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HISTORY INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION at right angles. The drains were lined with Human inhabitation in the Indian bricks and manholes to facilitate regular subcontinent is traced to the Paleolithic cleaning. This speaks highly of the and Neolithic period. Dated from about civilization's advanced nature. 2500 to 1500 BC. This civilization is The citadel was the main part of the city considered to be at par with the other built on a raised platform. It consisted civilizations of the world . of public buildings, a bath, granaries Sir John Marshal, the director general and quarters for providing shelter to the of archaeology with his team excavated persons propagating religion. The planning sites at Sind and Punjab. The ruins at of the city brings to light the existence Mohenjodaro in the district of of an active and efficient bureaucracy to Sind in the lower Indus and at administer the activities of the city. Around the citadel was spread the remaining part of the city where the common people dwelt and pursued their profession. Houses were well planned and was built on both sides of the street. it had flat roofs and were connected by stairs to the upper storeys. They had thick walls and windows were few. Every house had a kitchen with a fireplace and large jars for storing grains or keeping other articles of use. The roofs of houses were flat. each house had bathrooms with a system of on the banks of the Ravi has brought to covered drains connected to the main light the existence of the Indus valley drain of the street. A courtyard and a well civilization. These excavations were were the special. features that brings to further supported by the discovery in light the system of planning existing then. 1931 at near Mohenjodaro. (b) Society Traces of the Indus valley civilization was Society in the Indus valley civilization discovered at Rupar in Ambala district is said to have comprised of three and Rangpur, and in Saurashtra, distinct social groups. One group ruled Bharatpur in Rajasthan, in and administered the city, the other the Burdwan district of West Bengal are a group included the merchants who were proof of the existence of the Indus valley associated with trade and other business civilization. Harappa being the main activities in the city. The third group source of knowledge about the civilization were the labourers who worked in the historians also call this civilization as the city. They also included the farmers who Harappan culture. cultivated wheat and barley as their main (a) Town Planning crops. Animals like the buffaloes, sheeps The ruins of Mohenjodaro provides and pigs and the humped bull were bred. evidence to confirm the existence of a Fish, mutton, beef, poultry and pork system of planning in the city. The streets consisted the food they ate. Animals like were broad and straight cutting each other the elephant, camels and dogs were also

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domesticated. The discovery of a large resembling shapes such as interesting number of clay spindles suggest the use of circles, pipal, leaves, peacocks were on it. cotton besides woolen and linen fabrics. The discovery of numerous seals made of Men also seemed to have worn ornaments clay with figures of animals like the tiger, like fillets, necklaces, finger rings and rhinoceros, elephant and crocodile gives armlets. Women were fond of ornaments us more information of the significance of like earrings, bangles, bracelets, necklaces, these animals in the Harappan society. girdles and anklets made of shell, beads, These seals also have inscriptions in gold and silver and copper. Razors, pictographic script. bronze mirrors and combs made of ivory Agriculture with domesticating animals speaks of the people interest in personal was a major occupation. The location of upkeep. Toys like the whistle and carts granaries near river, where the civilization besides puppets, rattles and dolls made of itself flourished was an important feature. terracotta speaks greatly about the attitude The ornaments of these period worn of the people in child care. People enjoyed by both men and women reflects the playing in dice and marble. Gambling was skilled craftsmanship of the people in the a favourite past time of the elder members Harappan culture. in the society. (d) Trade (c) Occupation The Indus valley people maintained The discovery of various equipments commercial contacts with Egypt and such as axes, knives, spears and daggers Crete, Mesopotamia and the towns in made of bronze and copper suggest metal the Persian Gulf. Excavations at Lothal work as a major profession commonly reveals the existence of a dock supporting pursued in the towns. Copper was used the activities of trade in that period. Trade for making weapons and utensils besides also existed with Northern ornaments. Spinning, weaving and pottery from where the Harappans bought the also formed important occupation. Pottery famous blue gemstones,' Lapiz Lazuli'. in red with designs painted in black

