206
Chapter IX
ORIGIN AND CHRONOLOGY
To understand the chronological relationship of the chalcolithic sites of Saurashtra, we shall consider the evidences from these sites against the evidences from Lothal and Rangpur, wherever they are available. Most of the evidences consist entirely of pottery and this includes surface collections from these sites. The other evidences comprize chert "blades, cubical weights of agate and terracotta cakes- In order to avoid repe- I tition these evidences have been discussed in this chapter under the sub-heading 'The Harappan culture*, and they are tabulated in the charts 'SX There an attempt has been made to define the nature of the "Saurashtrian Harappan sites'*. In the absence of other evidence pottery which has come from a l l the sites is discussed with a view to providing a relative chronology.
Fortunately we have C-14 dates from Somnath, Rojdi and Lothal which are helpful for correlating the chronology of the sites.
The sites are divided into two groups :
1) Excavated sites
2) Surface sites
I. Re lati]^ chronology of chalcolithic sites of Saurashtra
1. Excavated sites
We have C-14 dates from Lothal, but none from Rangpur, therefore, the chronological relationship between Rangpur and 207
Lothal Is based on material culture only* Period A at Lothal
has yielded most of the typical Harappan characteristics.
The excavated pottery from Lothal is typically Harappan.
The fabrics, surface treatment, and the depicted designs and the
types are Harappan. The use of bislips like cream and red, buff and red, and of partial slip were known at Lothal as at Mohenjo-
daro and Chanhu-daro. A few sherds of ''reserve slipped ware"
were also noticed.
Cylindrical perforated jars, "S"-shaped tall jars painted in Harappan manner, convex-sided bowls, carinated dishes, dishes-on-stand, thick storage jars of Harappan type, small jars, goblets, and beakers are the Harappan forms. Some of the designs are typically Harappan in nature and occur at Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa and Chanhu-daro. Along with the Harappan pottery some indigenous types such as stud-handled bowls and small jars also occur. Some provincial designs were also employed on pots.
These designs of animals, plants and birds were known to the inhabitants in the Bhal region. This only shows that Lothal was a pure Harappan settlement. Along with these some indigenous elements such as Micaceous Red Ware, Coarse Grey Ware and black- and red ware, stud-handled bowls, the animal and plant designs occur. These elements are found at Rangpur, Somnath, Rojdi,
■Rudhe] and some other sites. But the black-and-red Ware does not occur at all the sites. Stud-handled bowls have been encoun tered from Surkotada. The occurrence of stud-handled bowls at these places would imply a movement of pre-Harappan cultural 208
elements from Baluchistan and Kutch by a land route into
Saurashtra. But in the absence of evidence we are unable to postulate more details.
In Period B most of the Harappan elements continue, but a marked change occurs in the pottery and the painted designs which were unknown to the Harappan tra d itio n .^ The numbers of 2 seals, sealings, copper objects and chert blades decreased.
The decrease in chert blades can be ascribed to the decrease in the import of chert from Sind. In this period Prabhas Ware and
Lustrous Red Ware appear, still most of the Harappan elements are present but the decline of this culture is noticed along with some newer elements.
On the basis of material culture we may link Rangpur
Period II A and II B with the later phases of Lothal Period A and Rojdi Periods I A and probably I B. Rangpur Period II C may be linked with the late phases of Lothal Period B and Rojdi
Period I C, and Rangpur Period I I I with Somnath Period I I I
(post-Prabhas Period).
The excavations at Rangpur have yielded house construc tions, public drains, mud-brick platforms and use of burnt bricks.
The seals and sealings are absent. The important features such as the 'citadel',"lower town** and ''granary" are not found so far. In Period II B, houses were built with mud-bricks and mud.
The use of burnt bricks was also known, but it was not as 3 extensively used as at Lothal. Chert blades were known, but in 2oy
very small numbers- They come from Period II A. This is probably because of a decrease in trade with Lothal in Period B-
Etched beads of carnelian, copper objects, cubical weights of agate, and bird whistles are typically Harappan. These objects occur at lothal in Period A as well as in Rojdl Periods I A and
T The bird whistles, however, are absent at Rojdi.
The pottery of Periods IT A and II B is similar to that of Lothal Period A, and Rojdi Periods I A and probably I B.
But at Lothal it occurs in a large quantity, probably because
Rangpur was a late, and comparatively smaller Harappan settlement than Lothal. Convex-sided bowls, ”S"-shaped tall jars, dishes * on-stand, carinated dishes, goblets and beakers, thick storage jars, perforated cylindrical jars are the Harappan types which occur at Rangpur and Lothal. At Lothal the *'S" shaped jar is painted in the typical Harappan manner, whereas at Rangpur we do not have such specimens. The use of bislips like cream and
\ red, red and light pink, red and buff were also known. This is a Harappan characteristic and was known at Lothal and 'Rudhel.
