive of Karthikappally taluk of Kerala. Pattambri varieties, maturing between 60 and 260 varieties have been developed using local days. Grain characterstics offer tremendous varieties such as Aryan, Pannaryan, Vellari, variation for: grain color, shape, size, aroma, Tharalakannan (frog-eyed), Thekkancheera, puffi ng, popping, fl attening, cooking and Thekkanchitteni, Vadakkanchitteni, Thekkan, eating qualities. Grain color itself varies Cheriyaryan, Kodiyan, Kattamodan, etc. from straw to gold to brown tinges, to (Tiwari, 2006). complete brown and black. The grain size varies from round to short bold, to long bold The region is also known for varieties with to long slender. Local farmers prefer long medicinal properties, such as Njavara, bold red-kernelled grains. Chennellu, Kunjinellu, Erumakkari, Karuthachembavu, and Kavunginpoothala Selection among landraces/varieties has (Leena Kumary, 2004). Njavara, is known resulted in the identifi cation of genotypes as ‘Shashtika’ (“60”) in Sanskrit, due to with desired traits such as early maturity its extra-short-duration (60–70 days). Two (115 days or less) in Hraswa, Annapoornna, types of Njavara have been recorded, Triveni, Rohini, Jyothi, Kairali, etc.; medium the white-glumed and the black-glumed. 334 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

flood-tolerant varieties; Chettiviruppu, The practice of rice cultivation in Chovvaryan among salt-tolerant varieties; waterlogged areas of southern coastal Thekkenthouvan, Vella thouvan, Veliyan Kerala (Alappuzha) is called ‘pokkali’. among drought-tolerant varieties; and It is a unique cultivation system Chennellu, Njavara, Vattan among medicinal of salinity-tolerant rice varieties, rice varieties. cultivated in an organic way in the waterlogged coastal regions. The production of crops adjacent to human settlements in homestead farming systems or home gardens is one of the oldest forms Njavara rice is used in Ayurvedic treatment of cultivation practiced from ancient for paralytic conditions and muscle wasting. times, because of tropical conditions and It increases the growth of muscles and dominance of horticultural crops. It has stimulates the nerve endings. Chennellu shown renewed interest responding to and Kunjinellu are varieties indigenous to shrinking landholdings and to help farmers North Kerala. One type of Chennellu has meet their livelihood requirement in a bright red grains, grown as an upland variety subsistence manner. Home garden systems in parts of Kannur district and is used in have evolved rationally, and the components the treatment of diarrhea and vomiting. of the system are based on the physical Erumakkari and Karuthachembavu are climate and the requirements. Coconut- the traditional rice varieties indigenous to based home gardens are most common South Kerala. Karuthachambavu has black (Fig. 2), intercropped with a range of crops, grains. Erumakkari is used in the treatment cultivated in a multistoried cropping system, of cough. Annoori, a wild species of rice, similar to tropical rainforests to facilitate is used by the Kani tribes for treatment of the maximum and effective land use smallpox. Kavunginpoothala is indigenous without restricting the interception of light to the Palakkad district, and is given to energy. Under these systems, the structural diabetic patients to reduce discomfort diversity created with four layers of canopy (Leena Kumary, 2004). in multiple-cropping of crops of various heights is an intentional strategy to achieve The MS Swaminathan Research Foundation higher effi ciency of resource use, while (MSSRF) has identified the Wayanad the functional diversity of the components district in the northeast of Kerala as an helps in meeting the diverse demands from important agrobiodiversity hotspot for rice, food to fodder to fuel to fertilizers (organic) pepper, and tuber crops. It has high genetic to medicinal requirements, etc. The home diversity in rice with about 600 landraces. gardens may often be combined with The MSSRF has identifi ed the following livestock rearing, where the components rice varieties for conservation: Anakkodan, interact in a synergistic manner. This may Gandhakasala, Jeeragasala, Kundipullu, help improve the nutritional security of Mullanchanna among scented varieties; household members and augment farm Kotta nellu, Kuttadon, Oormundakan among income. The crop residues and fodder Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 335 provide animal feed and manure, while Karnataka portion is characterized with livestock litter provides a renewable source areca gardens intercropped with coffee, of organic matter and plant nutrients. banana, vanilla, pepper, cocoa, etc. Thereby, these systems reduce the outside dependence of farmers for resources, and The physical and biological diversity of help conserve soil fertility through organic the home gardens has generated signifi cant recycling. genetic diversity in a range of fi eld crops, such as pulses, oilseeds, and horticultural As the home gardens of the region are crops. In pigeonpea, a