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(e) Religion Discovered by R.D.Banerjee in 1922. The clay seals discovered during Excavated by K.N.Dikshit in 1925-26. excavation reveals the presence of a Literal meaning in Sindhi - "the mound of male god. The figure of a female god also dead". Situated in Larkana district of Sind suggest their beliefs on the female was in . Evidence of devastation by source of creation. The seal with a male flood. Considered one of the capitals of the god wearing a head dress surrounded by Indus civilization. The largest of the Indus various animals exhorts the belief in the cities, grid system-entire city divided male symbol of strength. The Indus valley into two the citadel and the lower town. people cremated their death. This idea has Identified with Hariyupiya of Rigveda. been established owing to the discovery Findings of many urns containing human bones Great Bath, Granary, College, Assembly and ashes. In general it can be derived that hall (all made of Win burnt bricks), worship of the forces of nature in its lively Steatite figure of Bearded Priest (presumed forms such as stones, strong animals was to be a priest), Bronze , the religion they followed. This must Brnonze Buffalo, Cylindrical Seals Of have been the principles upon which the Mesopotamian Types, A piece of woven present day Hinduism has prescribed as cloth,Terracotta figurine of a horse and its principles. Evidence of cotton. The Indus valley civilization is believed HARAPPA to belong to the copper stone age as the The first site to be discovered in 1921. presence of iron tools and implements has Excavated by Daya Ram Sahni. Situated not yet been established at any part of this in Montogomery district of West Punjab civilization. in Pakistan. Evidence of Pre-Harappan Archaeological excavation indicates phases of culture. Town planning on that the Indus valley civilization could grid pattern and division of entire city have flourished in about 300 BC much before the existence of other West Asian civilization. Contacts with the civilization of Mesopotamia, Elam and Babylon can be deduced by the discovery of the Indus valley clay seals, pottery there. This suggests that the civilization flourished from about 3000 BC to 1500 BC. Anthropological investigation and examination of the human remains shows that four racial types existed in intocitadel and lower town. this civilization. They were the proto - Findings Australiod, Mediterranean, Alpine and the Evidence of coffin burial. Granaries (out Mongoloid. Archaeological excavation side the citadel) six each in two rows, reveal the existence of various racial Working platforms, circular in shape to the types. Of all these the existence of the .south of the granaries, meant for thrashing Dravidian race holds its relevance owing grains. Single roomed barracks, seem to to its wide spread acceptance. have housed labourers. A few cemeteries MOHENJODARO particularly cemetery R 37 and century 11.

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civilizations. An artificial dockyard, situated east of the city, built of burnt- bricks and almost rectangular in shape. Here a house had front entrance. Findings Evidence of use of rice (1800 B.C.) husk found, Persian gulf seals, Shell-ornament makers shop, Bead makers shop, Metal workers' shop, Fire altars, A doubtful terracotta of horse, A ware house, Tusks of elephants. CHANHUDARO Bronze sculpture of a dog chasing a deer. Situated in Sind. Excavated by Terracotta and bronze models of carts or M.G.Majumdar first in 1931. Evidence of Ekkas. Two stone sculptures, a nude male Pre-Harappan culture known as "Jhangar torso of red sandstone and a nude dancing culture" and "Jhukar culture". A big centre male figure of grey stone. of bead-making, shell and bone-working KALIBANGAN and seal making. The only Indus site Situated in Ganganagar District of without a citadel. Rajasthan. Excavated by A.Ghosh in 1953 Findings and termed it as culture. Evidence Bead Makers, shop, Metal workers' shop, of proto Harappan and Harappan phases. Shell ornament maker's shop, An inkpot, Both the citadel and the lower town were Models of bullock-carts and ikkas of fortified. Literal meaning"Black Bangles'". bronze, Carts with seated driver. House built mostly of sun dried bricks. Absence of mother goddess figurines. Furrow field (evidence of ploughing). Fire altars (fire cult). A bangle factory. Situated in Gujarat in Kuchch district. Discovered by J.P.Joshi, excavation carried out by R.S.Bist in 1990-91. Latest- site discovered in . One of the largest sites of the Harappan civilization. It has the all common features of the major Indus settlements - town planning, grid pattern, drainage system etc. Entire city Sites of Pre-Harappan Civilisation was divided into three parts, instead of (Now Outside India) two as usual the citadel, the middle town Site Situation and the lower town. Dabarkot Baluchistan Lothal Sindh (Pak.) Situated in Ahmedabad district of Gujarat. Located. Discovered by R.S.Rao (1957). Ranaghundai hluchistan A port town, main sea-port of Indus Anjira Goomla Baluchistan