Horizontal bands, loops, fish-scale designs, concentric circles, criss-cross designs, the leaf (not the Pipal leaf) design, pellet designs were depicted In Periods II A and II B at Rangpur. These designs are Harappan in nature and also occur at Lothal Period B- Though some of the typical Harappan designs which are present at Lothal Period A are absent at Rangpur (Table
Rojdl represents three phases of the Harappan culture. 210
4 Periods I A, IB , and I C. In Period I A the structures were built with mud and mud-bricks on mud-brick platforms, with a protection wall of big boulders*^ In Period I B the structures were built with rubble, using mud as mortar- Mud structures were also known and the floors were^plastered with lime and were rammed with earth. Mud and mud-brick structures occur at Rangpur in Period II B, but the rubble structures are absent. This is because of ecological reasons since stone is easily available at
Rojdi. In the absence of detailed published reports of the
Rojdi excavation we do not have sufficient evidence to compare the structures with those of Rangpur.
The ceramic industries at Rojdi are : Red Ware, Buff
Ware, Micaceous Red Ware, and Grey Ware* Dishes-on-stand, carinated dishes, convex-sided bowls, globular pots, troughs, beakers, cylindrical perforated jars, " S ” -shaped tall jars, stud- handled bowls are the types which occur. Intersecting loops, concentric circles, hatched triangles, leaves and bands are the depicted designs. The types, fabrics, wares and the depicted designs are similar to Rangpur Periods II A and II B and Lothal
Period A.
Other evidences such as lunates, blades, aijd trapezes of chert, copper, pipes celts, rings and bangles, a spiral gold ring, etched carnelian beads, beads of faience and terracotta, all occur at Lothal in Period A and at Rangpur in Periods II A and II B. Most of these elements continued in Period I B. The agate cubical weight is an important evidence in Rojdi Period 9 11
I B. In Period I G Prabhas Ware appear along with the
Harappan types. At Rangpur Prabhas Ware is absent, but 6 appears in Period B at Lethal.
Fortunately we have C-14 dates for Rojdi Period I
These range between 1870 B.C.-1745 B.C. Therefore, Rojdi Period
I A must be earlier than this date, probably C.2000 B.C. at
least, which makes it nearly contemporary with the late levels
of Phase II A of lothal- Therefore, on the basis of C-14 dates, pottery and other evidences Rojdi Periods I A and I B are probably contemporary with the late levels of Lothal phases
ii, iii and iv of Period A. However, other important evidences
such as seals, sealings, town-planning and the granary are not
found so far, probably because Rojdi was a village settlement
dependent on a self-sufficient mixed economy based on agriculture and animal husbandry. Therefore, Rojdi Periods I A and I B on the ceramic and other evidences may be correlated with
Rangpur Period II A and II B and with Lothal Period A. Rojdi I C may be linked with Lothal Period B and Somnath Period II
(Prabhas period), as Prabhas Ware occurs at both these sites.
C-14 dates for this period range between 1650-1515 B.C. Thus
Rojdi I C can be linked with the Prabhas period at Somnath and lothal Period B, but is earlier than Rangpur Period II C and
III as Lustrous Red Ware is absent at Rojdf. and Is the post-
Prabhas Ware at Somnath.
Excavations at Somnath have yielded considerable evidence
In the earliest phases of Somnath Period I (Pre-Prabhas Period) 212
clubbed-rimmed storage jars, a few sherds of perforated
4 pots, convex-sided bowls, dlshes-on-stand, carinated dishes a
and globular medium-sized nots occur along with coarse Corrugaged
Grey Ware. These are Harappan elements and indicate that
Somnath Period I (Pre-Prabhas Period) was a Harappan settlement.
However, unless a large-scale excavation Is carried out we shall
know the nature of the Harappan settlement of Somnath. The
Coarse Corrugated Grey Ware occurs at Rojdl Periods I A and I B and In the earliest phases of Lothal Period A. Pottery of
Somnath Period I(Pre-Prabhas Period) Is associated with a cubical weight of chert, beads of faience, steatite and chalcedomy, but most of the other Harappan characters are not found so far. In
Somnath Period II (Prabhas Period) most of the Harappan types
in pottery continue along with Prabhas Ware, though Prabhas Ware
is predominant. In the late levels of the Prabhas culture.
Lustrous Red Ware appears. Somnath Period III (Post-Prabhas
Period), Lustrous Red Ware predominates along with some Prabhas ware and Harappan types. The types and depicted designs of
Lustrous Red Ware in this period are similar to those of Rangpur
Periods II C and III, but the "X"-shaped horned bull is absent at Somnath.
The C-14 dates for the Prabhas culture range between 3 1650-1556 B.C. Therefore, Period I (Pre-Prabhas) is earlier than this and is probably contemporary with the late levels of
Period II B at Rangpur, Rojdl I B and the early levels of
Lothal Period B, as here Prabhas Ware and Lustrous Ware are absent. At Rojdl, Prabhas Ware appears in Period I C, at Lothal 0 13
In Period B, therefore, Somnath Period TI (Prabhas Period)
may be correlated with them and Somnath Period III (post-
Prabhas Period) with Rangpur Periods II C and III as at both
the sites Lustrous Red Ware occurs as the chief ceramic*
9 Amra is excavated on a small scale. The pottery from
Amra Period I has affinities with the pottery of Lakhabaval-
The pottery from lakhabaval has affinity with Rangpur Period
II Therefore, the pottery from Amra has a chronological
relationship with Rangpur Period II B-
A small-scale excavation at Atkot^^ has yielded Red
Ware, Buff Ware, Coarse Grey Ware, Micaceous Red Ware and
Coarse Red Ware- Convex-sided bowls, stud-bandled bowls, perfo
rated jars, ledge-necked vessels, dishes-on-stand with carinated 13 dish and beakers are the types encountered. The depicted
designs consist of fish, leaves suspended loops, hatched
diamonds and wavy lines. A human figure feeding a pet is unique. Almost all the types occur in Rangpur, Period II B.