high-performing self-contained and are need-oriented ratoonable landrace, PR5193, selected systems, they are predominantly organic from the fi elds of ethnic communities of and depend on biological control for pests Attapadi, has been released directly as a and diseases with the use of botanicals such variety for use in livestock systems. In as tobacco decoction, neem extracts, etc. sesame, the variety Kayamkulam-1 has The use of multiple species in these systems been selected from a local landrace from exhibits considerable bio-resource diversity, Onathukara local. In addition, the wild basically designed to meet the food, fodder, relatives available in the region, for example fuel, organic mulch, timber, and medicinal in sesame, i.e., Sesamum laciniatum and S. requirements of the households and to mulayanum, have contributed resistance generate cash (Fig. 4). Besides, it helps to phyllody and powdery mildew to the in the conservation and sustainable use of cultivated crop species Sesamum indicum resources. Most species grown under these (Mehetre et al., 1993). systems have multiple uses, starting from food to food-fl avoring to home remedies In horticultural crops, cultivation under for various ailments. This has made these the diverse agroecosystem of homestead systems environment-friendly, sustainable, gardens has generated rich genetic diversity and effi cient. The integration of livestock in many crops. Among vegetables, in has also been designed with cropping Cucurbita moschata, the variety Ambili has strategy focusing on meeting the fodder/ been developed from Kerala local. In okra, feed requirement, either through cultivation cultivated Abelmoschus caillei introduced of fodder crops like grasses, or crops from West Africa has adapted well to producing nutrient residue, as a basal crop. backyard cultivation and is naturalized These systems basically evolved to support with signifi cant diversity. Some collections the subsistence farming, and are being of A. caillei segregated into cultivated A. further strengthened with the introduction caillei types, and also types resembling A. of cash crops such as rubber, coffee, and manihot var. tetraphyllus (Velayudhan et vanilla or income-generating components al., 2007). The wild Abelmoschus angulosus (Fig. 4) such as apiculture, sericulture, is an additional genetic resource for use in or mushroom cultivation in addition to crop improvement. The genetic diversity livestock, which includes cows, buffaloes, in Solanum and cucurbitaceous vegetables goats, pigs, and poultry. The southern and Vigna species is also represented by a 336 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites number of indigenous and endemic wild Malabar type, PV1 from Walayar collection, species. ICR11 from Chakkupalam collection, ICR13 from Malabar type, and ICR14 Among fruits, in banana, the region offers from the Vadagaraparai area. In pepper great diversity in fruit traits and quality. The (Piper nigrum), cultivars and a number of clonal variation itself ranges from red, green wild indigenous/endemic species present to yellow. The region is known for different significant genetic variability. Several cultivars, from red-skinned Kappa, large cultivars have been developed through yellow-skinned Nendraka to small yellow- clonal selection from local types, such as skinned Kadali, Rasakadali, Poovan, Matti, Panniyur 4 from Kuthiravally, Sreetara from Palayamkodan, and green-skinned Padatti Karimunda, Panchami from Aimiriyam, and Morris. The region is also known Pournami from Ottaplackal, PLD 2 from for traditional varieties of mango such as Kottanadan and Panniyur 6 from Karimunda. Mundappa, Olour, and Pairi. In jackfruit, In ginger, signifi cant variability is presented Varikka, Koozha, and Navarikka are three with a large number of wild Zingiber classified types, based on fruit quality. indigenous/endemic species, and products Varikka, with slightly hard inner flesh like Kuruppampady and IISR Varada have when ripe, is preferred by people. Some been derived through clonal selection from common jackfruit varieties are Thamara Kerala local. In turmeric (Curcuma longa), Chakka, Moovandan, Padavalam Varikka, signifi cant variability exists for yield, quality Vakathanam Varikka, Muttom Varikka, Then attributes, and dry recovery. There are well- Varikka, Athimadhuram Koozha, Rudrakshi, known cultivars such as Alleppey, which Ceylon Varikka, and Thenga Chakka. is considered high-yielding with quality The Coorg (Kodagu) mandarin (Citrus rhizome. Suguna Sobha is a clonal selection reticulata) from the Karnataka region is a from a local germplasm (Ravindran et popular cultivar. In Garcinia, Syzygium, and al., 2005). Velayudhan et al. (2012) have Diospyros, in addition to genetic diversity considered the region as one of the hotspots of cultivated species, several indigenous for the genus Curcuma with about eight and/or endemic species present diversity tuber-bearing, one stolon-bearing, and 16 for various fruit traits. The fruit extract of non-tuberous species. Myristica fragrans, Garcinia indica