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Anxiety Disorders ANXIETY DISORDERS Edited by Vladimir V. Kalinin Anxiety Disorders Edited by Vladimir V. Kalinin Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Davor Vidic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright Jessica Bethke, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published July, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from [email protected] Anxiety Disorders, Edited by Vladimir V. Kalinin p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-592-1 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Chapter 1 A Probable Etiology and Pathomechanism of Arousal and Anxiety on Cellular Level - Is It the Key for Recovering from Exaggerated Anxiety? 1 András Sikter and Roberto De Guevara Chapter 2 Relationship Between Oxidative Stress and Anxiety: Emerging Role of Antioxidants Within Therapeutic or Preventive Approaches 27 Jaouad Bouayed Chapter 3 Pharmacology of 5-HT2 Modulation of Amygdala & Hypothalamus in Anxiety Disorders 39 Xiaolong Jiang, Aiqin Chen, Stanley Smerin, Lei Zhang and He Li Chapter 4 Adenosine Signaling in Anxiety 51 Christina L. Ruby, Chelsea A. Adams, David A. Mrazek and Doo-Sup Choi Chapter 5 PTSD and Current Translational Research 69 Lei Zhang, Xian-Zhang Hu, Xiaoxia Li, He Li and Robert Ursano Chapter 6 Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors in Peripheral Tissues: Implications for Toxicology 97 Daniela Durand, Lila Carniglia, Carla Caruso and Mercedes Lasaga Chapter 7 The Carioca High and Low Conditioned Freezing Lines: A New Animal Model of Generalized Anxiety Disorder 121 Vitor de Castro Gomes, Carlos Eduardo Barroso Silva and J. Landeira-Fernandez VI Contents Chapter 8 The Loss of Glutamate-GABA Harmony in Anxiety Disorders 135 Joanna M Wierońska, K. Stachowicz, G. Nowak and A. Pilc Chapter 9 Role of the Endocannabinoid System in Anxiety and Stress-Related Disorders 159 Irit Akirav Chapter 10 New Anxiolytic Phytopharmaceutical Elaborated with the Standardized Extract of Galphimia glauca 185 Jaime Tortoriello, Armando Herrera-Arellano, Maribel Lucila Herrera-Ruiz, Alejandro Zamilpa, Manases González-Cortazar and Jesús Enrique Jiménez-Ferrer Chapter 11 Psychophysiological Markers of Anxiety Disorders and Anxiety Symptoms 203 Seung-Hwan Lee and Gewn-Hi Park Chapter 12 Comorbidity of Anxiety and Affective Disorders as Neuropsychiatric and Evolutionary Problem (A New Concept) 227 Vladimir V. Kalinin Chapter 13 Pharmacological Resistance of Stress Enhanced Fear Learning in an Animal Model of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder 239 Virginia Long, Wendy Fujioka, Dorsa Amir and Michael Fanselow Chapter 14 Anxiety Disorders in Dogs 261 Miguel Ibáñez Talegón and Bernadette Anzola Delgado Chapter 15 MicroRNA-Mediated Regulation and the Genetic Susceptibility to Anxiety Disorders 281 Yolanda Espinosa-Parrilla and Margarita Muiños-Gimeno Chapter 16 Neurosteroid Biosynthesis Upregulation: A Novel Promising Therapy for Anxiety Disorders and PTSD 307 Graziano Pinna Preface Anxiety, without a doubt, seems to belong to the most universal and ancient psychiatric phenomenon which has protective functions not only in Homo sapiens, but in other species of mammals too. Sir Aubrey Lewis, one of the outstanding psychiatrists of twentieth century in his excellent work “Problems presented by the ambiguous word “anxiety” as used in psychopathology” (1967) has stressed the dual meaning of the term “anxiety” based on the etymology of this word. According to A. Lewis, the term “anxiety” implies not only the psychological phenomenon which signifies a state of apprehension, uncertainty, and fear resulting from the anticipation of a realistic or fantasized threatening event or situation, but also a combination of somatic and vegetative symptoms. The somatic or physical symptoms of anxiety are multifarious and include increased heart palpitation, headaches, dizziness or lightheadedness, nausea and/or vomiting, diarrhea, tingling, pale complexion, sweating, numbness, difficulty in breathing, and sensations of tightness in the chest, neck, shoulders, or hands. These symptoms are produced by the hormonal, muscular, and cardiovascular reactions involved in the fight-or-flight reaction. According to