The Red Ware and Buff Ware have been found in almost equal 14 quantities at Atkot. Red Ware and Buff Ware occur in the mature Harappan phases and decrease in the degenerate and post-
Harappan phases.^ Therefore, on the basis of equal quantities of Buff Ware and Red Ware and in the absence of Lustrous Red
Ware, Atkot may be correlated with Rangpur Period II B*
The pottery from Lakhabaval has affinities with the 17 pottery of Rangpur Period IT A. The types are bowls and
-IQ dishes-on-stand, stud-handled bowls, troughs and dishes with 2i4
19 slightly beaded rim. It has also yielded Lustrous Red Ware PO and black-and red Ware'^'^, though the excavator does not mention on the presence of Lustrous Red Ware and black-and red Ware . On
the contrary he has stated that the pottery has affinities with
Rangpur Period II A. The excavator had visited Rangpur during
its extensive excavation carried out under Sri S.R. Rao’s po supervision . Therefore, he has seen the pottery of Rangpur
Period II A which he has described as Rangpur Period I. At
Rangpur, Buff Ware disappears in Period IT C, whereas at Lakhabaval
Buff Ware is present along with Red Ware. Blades of chert, weights, drains, platforms, disc beads of steatite, beads of etched carnelian, however, are absent,but the excavation was a pp. trial excavation carried out on a small scale. Therefore, in the absence of other evidences and only on the basis of pottery,
Lakhabaval chronologically may be linked with at least Rangpur
Period II B-
27 A trial excavation at Moti Dharai has yielded a good quantity of pottery which includes Red Ware, Buff Ware, Coarse
Red Ware along with lustrous Red Ware and Micaceous Red Ware of early historical times. The Harappan types are thick storage Jars, troughfe, perforated sherds probably of cylindrical jars, medium sized jars, convex-sided bowls and dishes-on-stand: The ceramic designs consist of horizontal bands, loops and triangles. The 28 excavator has encountered Harappan wares In Period I. Lustrous
Red Ware also occurs on the surface, on the basis of which it may be linked with Rangpur Period II C. 215
?9 A small-scale excavation carried out at Pithadla has
yielded two phases of the culture- Phase i is marked by Harappan
Wares associated with Crude Grey Ware. The pottery collection
from the surface has yielded Red Ware, Buff Ware, Coarse Grey
Ware, black-and-red Ware and Lustrous Red Ware.
The other evidences are conch shell bangle, spindle whorls
and terracotta beads which have affinities^ith Rangpur types. In
the absence of Lusferous Red Ware and the occurrence of Buff Ware
and Coarse Corrugated Grey Ware of Rojdi Periods lA and IB type,
Pithodia phase i may be linked with Rangpur Period II B.
3 0 The small-scale excavation at Vasai has revealed Red
Ware, Buff Ware and Micaceous Red Ware in Period I. Period II
was characterized by black-painted Red Ware of the early historical q 1 period associated with Red Polished Ware. The surface collection
from Vasai includes Red Ware, Buff Ware, Coarse Red Ware and
Micaceous Red Ware convex-sided bowls, bowls with stud-handle in
Micaceous Red Ware, carinated dishes, dishes-with beaded rim,
concavo-convex-sided bowls, "S"-shaped jars, wide mouthed storage
jars and storage jars are the types which occur. Red-ware and
Buff Ware are unearthed in equal quantities. The pottery bears 3 2 close relationship with the pottery of Rangpur Period II A. The
occurrence of Buff Ware and Red Ware in an equal quantity,
Micaceous Red Ware, and the absence of lustrous Red Ware at Vasai make for a correlation with Rangpur Period II B, at least, instead
of Rangpur Period II C- 216
2. Surface sites
A large quantity of pottery has been collected from
Budhel- It includes Buff Ware, Red Ware, Micaceous Red Ware and
Coarse Grey Ware. Dishes-on-stand with carinated dish, troughs, perforated cylindrical jars, convex-sided howls of small and medium size, huge cluhhed-rimmed storage jars, "S"-shaped tall jars, open mouthed basins, small and medium sized globular jars, carinated dishes, nail-headed dishes painted with intersecting loops on the rim, ledge-necked jars and stud-handled bowls in
Micaceous Red Ware are the types occur.
Concentric circles, horizontal bands, intersecting loops, hatched triangles and rectangles and a row of pellet motifs are the common characteristically Harappan designs. The leaf motif which is seen only on a single Red Ware pot is similar to that which occurs at Lothal Period A. The use of bislips, cream-and red, buff and red are also present. The use of partial slip may also be seen on a big storage jar of which the unslipped part is painted in Harappan manner. The fabrics, types and depicted designs are similar to Lothal Period A and Rangpur Period II A, and Rojdi I A. The use of bislips and partial slips is similar 33 to the Mohenjo-daro bislips and partial slips.