has become a popular drink the nutmeg introduced from Indonesia from the region called kokum. has naturalized to the region, and presents variability due to its dioecious nature and The region is the primary center of origin sexual propagation, for characters such as and diversity for cardamom and black fruit size, shape, mace, and seed volume pepper with local cultivars presenting (Krishnamoorthy et al., 1997). Additionally, maximum variability. Cardamom (Elettaria a large number of Cinnamomum species are cardamomum) has three distinct types: endemic and therefore the Malabar region Malabar, Mysore, and Vazhukka types. A is considered the center of origin or one number of cultivars have been developed, of the centers of diversity. Cinnamon leaf such as Mudigere-1 by clonal selection from oil naturally contains eugenol and the bark Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 337 oil cinnamaldehyde, giving cinnamon its Apart from the wealth of indigenous fl avor and odor. Varieties like Navasree, knowledge regarding natural resource a seedlings selection from Sri Lankan management and sustainable cultivation collections, and Nithyasree from the Indian practices that evolved over time, the region collection have been produced. Malabar is also known for knowledge about the tamarind, Garcinia gummi-gutta also has medicinal properties of plants. More than considerable variability. 1000 plants with medicinal value have been reported from the mountains of the The region is rich in diversity for several Southern Western Ghats. The availability minor tuber crops such as arrowroot or koova of these medicinal plants and their use in (Maranta arundinacea), Chinese potato the traditional medicine system of Ayurveda (Solenostemon rotundifolius), Queensland in unique therapies has made the region a arrowroot (Canna edulis), winged bean famous destination for medical tourism. (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus), and The ‘Hortus Malabaricus’ (The Garden yam bean (Pachyrrhizus erosus), which of Malabar) (1678–1693) documents the are used as alternative food crops in the medicinal properties of the plant wealth Kerala area. In these species, products Sree from the region in Latin (Manilal, 2003). Dhara and Nidhi in Chinese potato were As per the demand of environmental developed through clonal selection, and and soil conditions, the farmers of the CP58 and Rajendra Mishrikand-1 in yam region consistently used small hand-held bean with resistance to insect pests and implements such as padana caicota or diseases, through seedling selection in local haray of different shapes. A pick-axe known collection (Edison et al., 2005). In yams, as Malagi was used to dig channels around the indigenous and endemic Dioscorea cropping areas. species presents important genetic diversity. The region is also known for evolving and The region is also known for variability conserving animal breeds (genetic resources) and quality in commercial crops such as with reputable high prolifi cacy, milk yield, coconut, coffee, cashewnut, tapioca, and excellent growth rate, and adaptability to the rubber. Consequent to the association of hot humid conditions. Cattle breeds of the such unique diversity with the region, region are small in size. The Vechur cow, several agricultural products are protected the pride of Kerala, derives its name from under India’s Geographical Indications of the village Vechur, a small place by the Goods Act, such as the Monsooned Malabar side of the Vembanadu Lake near Vaikom coffee derived from exposure to the monsoon in Kottayam district. Once thought extinct winds of the Malabar coast, Malabar due to extensive crossbreeding, it has been pepper, Vazhakulam Pineapple, Alleppey saved by the recent efforts on multiplication green cardamom, Palakkadan Matta rice, and its recognition as a distinct smallest Pokkali rice, Wayaanad gandhakasala breed of the world. The other popular rice, and Wayaanad jeerakasala rice (Elsy, breed is Kasargode Dwarf cattle from 2012). the Kasaragod district. In buffaloes, the 338 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

Kuttanad buffaloes are the most extensively used breed for plowing the marshy and deep The region is the primary center of paddy fi elds of Kuttanad. In the case of origin and diversity for cardamom goats, the production had mainly centered and black pepper with local cultivars on the native Malabari/Tellichery breed, presenting maximum variability. which evolved by crossing Jamnapari, Surti, and Arab goats with local goats (Kaura, 1952). The other breed known as of which 57 species are of fish, six of Attapadi Black is hardy in nature, disease- shrimp, one of prawn, fi ve of crabs, and resistant with an excellent growth rate. six of bivalves. Twenty-eight species Angamali pigs are native pigs of Kerala, identified are commercially important. smaller in size, pot-bellied, hairy and black Some species of sardine and anchovies, in color with long face and short ears. Two mullets, catfishes, perches, pearl spot, morphologically distinct groups exist, one