another point of view, anxiety is considered as “a future-oriented mood state in which one is ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events”, suggesting that it is a distinction between future vs. present dangers that divides anxiety and fear. Anxiety is thought to be a normal reaction to stress. It may help a person to deal with a difficult situation, for example at work or at school, by prompting one to cope with it. But when anxiety becomes excessive, it may fall under the classification of an anxiety disorder and in such a case a concern of psychiatrists is required. During the last 2-3 decades drastic research progress in anxiety issues has been achieved. It concerns mostly the study of different subtypes of anxiety and their treatment. Nevertheless, the data on anxiety pathogenesis is less elaborated, although here a multidimensional approach exists. It includes neurochemistry, pathophysiology, endocrinology and psychopharmacology. Again, we are able to recognize the multifarious sense of anxiety, and the present collective monograph X Preface composed of 16 separate chapters depicts the different aspects of anxiety. A great part of book includes chapters on neurochemistry, physiology and pharmacology of anxiety. The novel data on psychopathology and clinical signs of anxiety and its relationship with other psychopathological phenomena is also presented. The current monograph may represent an interest and be of practical use not only for clinicians but for a broad range of specialists, including biochemists, physiologists, pharmacologists and specialists in veterinary. Professor Vladimir V. Kalinin, Department of brain organic disorders and epilepsy of Moscow Research Institute of Psychiatry of Ministry of Health and Social Development, Russian Federation 1 A Probable Etiology and Pathomechanism of Arousal and Anxiety on Cellular Level - Is It the Key for Recovering from Exaggerated Anxiety? András Sikter1 and Roberto De Guevara2 1Municipal Clinic of Szentendre, Internal Medicine 2Breathing trainer, Colorado Springs 1Hungary 2United States of America 1. Introduction How can stress of life evoke anxiety through the rather simple second messenger system? What is the main difference between acute stress response of humans and wild animals? What are the role of catecholamines and the alterations of carbon dioxide levels in anxiety disorder? How is it possible, that the same kind of stress causes very different symptoms and disorders in different people? How does the Path of Least Resistance work, and what is its importance? Do diseases of any etiology have a common pathogenetic root as a manifestation of the Second Law of Thermodynamics? What is the difference between functional and organic brain disorders at the cellular level? What is the pathomechanism of arousal and anxiety on cellular level? How does personality and behaviour affect one`s exposure to diseases? These are not easy questions, and we don’t expect to find perfectly accurate answers to all of them. Especially not as we consider, that several decades were not enough to resolve the debate whether hypocapnia would cause anxiety, anxiety would evoke hypocapnia, or they would be mutually correlated making both statements true (Meuret et al., 2005). Although there is a huge amount of controversial data available that cause uncertainty, the authors try to answer these questions. The BASIC idea of Sick Cell Syndrome is connected to Elkinton (1956). A modified universal disease model of Sick Cell Syndrome was constructed by author Sikter (published in 2007, Hungarian). The model is based on the Second Law of Thermodynamics. It is theoretical and practical as well. Adapting it properly may be a key for treating anxiety disorder up to “restitutio ad integrum”. Since Kerr et al`s 1937 publication (as cited in Lum, 1981) there has been a long lasting dispute those who believe anxiety is caused by the lack of carbon dioxide, and those who insist that anxiety induces hypocapnia. Lum wrote the following in an editorial: “Although Kerr et al. (1937) had pointed out that the clinical manifestations of anxiety state were produced by hyperventilation, it was Rice (1950) who turned this concept upside down
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