Lumps of mud, probably from walls, which were found from a pit dug out by the potter with the above pottery are indi cative of the material used in house building'at the site- A piece of copper s]0§\, and spindle whorls were also collected from 217
the surface. As the site is unexcavated and the pottery comes from the surface we do not know much about the other aspects of the culture. Therefore, on the basis of pottery types, designs and use of the two slips in the Harappan manner, chronologically
“Budhel may be correlated with Rangpur Period II A and II B, Rojdl
I A and I B and Lothal Period A.
The site of Vaharvo timbo though disturbed by constant ploughing has yielded a good quantity of pottery. The wares include Red Ware, Coarse Red Ware, Lustrous Red Ware and Coarse
Grey Ware. A few sherds of Buff Ware also occur. Coarse Red
Ware and Lustrous Red Ware in coarse varieties are most common.
Convex-sided bowls, concavo-convex-sided bowls, dishes, dishes-on stand, lamps, clubbed-rimmed thick storage jars and troughs are the types which occur at the site. In the absence of Buff Ware,
Micaceous Red Ware and the occurrence of Lustrous Red Ware and
Coarse Red Ware in a large quantity, Vaharvo timbo may be chrono logically linked with Rangpur Periods II C and III.
3 4 The other sites in Jamnagar and Junagadh districts have yielded Red Ware and Buff Ware. These sites may be correlated with Rangpur Period II B as there is the absence of Lustrous Red 35 Ware which makes its first appearence in Period II C at Rangpur.
Pottery from the recently discovered sites explored by the author and Mr. G-L- Possehl have affinities with the pottery of Rangpur Periods II C and III. These sites have yielded the
Red Ware, Coarse Red Ware, Grey Ware, and Lustrous Red Ware. At 2
two sites a few sherds of black-and-red Ware were found.
Convex-sided bowls, concavo-convex sided bowls, troughs, thick
storage jars, dishes without carination lamps, dishes-on-stand
and small sherds of perforated pots are the types occurring at
these sites. Stud-handled bowls in Lustrous Red Ware also occur.
The Buff Ware is absent at almost all the sites and Lustrous
Red Ware occurs in good quantity along with the other wares.
Therefore, these sites chronologically may be correlated with
Rangpur Periods II C and III.
Surface collections from the other sites explored by other scholars show a chronological relationship with Rangpur
Periods II B, II C and III.
11. AJY ;v^t h_ot h^ r chalcolithic cultures of the sub-continen'
Here we shall attempt to find out affinities with and
links between the "Saurashtrian" chalcolithic culture and the other neolithic chalcolithic cultures of the sub-continent. This may help us to understand some of the Harappan problems; its origin, extension and decline. Emphasis has been laid on the
Harappan culture (Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Chanhu-daro etc.) as almost all the "Saurashtrian sites” have yielded Harappan characteristics•
1. P r e - H a r a p p a n C u l t u r e s
The pre-Harappan cultures have been identified in Makran,
Baluchistan, Sind, at Kalibangan (north Rajasthan), at Chandigarh 219
36 (Punjab) and pre-defence levels at Harappa. In Baluchistan
and Makran hecause of the hilly topography, most of the sites
were village settlements, largely isolated from each other.
In Baluchistan, Sind and Makran on the basis of their
ceramic tradition, the cultures are broadly divided into two main
groups,*^i.e. Buff Ware and Red Ware groups. Red Ware has
generally been identified in north Baluchistan, whereas Buff Ware
predominates in South Baluchistan. These main groups are further
identified after the type sites where the wares are most
prominent. In central Baluchistan these two groups are found
intermixed.
In Baluchistan, Makran and Pakistan explorations and
excavations carried out by several scholars have brought to light many wares .
In north Baluchistan, particularly along the Zhob river, 38 a Red Ware culture has been identified. This ware has affinities with the Persian Red Ware group. For this culture, the site Rana
Ghundai (RG) is best known. Its excavation has revealed five occupational periods. RG-I is marked by a semi-nomadic settlement, hand-made pottery, flint blades, bone points and eyed needlesj
RG-II is marked by houses built with boulders, wheel-made pottery, painted in black over a buff or pinkish surface. The stylized buck and humped bull are characteristic motifs. The pottery has 39 affinities with northern Persia. In RG-III the motifs are painted in black and red on a red surface. Other elements of this 220
culture are a number of clay figurines of the humped bull and mother goddess, flint blades, cups of albaster, beads of bones,
stones and lapis lazuli bangles and needles of bone and the use
of copper and gold. The pottery of RG-II has close affinities with Hissar~I. Some of the elements are common between Harappa and the Zhob cultures, whereas at Dabarkot, the upper levels have yielded some Harappan elements.
Tn central Baluchistan around Quetta, Piggott has identi- 4 0 fied Quetta Ware ' • This ware is painted in black with geometric and animal designs. Stepped and oval motifs frequently occur.