prawns, oysters, mussels, crabs, and clams with a short snout and dished back, and are the most common. The freshwaters are the other, hairy with a long snout and non- known for richness in fi sh species with dished back. Similarly, in poultry, the native around 210 primary fi shes (carps, cichlids, chicken breeds developed and conserved by etc.), of which 53 species are endemic. the local communities offer variability of The majority of these fishes also have white, black, red, gold-brown, and mixed ornamental value. The cultivable food fi shes color with good brooders and mothers, native to Kerala include Thooli (Labeo while Kuttanad ducks are represented by dussumieri), Kooral (Gonoproktopus Chara and Chamballi breeds. curmuca), Manjakoori (Horabagrus brachysoma), Kuyil (Tor khudree), Katti The region is abundantly rich in marine, (Tor mussallah), Pulivaka (Channa brackish water (including pokkali and micropeltes), Musi (Clarius batrachus), prawn fi ltration fi elds and private shrimp Manalvaka (Channa leucopunctatus), farms) and freshwater aquatic biodiversity, Brahmanakandi (Lepidopygopsis typus), occupying the foremost positions. These Wynad Musi (Silurius wynadensis), water bodies are inhabited by a wide variety etc. Several endemic fishes such as of aquatic fauna and fl ora. These resources Mastacembalus armatus, Horabagrus have brought people belonging to different brachysoma, Mesonoemacheilus guntheri, ethnic groups in contact with fi shing, and M. monilis, Tetradon travancoricus, therefore fi shery is still a largely people- Puntius enisonii, P. aurilius, P. jerdoni, centered activity. Cooperative organization Barilius bakeri, Tor khudree, T. mussallah, for fi shermen was undertaken in the region etc. have high ornamental value. Recently, as early as 1917. Under marine waters, a large number of new fi sh species have the major resources are of shrimps, cuttle been reported, such as Garra periyarensis, fish, sardines, mackerels, anchovies, G. surendranathani, Mesonemacheilus soles, sharks, rays, etc. In brackish waters, menoni, M. periyarensis, Travancoria fi sheries resources consists of 75 species elongata, Salarius reticulates, and Puntius Asian Agri-History Vol. 18, No. 4, 2014 339 muvattupuzhaensis. In addition, from cold water commercially important fi shes The freshwaters are known for richness include Salmo sp., Tor sp., Schizothorax in fi sh species with around 210 primary sp., Acrossochelius sp., Puntius sp., etc. fi shes (carps, cichlids, etc.), of which 53 However, these resources are on the species are endemic. decline, and need attention for conservation to facilitate sustainable use. There is much scope for modernization and diversifi cation based and strengthened with diversifi cation of the existing facilities. The rare and and infrastructure support for improved ornamental fi shes offer new opportunities, productivity and restricting wastage. because of the high demand in the domestic and foreign markets (Harikumar and The region was known for organic food; Rajendran, 2007). however, there is perceptible decrease in the production of organic manure and farming, increasing dependence on costly Future perspective and ecologically damaging chemical The excessive leaching due to high rainfall fertilizers. Therefore, traditional practices along the steep landscape is leading to the need to be reinvented in conjunction with depletion of top soil and plant nutrients. modern technologies. Similarly, the region is losing the tree cover which binds the steep slopes resulting in Waterlogging and sea intrusion along the frequent landslides. These and development backwaters is still a problem needing regular factors are causing a decline of biodiversity attention for effective management of water. in general, and that of local diversity of The rich aquatic resources, particularly important fruits like jackfruit, mango, etc., ornamental fi shes, offer new opportunities and those of multipurpose tree species to improve the economy of the region. such as anjili (Artocarpus hirsutus), used for timber, punna (Calophyllum Acknowledgment inophyllum), source of biofuel, etc., in The author is thankful to Dr K Joseph John, particular, demanding conservation. Principal Scientist, NBPGR Regional Station, Traditional homestead gardens, which are a Kerala Agricultural University, Thrissur for major source of household requirements and perusing the manuscript, providing valuable spices/cash crops for income, need research comments, and sharing information. attention for the appropriate mix of fruit trees and food crops which are ecologically References and economically more sustainable and Buchanan F. 1807. Journey from Madras can also be used on slopes and along through the countries of Mysore, Canara and with paddy in the valleys to restrict soil Malabar. Vol. III. W. Blumer and Company, erosion and keep them dynamic. These Cleveland Row, St James, London, UK. systems need to be made agri-business- 440 pp. 340 Agricultural biodiversity heritage sites

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