MountainsMountains AA GlobalGlobal ResourceResource A special supplement to Social Education,, SeptemberSeptember 1999,1999, prepared by The Mountain Institute in partnership with National Council for the Social Studies. Photo by Jennifer Rothwell Mountains: An Overview Lofty mountains are most worthy of deep study. For everywhere you turn, they present to every sense a multitude of objects to excite and delight the mind. They offer problems to our intellect; they amaze our souls. They remind us of the infinite variety of creation, and offer an unequaled field for the observation of the processes of nature. —Josias Simler, De Alpibus Commentarius, 1574 Mountains: A Global Resource is a one-year project fund- such because it plays an important role in their cultural, spiritu- ed by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) al, and working lives. The passion that people can feel for their and designed to increase public awareness of global linkages mountains was shown in the movie The Englishman Who Went through the study of mountains, mountain communities, and Up a Hill but Came Down a Mountain. In real life, Germany’s high- mountain conservation worldwide. As part of this project, Nation- est mountain (Mt. Brocken) was re-surveyed in 1998. When it al Council for the Social Studies and The Mountain Institute was discovered to be 3,741 feet tall rather than the 3,747 foot ele- (TMI), a nonprofit education and conservation organization, have vation shown for years on the world’s maps, 19 tons of granite developed mountain-oriented lessons for use by NCSS members were trucked to the summit and stacked into a pile six feet high! and their students. In this special section of Social Education, we are pleased to Historical Perceptions present the lessons and materials developed for four priority The positive attitudes that are now associated with mountains— mountain themes identified by teachers who participated in the recreation, inspiration, and beauty—are relatively recent in the “Mountains: A Global Resource” workshop held at the 1998 West. Until the seventeenth century, for example, mountains were NCSS Annual Conference in Anaheim, California. This curricu- referred to in Europe variously as grotesque wastelands, “warts, lum supports the “Mountain Agenda,” an international initiative wens, and blisters” on the earth, and the abode of dragons and designed to raise the position of mountain ecosystems and peo- monsters (some researchers believe that the Yeti, or Abominable ples to the same level of priority and concern given to other Snowman, still lives in the more remote and rugged regions of endangered ecosystems, such as tropical rainforests, wetlands, the eastern Himalayas). Appreciation for mountains in Japan, and oceans. Additionally, the project is designed to complement China, Tibet, and India, however, began at least 2,000 years before the United Nations’ designation of 2002 as the “International the birth of Christ, and mountains such as Kailas in Tibet and Year of the Mountains.” Mount Fuji in Japan have long been regarded as sacred. By the During the next two years, additional lessons will be devel- mid-1800s, the modern period of “mountain adoration” had oped with the goal of completing an entire curriculum on “Moun- begun, and today mountains are widely recognized for their glob- tains: A Global Resource” for use in classrooms throughout the al importance as natural, cultural, and spiritual resources. United States and around the world. We hope that the lessons presented here will serve as a catalyst and inspiration for this cur- Geographical Importance riculum, and we look forward to hearing about your experiences Mountains are home to approximately one-tenth of the world’s with and recommendations for this curriculum. people, cover one-fifth of the earth’s land surface, and occur in 75 The following overview is intended to provide an introduc- percent of the world’s countries. More than half of the world’s fresh tion to mountains, mountain cultures, and the many other attri- water originates in mountains, and all of the world’s major rivers butes that make them fascinating and important topics for study have their headwaters in highlands. Natural resources such as tim- and learning. ber, non-timber forest products (e.g., wild food and herbs), miner- als, and hydroelectric power all originate or are gathered in moun- What Is a “Mountain?” tain ecosystems. Most of these resources are then used by the Because of their mass and verticality, mountains are the most millions of people living in the valleys and plains below. conspicuous landforms on earth. They are found on every con- Mountains can be thought of as “islands” of high biodiversity tinent from the equator to the polar regions. Although a univer- rising above “seas” of human-transformed landscapes below. sally accepted definition remains evasive, mountains are com- Mountains are often sanctuaries for plants and animals long since monly defined on the basis of attributes such as altitude, local eliminated from the more transformed lowlands; for