The pottery has affinities with Persian sites, dating from the latter half of the fourth millennium B.C.
In the Kalat region, De Cardi has identified a few more 4 1 ceramic types . At Anjira, five periods have been revealed.
Period I is a nomadic settlement and has affinity with Kili Ghul
Mohammed (KGM) II. Anjira II is related to KGM II and III in which houses were built on a boulder foundation with mud-bricks.
In Period III, Togau Ware, bichrome ware of Amri type, Kechi Beg
Ware, Zari Ware and Nal Ware occur. On the ceramic evidence
Anjira Period III is linked with KGM IV and Damb 3adaat-I*
The explorations and excavations carried out by Fairservis in the Quetta valley have brought to light several wares. The excavation at Kili Ghul Mohammed has revealed three periods.
Period I is characterized by bone and stone implements, domesti cation of sheep, goat and oxen. KGM-II is marked by crude hand- 221
made pottery with basket marks. During this period goat, sheep and cattle were domesticated and weaving was known. In KGM-III, fine, wheel-made pottery appears, painted with geometric designs
in black. The inhabitants lived in mud-brick houses. The C-14 date for KGM-I is C. 3500 T^.C.
Togau Ware" was discovered near Togau village (Chappar . district) near Kalat town. It has a wide distribution in central
Baluchistan.
It is a fine, hard, Red Ware, made on the wheel, well- fired and produces a ringing sound when struck. The ware has a fine thin red slip. It has a more orange tone than the Kili
Ghul Mohammed Ware. The ware is often fired black under reducing conditions.
Open bowls with a foot-ring base is the common shape.
The ware is painted in black with geometric, animal and bird designs. Stylized animals, birds and groups of wavy or vertical lines are significant motifs.
43 In south "Raluchistan at Nal, a Buff Ware culture has been identified. The culture is characterized by the use of chisels, knives, and flat axes, beads and bangles of copper, perforated stone weights, beads of copper, agate, carnellan, lapis lazuli, disc beads of steatite, and inhumation and fractional burials, and houses built with stone, using mud as mortar or mud bricks-
The pottery is characterized by polychrome painted in black, red, yellow, blue and sometimes green. Chequers, solid 9 9
diamonds, hatched diamonds, small chevrons, sigmas, and several looped patterns are the depicted designs. Lions, fishes, bulls and the pipal leaf were also depicted. The early phases of Nundara have strong affinities with the Amri culture, whereas
Nal has affinities with Harappa.
Another Buff Ware culture in South Baluchistan is the 44 Kulli culture identified in the Kolwa and Mashkai valleys. The culture is characterized by stone houses set in mud mortar at
Mehi, mud-brick walls erected on stone foundations; clay figurines of animals and womens bird whistles, compartmenta 1 s t o n e vessels decorated with engraved patterns of chevrons and hatched traiangles; stone saddle querns chert blades, clay bangles, cremation cemeteries and the use of copper*
The pottery is buff with a pale red paste, geometric, animal and plant motifs are depicted in black and rarely inwhlte on a white slip. Fishes and rosettes also occur. Goat, cattle and stag motifs occur with natural scenes. On the basis of pottery two phases of the culture have been identified. The earlier one is the Kulli culture marked by Buff Ware painted in black with stylized animals, formalized trees and bird, stone ware with incised decorations and distinctive clay figurines.
The other phase can be related to the Harappan culture. The
Kulli culture yields more Harappan elements than the other soutfi
Baluchistani sties. On the basis of archaeological evidences, the beginning of the culture can be ascribed to the start of the third millennium B.C. hJ O
45 A pre-Harappan culture has been revealed at Kot-Dijl,
68 km. east of Mohenjo-daro across the river Indus.
The excavation has revealed 19 phases. The upper three
represent the Harappan culture and below this the Kot Dlji culture.
The pre-Harappan culture is marked by a fortified tovm, houses
built with stone and mud-bricks, blades, arrow-heads and
scrapers of chert and terracotta figurines of bulls.
The ceramic industry is marked by fine, thin, wheel-made
ware from we 11-ievigated clay. The pots are painted with broad
horizontal bands around the neck in red, brown, sepia, or light
black on a cream or dull red slip. In the later phases wavy
lines, loops, roundels, and simple triangles occur from which in
the later period fish-scale design, circles and linked roundels 4 6 developed. A horned deity painted on a jar also occurs on a
Harappan seal at Mohenjo-daro.
A thick burnt layer which separates the two cultures
indicates that the Kot Diji occupation was violently destroyed
by the new commers - the Harappans.
4 7 C-14 dates for Kot Diji range between 2600-2100 B.C.
Pre-Harappan pottery has been revealed in the pre-defence 4.8 layer at Harappa." The pottery is thin, wheel-made, painted in black on a dark purple-red slip. The depicted designs consist of black bands on the neck, oblique bands, vertical wavy lines, a
lattice pattern and intersecting loops. The pottery has affinities with that of Kot Diji and Amri. 224
49 A t A m r i , 155 km. south of Mohenjo-daro, on the right
bank of the Indus river, a pre-Harappan culture has been
discovered.
