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The Socio-Cultural Adaptation of Somali Refugees in Toronto : an Exploration of Their Integration Experiences

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The Socio-Cultural Adaptation of Somali Refugees in Toronto : an Exploration of Their Integration Experiences University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 1-1-2001 The socio-cultural adaptation of Somali refugees in Toronto : an exploration of their integration experiences. Hassan A. Mohamed University of Massachusetts Amherst Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1 Recommended Citation Mohamed, Hassan A., "The socio-cultural adaptation of Somali refugees in Toronto : an exploration of their integration experiences." (2001). Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014. 2339. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations_1/2339 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations 1896 - February 2014 by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. THE SOCIO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF SOMALI REFUGEES IN TORONTO: AN EXPLORATION OF THEIR INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES A Dissertation Presented by HASSAN A. MOHAMED Submitted to the Graduate school of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION September 2001 School of Education © Copyright by Hassan A. Mohamed 2001 All Rights Reserved THE SOCIO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF SOMATI REFUGEES IN TORONTO: AN EXPLANATION OF THEIR INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES A Dissertation Presented by HASSAN A. MOHAMED Approved as to style and content by: id Evans, Chair DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my mother, Hawa Haji Hassan, who passed away in 1996. She was a refugee for most of her life. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the many Somali refugee participants in this study who so openly and willingly shared their experiences and perceptions. Though space and consideration for their anonymity do not permit me to mention all by name, I am forever indebted for their energy, enthusiasm, and patience with my constant demands for piece of their time and cooperation. I learned from them the true meaning of living in a cross-cultural milieu. Their trials and tribulations as refugees have shed light on my own experiences as a student in United States and as a stateless person. My association with them has rejuvenated my spirits, cultural identity, and pride. I would like to express my eternal gratitude to Gail von Hahmann for her invaluable assistance and encouragement to embark on this academic journey and for her caring and love as family friend. My sincere gratitude goes to my wife, Alawia, and our three sons, Warsame, Abdirahman, and Abdirashid, for their patience, love, and understanding. I wish I could thank my late advisor, David R. Kinsey, who passed away before the completion of this study for his constant guidance and wisdom. He will live forever in my memory and remain a constant source of inspiration. A special thanks and gratitude goes to my current advisor, David R. Evans, for many years of thoughtful guidance and support. To professors Robert Miltz and Mzamo Mangaliso, committee members, I thank them for their guidance, generosity, and willingness to take time to work with me. I also thank Sally Habana-Hafner and Dan Gerber for always being available to help and work with me and for their insightful feedback and encouragement. v I offer my gratitude to the Centre for Refugee Studies of York University for providing me with research grant and office space during the fieldwork for this study. I thank professor Larry Lamb and Mr. Edward Opoku-Dapaah for their assistance and encouragement. I cannot express in words my eternal gratitude and appreciation to my mother. Haji Hawa Hassan, who passed away in 1996 and who, long ago, embarked on a journey that lasted her lifetime. Her dream was to see her scattered family gather under one roof and live in one country. I thank her for unwavering trust, endurance, and caring throughout the many years I spent away pursuing academic and professional interests alien to her world. I regret that I was not there for her in her last days in this life, and to say thank you for being my mom. Finally, a special thanks to all those whose support and friendship helped me to stay focused on this project and provided me with the encouragement to continue when the going got tough. vi ABSTRACT THE SOCIO-CULTURAL ADAPTATION OF SOMALI REFUGEES IN TORONTO- AN EXPLORATION OF THEIR INTEGRATION EXPERIENCES SEPTEMBER 2001 HASSAN A. MOHAMED, B.SC., SOMALI NATIONAL UNIVERSITY M.Ed., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Ed.