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Deh Morasi Afghanistan area might have been the reason for the Ghundai Afghanistan dissertation of the Indus valley. Afghanistan (b) Increase in population, excessive COMMON BASIC FEATURES OF deforestation decline in agriculture etc INDUS URBAN SITES might have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture. 1. The appearing on seals. (c) Frequent floods may have led to the 2. Town planning. devastation of the city 3. Use of baked as well as sun dried bricks. (d) The invasion of the Aryans is the other 4. Straight roads and well planned drainage. view that is said to be another reason which 5. Citadel. might have also led to the extinction of the 6. Masonry wells and tank. life in the Indus valley. 7. Use of standard weights and measurement. The Indus valley civilization has put India 8. Wheel made pottery. It was backed red at par with the other civilization of the or painted red. Some pottery had motifs world, which is said to be the foundation painted on it. on which the present cultures of nations 9. The practice of burying the dead was are built. common. ORIGIN OF THE ARYANS THE RIVERWISE LOCATION OF Opinions differ regarding the original MAIN HARAPPAN SITES home of the Aryans. The most accepted Site River view is that the region between Poland to the Central Asia might have been of Harappan Ravi the Aryans. They were said to be semi- Mohan-jo-daro Sindhu nomadic people, who started moving from Chanhudaro Sindhu their original home towards the west, Lothal Sabarmati & Bhogvas south and east. The branch which went to Kalibangan Ghagghar Europe were the ancestors of the Greeks, Rangpur Meedar Romans, Celts and Teutons. Another branch went to Anatolia. The great empire Hindon of the Hitties evolved from the mixture Saraswati of these immigrants with the original Mittathal Yamuna people. The branch which remained were Kotdiji Sindh the ancestors of the Slavonic people. The Sutkagendor Dashta group which moved south came to conflict Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization with the west Asian civilization. In course of their journey towards the east or south The Indus valley culture though existed a group of Aryans had settled in Iran. in its modern form else where it had to They crossed the Hindukush and entered submit to the ultimate ravages of time India through Afghanistan and captured which is the universal law. The physical the greater part of the northern India. existence of the civilization ended due to They came to be known as Indo-Aryans various factors. to distinguish them from the others who (a) Changes in the climate leading to the spoke a language different from those decline of land and agriculture, thereby who settled in western Asia and Europe. enforcing the need to evacuate to other

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The Indo-Aryans entered Punjab and the king was not an autocrat he was controlled other north-western part of India. They by two popular assemblies Sabha and moved towards south-east and eastwards Samiti. These assemblies brought forth into the Ganga Valley. The Aryans were the people's view on various issues. The pastoral Nomads. They settled in villages. Sabhas also discharged legal duties like The region which the Aryans occupied providing justice. Individual ownership was known as Sapta Sindhu. Moving of property was recognized. The land further eastwards they settled along the was a property owned by the family. The Ganga and Jamuna. In due course of time property passed on in a hereditary manner the whole of northern India were under from father to son. the Aryans and it was called Aryavarta ECONOMIC CONDITION or the land of the Aryans. The period of The Aryans who were semi-nomadic Aryan settlement was between 2500 and people also domesticated animals which 1500BC. The early Aryans were divided helped them in the activities of agriculture into many tribes. A few among them are and other pastoral and hunting acts. Anus, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvasas and Agriculture consisted the major share Purus. They settled on either side of the of their economy. Canals to provide river Saraswati. irrigation was a significant feature of They were involved in fighting among this occupation. Coins were unknown themselves. Besides these tribal warfare and trade was through the Barter system. the Aryans were engaged in struggles Craft was not a popular profession. The with the dark skinned people or Dasyus. lack of good roads might have hampered The Dasyus were