The excavations have revealed 5 periods of occupations.
Periods I to lY are prehistoric. Period I is marked by the
Amri culture, period II is intermediate. III is characterized by the Harappan culture succeded by the Jhukar and Jhangar
cultures respectively.
The Amri culture is characterized by small rectangular houses built with sun-dried bricks, the use of blades and cores of chert, copper, terracotta beads, shell bangles anc^tone balls
The pottery in the earlier phase is crude and hand-made and mostly without decoration. In the later phases, wheel-made pottery increases. The wheel-made pottery is thin, painted in black or brown on a cream or pink slipped surface. Sometimes black and red on red also occur. The pots are decorated with panels of hatched diamonds, chequers, row of loops, sigmas and the gazelle-horn motif similar to Togau ware. In the later phases the dog and bull were also represented.
In the intermediate period, the Harappan culture appears along with the Amri culture, whereas period III is solely characterized by the Harappan culture.
Amri pottery has affinities with the Togau ware and the pre-Harappan pottery of Kot Diji. hml*>25 U
C-14 dates for Amrl culture range between 2900 B.C.
to 2600
Another important pre-Harappan site is libangan'^^
(situated in Ganganagar district, north Rajasthan). The exca
vations have revealed two Periods. Period T (KLB-I) and
Period II (KLB-II), the former is pre-Harappan and is succeded
by the Harappan culture.
The culture is characterized by a fortified town,
houses built with mud and baked bricks, floors paved with terra
cotta nodules, hearths, wells and fire-altars and bathing floors
in the citadel area. Other elements of this culture are beads
of terracotta, carnelian, copper, disc beads of steatite and
shell bangles. The culture has yielded various terracotta
objects such as bulls, toy-carts, wheels with a single-sided hub
and bone points. Copper was used as evidenced by celts and
bangles, an unidentified tool and some fragmentary objects. The
llthic industry of this culture is identified by blades of
chalcedony and agate sometimes showing secondary work. There
is evidence of a ploughing method which is similar to that 5 2 practised even to-day in this region.
Kalibangan pottery comprises Red Ware, Buff Ware and
Grey Ware. On the basis of their fabrics the wares are divided
i n t o s i x groups.In the Red Ware group four variations occur*
Bichrome painting, painted in black and white or white on black
o v e r Fed or buff surface is a common decoration. ^ U
Vases with disc or ring bases, bowls, narrow-mouthed
jars were potted on a slow-wheel, and painted in white and black
or white on black over a red surface. Loops, criss-cross designs,
opposed triangles, pellets linked with intersecting lines, flowers
with four petals, squares, squares with radiating triangles at the
ends are the depicted designs.
A smooth slipped variety of Red Ware consists of globular
and Ovoid vases with a disc base, dishes, offering stands, bowls
and lids. Their designs include a border of plants, the Indus
scale pattern, double-axe motifs and birds.
Yet another type of Red Ware has a partial slip. Wavy or
horizontal lines, floral designs, animal designs such as wavy-
horned antelopes, stags, bulls and scorpion motifs are painted in
black over a claylsh solution washed surface. The designs are. painted in black and hatched with white on globular Jars.
The thick sturdy Red Ware consists of thick storage jars, bowls and basins. The pots are decorated with incised groups of wavy or cirss-cross lines and bands of applique decoration.
The Buff Ware consists of varieties of jars, lids, bowls,
dlshes-on-stand, and dishes. The vessels are painted in black, purple and occasionally in white. Horizontal and oblique lines with fronds, fish-scales, borders of lattice or plain scallops or
loops, mult ipeta lied flowers, double-axe designs and fish were the
decorative motifs. 9 9 7
Grey Ware consists of basins, dishes-on-stand, bowls
and vases, occasionally painted in black and white over a grey
surface. The pre-Harappan pottery at Kalibangan is significant.
Some of the forms and the depicted designs are similar to the pre-Harappan pottery of Amri, Kot Diji and the pre-defence levels at Harappa. Partial slipped ware with a clayish wash for
decoration has affinity with the 'West Ware' of Khojak, which parallels the striated Quetta ware.
In KLB-II the Harappan culture appears with its all characteristics.
The pottery at Kalibangan is quite distinct from the
Harappan wares. It seems that at this site the Harappan culture has borrowed some of the important local elements. Bichrome painting in black and white or white on black occur very often in Kalibangan pottery, but this is very rare in the harappan wares. Some of the pre-Harappan elements which occur in the
Harappan levels at Kalibangan generally occur in Saurashtra also, at least in Lothal Period A. Bichrome painting occurs at Somnath,
Lothal and Rangpur. In Saurashtra it also occurs on the
Lustrous Red Ware and is uncommon, whereas at Kalibangan it occurs very often.
C-14 dates for Kalibangan indicate that the culture lasted about three hundred years and came to an end at the begin ning of the second millennium B.C. (2300 B.C. - 2000 B.C.).
At Surkotada,'*’'^ (Kutch) at present, we do not have 228
sufficient evidence of the pre-Harappan settlement, but some
pre-Harappan pottery has been unearthed along with the Harappan
p o t t e r y .