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Professor David. R. Evans For the first time in recent history, Somali society has experienced the plight of a mass exodus. Millions have been displaced by civil war and have sought refuge in places thousands of miles away from their homelands. There are tens of thousands of Somali refugees in Canada; the majority settled in Metropolitan Toronto. Upon arrival, Somalis, still suffering from the trauma of war and uprooting, face the challenges of adapting to life in the post-modem Canadian society. Adaptation implies bridging the cultural differences between Somalia and Canada. This study, using ethnographic methods such as in-depth interviewing and participant observations, explores the socio-cultural experiences of Somali refugees in Toronto during the process of adaptation. The research questions focus on challenges Somalis face during the adaptation process, and the coping mechanisms they employ in response to the challenges they face. The study finds that, as recent migrants, Somali refugees have not achieved significant structural integration into the social, economic, and political structures of Canadian society. Dependence on social welfare assistance, a high rate of unemployment, limited educational pursuits, and social and residential segregation are vii features common among Somali refugees in Toronto. Factors that hinder their effective integration include lack of access to critical initial resettlement services; limited length of residence; limited proficiency in official languages of Canada; and prejudice, discrimination, and racism directed against them as Blacks and as Muslims. Internally, Somalis are making significant cultural adaptations by synthesizing elements of the two cultures. Younger Somalis are acquiring the values of their peers, which create intergenerational conflicts within the family. Religiosity among the adults and some youngsters is also on the rise. Somalis have created their own ethnic institutions such as businesses and community organizations to provide critical services. However, considering the salience of racism in Canada and the exclusion of Black ethnic groups from the economic, social, and political structures, it is unlikely that the experience of the Somalis in Canada would be significantly different than that of other Blacks. Most Somalis identify themselves first as Muslims, and second as Somalis, but others see them just as Blacks. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS v ABSTRACT ’ ’ vii ’ ’ LIST OF TABLES xiv LIST OF FIGURES xv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Statement of the Problem 3 Purpose of the Study 7 Significance of the Study 10 Definition of Terms 11 Limitations of the Study 13 Organization of the Study 14 2. BACKGROUND: SOMALI SOCIETY AND CULTURE 16 Location and Physical Characteristics 17 Climate 17 Population 18 Socio-Cultural Structure 19 Kinship 20 Xeer: A Communal Way of Life 22 Islam 24 Marriage 26 Oral Literature : 29 Ethnicity and Social Discrimination 30 Socio-Economic Structure 31 Education System 33 Traditional Education 34 Basic Koranic Schools 34 Xer Schools 35 Higher Islamic Institutes 35 IX Colonial Education 35 Post-Colonial Education 37 Collapse of the State and Refugee Exodus: Revisiting the Causes 38 Partition of the Somali Nation: A Colonial Legacy 39 The Role of the Superpowers 40 Pan-Somalism: The Elusive Dream 41 Clanism and Elite Manipulation 43 LITERATURE REVIEW 50 Key Concepts 50 Culture 51 Adaptation 52 Cross-Cultural Adaptation: A Review of Literature 52 Cultural Anthropology: Culture Change and Acculturation 52 Acculturation 52 Ethnic Minority Groups 57 Cultural Sociology: Theories Of Ethnic Group Adaptations 59 Assimilation Theory 60 Modified Assimilation Theory 65 Pluralism Theory 70 Modified Pluralism Theory 73 Cross-Cultural Psychology: Psychocultural Adjustment 74 Multiculturalism and Ethnicity in Canada 76 Ethnicity and Ethnic Groups 76 Social Integration 81 The Multiculturalism Policy 85 Toward an Analytical Framework 92 4. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 97 Research Context 97 Research Approach 100 Selection of Participants 101 Data Collection 103 x 2 Field Observations 1 04 Interviews 106 Secondary Data 109 Data analysis and Presentation 109 Data Analysis 109 Presentation- 1 1 Considerations and Limitations 114 Ethical Considerations 114 Limitations 114 5. STRUCTURAL INTEGRATION 116 Perceptions about Canada and Expectations 116 Institutional Integration 118 Immigration Services 118 Residential Status 121 Resettlement Services 122 Residential Concentration 126 “A Home called Dixon” 128 Voluntary Associations 140 Education and Integration of Somali Children in Schools 142 Economic Integration 152 Employment Challenges 152 Social Integration 166 Social Interactions in the Workplace 168 Dating and Marriage 173 Differences in Moral and Religious Values 175 6. CULTURAL INTEGRATION 178 Physical Environment 181 Climate 182 Urbanism 184 xi Cultural Symbols Ig 5 Dress 185 Food Habits
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