the Dravidians who trade, but river navigation was existing. occupied the regions of the Indus valley Specialization in areas such as carpentry, civilization. The superiority of the Aryans smithy, weaving, pottery, etc had been resulted in the Dravidian submission and taking place. retirement to the south. LIFE IN THE ARYAN SOCIETY POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Family being the basis of the Aryan Family served as the basis of the both social life needed to be a healthy bond. social and political organization. Families Monogamy was the usual rule but together formed the grama. Villages polygamy was also practiced. Women together formed is and they turn formed the played an important role in the family. janas. The community was patriarchical They also excelled in education. Apata and each tribe was under the chief whose Visvara and Ghosa were a few who even position was hereditary. The rastra was composed mantras. Both vegetarian and ruled by the king which was normally non-vegetarian food were common. Wheat hereditary. The king led the tribe in battle, and barley was the common food grains. and protected the people. The Purohita Drinks included the Soma and Sura which was one of the important signatory. He was were intoxicating and was drunk during the sole associate of the king his friend, festivals. philosopher and guide. The Senani the The dress consisted of two or three leader of the army, and Gramani the head garments- an under garment, garment of the village. The main duty of the king and a cloak. These were made of wool was the protection of his subjects, property, or skin and colored yellow and red. Gold defence and maintenance of peace. The ornaments such as necklaces, earrings,

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anklets, and bracelets were common (ii) The Braharishi Desha or the country of and was worn by both men and women. the holy sages. Comprised the territories Women enjoyed equal status and received of the Kurus, Matsya, Panchalas and education with the men. They also freely Swsenas. Today they are known as participated in public life. Thaneshwar, Eastern Rajputana, the Doab RELIGION and Mathura district. The Aryans worshipped many gods (iii) The Madhya Desa or the middle country and goddess. Most of the objects they occupied the region lying between the worshipped were the personification of Himalayas and Vindhyas. the forces of nature. The religious beliefs (iv) The Aryavarta occupied the region of the Aryans and its essential elements between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas were contained in the Rig Veda. It was from the east to west. based on the beliefs that Though a physical terrain segregated 1. The numerous gods and goddess were North and South India and resulted in personifications of whatever that was the development of a Dravidian culture, noble splendid and striking in nature . yet the Aryans influenced the religious 2. The common people sought refugee under thoughts of the Dravidians these powers who did good answer as LATER ARYAN PERIOD (VEDIC evil. To get the good offerings as food and PERIOD) drinks has to be made. The later vedic period is said to have 3. Fire was the means of messengers who begun after the composing of the Atharva carried the offerings to the gods . This Veda, Yajur veda and Sama veda. This was done amidst the chanting of hymns of period indicated changes in the political, praise. social economic and religious conditions There were numerous deities, classified of the life of the Aryans. These changes under terrestrial, atmospheric, and were different from those in the early celestial group. Agni, Indra and varuna vedic period during the composition of were the chief deities. They also included the Rig Veda. Agni, vayu, surya, prithivi,etc. Gods and POLITICAL CONDITION goddess were worshipped with simple The Rig vedic Aryans were divided into ceremonials known as Yajna or sacrifices. several tribes. Their was frequent internal EXTENT OF ARYANS IN INDIA strife among them. The weaker tribes The Aryans were said to have been spread were absorbed into the stronger ones and into four divisions of the country as thus the kingdoms and larger areas of portrayed by Manu residence emerged. The political influence (i) Brahmavarta of the Aryans extended towards the east and south. The Aryan now established a (ii) Braharishi Desha powerful kingdom in the Deccan, to the (iii) Madhya Desha north of the river Godavari. The mode of (iv) Aryavarta succession continued to be hereditary. The (i) The Brahmavarta or the land of Gods expansion of the territory also resulted was the region lying between the rivers in the increased domination of the king Saraswati and Drishadwati It also included assisted by a hierarchy of nobility. These parts of Kurukshetra as mentioned in the nobles were assigned official duties. Thus Mahabharatha. an administrative machinery developed.