At Chandlgarh^'^ in the Punjab, the Harappan culture has
been revealed. Here along with the Harappan pottery, pre-
Harappan pottery has also been identified. The depicted and
incised decorations on the ware and the ware itself have a close affinity with the pre-Harappan pottery of Kalibangan.
Archaeological evidences indicate that because of the
increased trade relations with the West Asian countries these pre-Harappan cultures led to urbanization. In Lamberg-
Karlovsky's words, 'Through a similar systems mechanisms we see
the early development of the Harappan culture, beginning as early as 3000 B.C. Under the stimulus of desired resources and reciprocal trade throughout Baluchistan we can see an increasing nucleation of sites ’Kulli, Amri, Kot Diji, Mundigak, Shah-i- Tump etc.) which find a culmination in the mature Harappan civiliza t i on.
As far as C-14 dates are concerned at some sites the pre-Harappan cultures antedate the Harappan, whereas Kalibangan, the late phases of Kot Diji Period I and the two Kulli culture sites indicate a clear temporal overlap with the Harappan culture.®® Therefore, it has been thought that they represented 5 9 a the urban and rural aspects of the Indus culture.
Lothal Period A has yielded some of the elements which 229
the Barappans borrowed from the pre-Barappan cultures. The
chalcolithic cultures of Saurashtra do not show direct link with
th em.
^ ‘ -hiQ Harappan Culture
The well-known culture derives its name from one of the
type-sltes named Harappa, situated in the Punjab, Pakistan. It
is also known as the Indus valley civilization. Several explo
rations and excavations carried out by various scholars have
greatly extended the boundaries of this culture. From Alamglrpur
(Meerut district, Uttar Pradesh) in the east to Sutkagen-dor (on
the Makran coast in Pakistan) in the west; from Rupar (in the
foothills of the Siwaliks) in the north, to Malvan in the Tapti
^ s i n (Surat district, Gujarat state) in the souths^ - "C including
also Kutch and Saurashtra. Nearly 42 sites have been explored eg by S.A. Sali in Dhulia listrict (Maharashtra State) and the
pottery shows, it is said, affinity with the late periods of
R a n g p u r .
The culture is characterized by some distinctive
features such as a highly skilled knowledge of town planning,
generally with a citadel and a lower town using burnt bricks and mud bricks in a large quantity, and architectural construc
tions built on mud-brick platforms; the use of a special weight system, an advanced copper and bronze technology, a «) 0 a o y
knowledge of growing and weaving of cotton, trade relations with West Asia by sea and land routes 5 arts and crafts, skil
ful manufacture of ornaments, toys and games, entertainment, religion, a highly centralized administrative authority, the use of a special script, seals, sealings and amulets and well made utilitarian pottery for dally needs.
How far have the "Saurashtrlan Harappan sites" yielded these characteristics ? Most of the sites are unexeavated and surface collections from them give very little idea of the culture. Therefore, the conclusions reached are based only on 60 available material and are therefore tentative. Wheeler has discussed a few necessary Harappan elements for labelling the site as Harappan. We shall enter into slightly more details and emphasise structures and pottery.
Lothal Period A possesses most of the Harappan elements.
Town-planning on mud-brick platforms, building construction, a highly advanced drainage system, the "citadel*’ and “lower town" and the "granary" are truly Iferappan in nature. In Period B these traditions are continued.
Rangpur Period IT A has yielded buildings constructed on mud-brick platforms with a drainage system similar to that of
Lothal. The houses of the later periods are constructed by using mud and mud-brlcks with post-holes and thatched roofs. Here mud-brick platforms and the drains are absent. Thus, in the later periods Rangpur lacks the typical Harappan character. From Rojdl 231
so far we have evidence of mud-brick platforms and houses build of mud as at Rangpur* Rubble structures occur in Period
I C. At Somnath we have evidence of rubble structures set in mud mortar. Budhel has yielded a few lumps which probably come from the mud-wall from the pit, along with typical Harappan pottery-
From other sites which are excavated on a small scale we do not have structural evidences and the reports are yet to be published in detail. From these evidences we know that Lothal Period A has yielded all the typical Harappan characters which are also conti nued in Period B. Some traditions are present at Rangpur II A whereas Rojdi and the later periods of Rangpur and Somnath differ from Lothal, may be because these were later, smaller settlements and used the locally available materials.
The pottery unearthed from Lothal Period A is typically
Harappan. Indus goblets, troughs, perforated cylindrical jars, dishes painted with intersecting loops, convex-sided bowls, beakers, and storage jars along with the fabrics, surface treat ment and use of monoslip or bislips are typically Harappan in nature. During Period A important Harappan designs such as the fish-scale, peacock in< the Indus style, intersecting loops, hatched double triangles, rosettes, horizontal bands, the pipal leaf, conventionalized tree, and cross like motif were painted along with a few provincial birds and plant motifs. A few examples such as the stud-handled bowls and small globular jars in black-and red=-ware. Micaceous Red Ware and Kunda-like basins in Coarse Grey Ware differ from the Harappan traditions both in fabric and shape. They are indigenous in nature. Most of these Harappan and non-Harappan fabrics, shapes and designs occur at Rangpar II A and II but the typical Harappar designs such as the pipal leaf, conventionalized tree motif, cross-
llKe motif are absent. At Rangpur in Periods II A and II B horizontal bands are more common and cylindrical perforated jars, beakers and goblets occur in small numbers. The painted peacock on a bowl of Red Ware is non-Harappan.