example, it is relief, steepness of slope, and amount of land in slope. Mountains among the volcanoes of Rwanda and Uganda that the last of the are three-dimensional in nature (i.e., they extend north-south, world’s mountain gorillas, now numbering less than 300, survive. east-west, and vertically), and contain the most extensive and var- Because of the rapid changes in altitude and temperature along ied climatic conditions, vegetation, wildlife, and human cultural a mountain slope, multiple ecological zones are “stacked” upon diversity of any landform on earth. one another (see Figure 1), sometimes ranging from dense trop- For our purposes, a mountain can be simply defined as an ical jungles to glacial ice within a few kilometers. Many plant and elevated landform of high local relief (the elevational difference animal species are found only on mountains, having evolved over between the lowest and highest points in an area), with much of centuries of isolation to inhabit these specialized environments. its surface in steep slopes, and displaying distinct variations in cli- Mountains can also function as biological corridors, connecting mate and vegetation zones from its base to its summit. To an isolated habitats or protected areas and allowing species to migrate extent, a landform is a “mountain” when local people rate it as between them. Social Education 282 Figure 1 Vertical Zones of Mountain Vegetation Gene Cowan September 1999 283 The extraordinary number of ecological A tree orchid in the Saisima Valley of Eastern Nepal. niches possible in mountains is typified by Photo by Alton Byers the six bioclimatic zones of the Makalu region of east Nepal, which is estimated idly becoming assimilated into main- to harbor more than 3,000 plant species. stream cultures as modern communi- This includes 25 species of rhododen- cations technology reaches even the dron, 50 species of primroses, 45 species most remote mountain villages. of orchids, 80 species of fodder trees and shrubs, and 60 species of medicinal plants. The New Mountain Challenge Mountain people, particularly women, are Mountains have long offered a challenge to unusually knowledgeable about the many medic- the adventurous spirit—witness the growing pop- inal and food plants found in mountain fields and forests. ularity of mountain climbing today. But there is a more important challenge embodied by mountains: how to preserve Hazardous Yet Fragile these rich founts of biological and cultural diversity for the ben- Mountains are awe-inspiring, massive, unpredictable, and fragile. efit of their local inhabitants and for all of the world’s people. Catastrophic events such as volcanic eruptions, glacial lake out- The attention now being devoted to mountain preservation by bursts, and landslides are rarely anticipated but capable of people working at various levels—local, national, and international, immense damage. An example is the 1970 Huascarán earthquake governmental and nongovernmental—reflects humankind’s grow- and debris flow in the Peruvian Andes that buried the town of ing awareness of the vital importance of mountain environments. Yungay (population 20,000) and killed an estimated 80,000 peo- In the United States, funds provided by government for ple throughout the region. The steep slopes and thin soils of humanitarian purposes can help address contemporary prob- mountains make them particularly susceptible to erosion, gully lems in mountain regions through projects that promote sus- formation, and landslides. These events can result in downstream tainable community development based on principles of con- river siltation if protective vegetation covering the mountain slope servation. USAID, the federal agency responsible for is disturbed through deforestation, over-grazing, or improper administering U.S. foreign assistance, now has programs in management. Many mountain regions have histories of large- more than 90 countries focused on environmental objectives scale natural resource extraction with little return for local peo- such as reducing the threat of global climate change, increas- ple. An example within the United States is the removal of more ing the conservation of biodiversity, and improving the man- than 90 percent of West Virginia’s old-growth forests between agement of natural resources. Many of the challenges encoun- 1890 and 1910. Similar deforestation is now taking place in many tered by local communities in mountain environments in the of the world’s mountain regions. developing world are being addressed by these programs. Moreover, the lessons they teach are often applicable to con- Cultural Diversity ditions found in the United States. G Mountains contain an amazing diversity of human cultures and communities. For example, Nepal—a Himalayan country the size Resources of Tennessee—has five regional groups of languages that include Denniston, D. High Priorities: Conserving Mountain Ecosystems and Cultures. 36 local languages and dialects. Mountains are also home to Worldwatch Paper 123. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 1995.