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The king now had a council of advisers Religion and philosophy in the later which included the kings relatives, his Vedic period became more confirmed courtiers, heads of various departments. with elaborate sacrifices. The doctrines The purohita (the priest ), the senani (the of Karma, Maya, soul, Mukti were commander), the suta (the charioteer), the established. Brahma, Vishnu and Samgrahitr (the treasurer ), tax collector, Maheswara became the important gods etc. were the individuals which assisted in who were worshipped. the kings activities. The role of the popular LITERATURE IN THE VEDIC assemblies was important. A notable PERIOD feature of this period was the extinction The Vedas of the Samiti. The sabha transformed The vedas were the sources of from being a popular village assembly, reconstructing the vedic period. The continued as a court or judicial assembly. oldest being the Rigveda, The Samaveda, SOCIAL CONDITION Yajurveda and Adharvaveda had their The need to perform the ceremonial own significance. The sama veda contains yajnas required the services of a highly the verses from the Rigveda. The hymns trained priests who were skilled in the in it were relevant to the soma sacrifice . religious matters. This group came to The Yajurveda also consist of hymns from assume the title of the Brahmanas. They the Rig Veda, more than half of this is occupied a high status and were respected in prose to facilitate the performance of and honoured by the king. sacrifices. It depicts the social and religious The constant inter tribal fighting for condition of this period. The Atharva establishing supremacy, and struggle with Veda contains philosophic speculations, the original inhabitants gave birth for the popular cults and superstitions. need of persons skilled in the warfare. The Brahmanas Thus arose the new class of the Kshatriyas. They are prose of the sacrificial Remaining people in the Aryan society ceremonies. These explanatory treatises were called Vaisyas. The group who were lay emphasis on ritualism. They mark the not Aryans were called Sudras. These transition from Vedic to classical Sanskrit. separation in the society was on the basis It also marks the period which marks the of the profession they pursued. Gradually advance of the Aryans from the Panchala the Aryans were divided into the four country to the Vidha (North Bihar). varnas, succession to these in course of time became hereditary. The caste system The Vedangas and the Upavedas became rigid, Education was confined These are said to be supplementary to the upper classes. An Aryan's life was sections of the Vedic literature. These divided into stages which began with gives us idea about Jotish (Astronomy), Upanayana, which was the inception of Medicine (Ayurveda), Dhanurveda (war), the pupil to education. After a period of Gandharvaveda, (music) etc. 12 years study of the Vedas, Brahmanas, The Vedanta Upanishads, Ithihasa, Puranas, Grammer, It is the philosophy taught in most of the Ethics etc. the individual could chose one Upanishads. of the four ashramas i.e. Brahmacharya, The Upanishads Grihastha, Sanyasa, Vanaprastha. This contains the main idea that constitute RELIGIOUS CONDITION the intellectual aspect of the Hindu

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philosophy. They do not lay emphasis to the imperial Gupta dynasty with other to rites, ceremonies and austerities. The contemporaries. Upanishads are dated between 800 BC Laws of Manu and 500 BC. The Upanishads are about Also known as Manav Dhramshastra in 100 in number. The Brahadaranyaka Sanskrit, it comprises of 2684 couplets Upanishads, Chandogva Upanishad, arranged in twelve chapters. It is the Aitreya Upanishad are a few. The earliest of law books. The laws of Manu Upanishads reflects the richness and forms the foundation of the court of law universality of the Indian culture. They in India under the name of Hindu law. The are said to be the thinking power of the book makes a distinction between varna Brahmana and the Kshatriyas. and jatis. The varnas were in the order of LITERATURE IN THE LATER VEDIC the occupations pursued by the people. PERIOD This was given as below, The Epics " the learned, literate and priestly order They are the Ramayana and the " the fighting or the governing class Mahabharatha. They introduce us to a " the trading and agricultural group period of transformation in the social and " the common folk, labourers religious institutions of the Vedic age The composition of this may be between The Ramayana written by Valmiki is said 200BC and 200AD by a sage named a poetic legend based on mythology. It Bhrigu. portrays the ideal man- god Rama and the ideal woman Sita. The sacrifices made by EIGHT FORMS OF MARRIAGE the characters for the preservation of truth Brahma : Marriage of a duly downed girl appealed to the people.This was edited to a man of the same verna. by the Brahmanas in course of time to Daiva : Father gives the daughter to the convert it a book of devotion. priest as a part of his fee. The Mahabharatha which consist of 18 Atsa : A token bride price of a cow and a parvas (sections) contains about 100,000 bull is given as dowry. verses. This is an encyclopedia of history, Frajapati : Marriage without dowry and morals and religion. bride price. Puranas Gandharva : By consent of two parties i.e. These are legends connected with epics modern love marriage. and law books. They are 18 in number and Asura : Marriage by purchase. are mostly recognized in North India . The Rakshasa : Marriage by capture. Vishnu Purana, for example, should treat Paisacha : It is the seduction of a girl of five subjects namely primary creation, while asleep, mentally deranged or drunk. secondary creations, Genealogies of Of these eight forms, only first four were gods and patriachs reigns of various generally approved and permissible to Manus and history of ancient dynasties. the Brahmanas. On the basis of verna, The Vayupurana is one of the oldest the marriage is further divided into two. (i) Puranas. It was edited during the age of Anuloma Marriage: Marriage of a man in Guptas when there was a great revival his own of the Sanskrit language. The other Puranas include Matsya and Brahmanda verna or below his verna was called which gives us account of the kings up Anuloma. It was sanctioned by the

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sacred texts. (ii) Pratiloma Marriage: The the later vedic period, however, many marriage of a girl or woman in lower than great cities like Videha, Kausambhi, Kasi, her own verna. It was not sane tioned by Ayodhya, Hastinapur and Indra-prastha, the sacred texts, etc., had sprungup. FOUR ASHRAMAS POLITICAL LIFE The earliest reference to the four ashrams ## During the Rigvedic period the Aryans had or four stages of life (Brahmachari, built only small kingdoms, as they were Grihasta, Vanprastha and Sanyasin) always busy fighting the non-Aryans. But is found in the Jabala Upanishad.The now they had crushed the resistance of Chadpgya Upanishad clearly refers to the the non-Aryans and had established such first three ashrams. powerful kingdoms as Kuru, Panchala, ECONOMIC LIFE Kosala, Magadha, Kasi and Anga, etc. ## Agriculture was the chief occupation of ## Some ambitious kings, after conquering the people. In addition to the cultivation vast territories had begun to perform of barely, wheat and rice many new "Asvamedha Yajnas" and assume the title grains such as seasamum (Tila) and beans of "Samrat" or king of kings. The size and began to be cultivated during this period. power of the different states had greatly Drought and excessive rains were the extended. chief enemies of the farmer. ## The establishment of vast empires led to ## During this period a great progress was the growth of the royal power. The Sabha made in the methods of cultivation. Some and the Samiti were now not powerful sort of a system of artificial irrigation had enough to check the power of the kings. now developed. The plough became large The office of the monarch had now and heavy enough to require a team of become more or less hereditary. His main six and even more oxen. The cow-dung duties were to protect his people both from had now began to be used as manure to internal disorders and external invasions, increase the production. to punish the criminals and to administer ## Trade was another important occupation equal justice to all, etc. of the people during this period. The ## In the Rigvedic period we hear of three merchants had by now organised main assistants of the king, i.e. the themselves into guilds, which tried Purohita, the Senani and the Gramini. their utmost to protect the interests of But now in addition to these officials the merchants. Some sort of coinage in many new assistants of the king like the the form of "Nishka" "Satamana" and treasurer, collector, charioter, chamberlain "Krishmana" had probably come into and superintendent, etc., had come into being. The cow as a unit of value was thus prominence. gradually being replaced. The Aryans had ## In addition to the Kshatriyas the king had by this time come to know the sea and so now maintained a regular army. This need some historians believe that sea-borne had arisen because of the continuous wars trade was probably known to these people. that a king had to fight for the extension of ## The settled life to which the Aryan people his empire. Now the elephants had come had become used to during this period, into use in the battlefield and many new gave rise to big cities. In the Rigvedic weapons had been invented by this time. days there were few cities and the village was a popular unit of administration. In

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