Rojdi Periods I A and I B have yielded all the Harappan fabrics and shapes which occur at Lotha1 Period A. But here black-and red Ware begins from Period I B. The painted design of concentric circles on the interior of a bowl in black-and red
Ware is absent at all the other sites. Some of the typical
Harappan designs are also lacking.
At Somnath Period I (Pre-Prabhas) has yielded late Harappan wares of limited shapes.
The pottery from the early levels of Amra, lakhabaval,
Pithadia, Atkot, and Vasai is analogous to the pottery of Periods
II A and II B of Rangpur and therefore are Harappan in nature.
Pottery from Budhel is similar to Rangpur Period II A and Lothal
Period A, in shapes, fabrics and the painted designs. The use of bislips is purely Harappan in nature.
In Period B at Lothal a change is noticed in ceramics.
Prabhas Ware and Lustrous Red Ware appear and the Harappan wares gradually decrease in quantity. The high necked jars, carinated bowls, beaded-rimmed dishes without carination and small dishes 233
with solid stems are new types. Along with these new shapes,
Harappan goblets, heakers and troughs also occur. Horizontal
hands, oblique and flowing wavy lines In groups, loops, fronds,
hatched triangles, hatched circles, and flsh-scale designs are
often depicted and typical Harappan designs gradually disappear*
The same change has been noticed at Rangpur In Period II C and
III. Here Lustrous Red Ware occurs with all Its typical shapes and painted designs, such as the wavy-horned antelope, ”X“-
shaped horned bulls, loops with fronds, these being absent at the
other sites. Some of the designs and the pedes tailed bowls have
close affinities with Navdatoll. In Period III at Rangpur
Lustrous Red Ware Is the dominating ware and occurs with almost all the shapes and designs which are different from the Harappan
ones. It is significant to note that at Rangpur, Prabhas Ware
does not occur at all and Buff Ware and Micaceous Red Ware disappear In Period II C.
This change occurs in Rojdi Period I C also. Here
Prabhas Ware occurs along with the Harappan wares. Probably a few sherds of lustrous Red Ware also occur*
A great change is noticed at Somnath. Here Prabhas ware is the dominating post-Earappan ware with its typical shapes and the painted designs along with a few Harappan wares* In the late phases of Prabhas Ware, Lustrous Red Ware appears with its typical
lustre and shapes similar to those of Rangpur* later, in the post-Prabhas period it becomes the dominant ware* The occurreence of these two wares at Somnath is significant* Comparative Chart of Pottery t Harappan and Others
r LOTHAL RANGPUR ROJDI SOMNATH WARES L
• 1200 Harappan Red Ware 0 1250 Harappan Buff Ware 1300 a 1350 Micaceous Red Ware A m o o O A s^ E I ® V Coarse Grey Ware 11+50 t y F*--riod( 1500 Black-and-Red Ware Ptvioel m V 1550 Coarse Red Ware 1600 o A s ^ ffl ® V o A eb V ® /ii. ■ Q ^ E B P <-Y i o ol 1650 Prabhas Ware 2^ ^ JJiQ P e v i o d 1700 O □ A ffl ® v Lustrous Red Ware A 1750 o n IB V A. ® © V ftTl'ool X 1800 Reserve Slip Ware '*\y 1850 _ J®«.Tioe/ j T a , 1900 1950 ^ O □ BB V A ® _► - ? ®-
2000 O a A EB P-e/vio <4 J /\ 2050
2100 2150 V A i 2200 2250 I 2300 I 234
At most of the sites the Harappan pottery t 3rpes a r e replaced by Lustrous Red Ware and Coarse Red Ware, whereas at very few sites it is replaced by the Prabhas Ware and the
Lustrous Red Ware along with the degenerate Harappan ware.
The other Harappan elements such as triangular terracotta cakes occur at Lothal Period A and B, and Rangpur Period II A,
II B* So far no evidence exists from other sites. Etched beads of carnelian occur at Lothal Periods A and B, throughout all the periods at Rangpur and Ro.jdi Periods I A and I B, but so far there is no evidence from other sites. In the later periods the beads have been found in decreasing numbers. Harappan seals and sealings occur at Lothal only, in Period A in good numbers, but they decrease in Period B because of the slacking trade.
Indus weights occur at Lothal in both the periods, in Periods I . and I B at Rojdi and at Rangpur in Period II A and probably IIB.
At Rangpur they are replaced by spheroidal or elliptical weights 6 1 made of dolerite. A banded agate weight comes from Somnath
P e r i o d I.
Long parallel-sided blades of chert occur at Lothal in Periods A and B, Rangpur Period II A and Rojdi period I A and
I B. Rojdi has also yielded trapezes and lunates made of chert.
A chert blade comes from the surface collection of Akru, sltuatei in Dhandhuka taluka (Ahmedabad district). All these are characteristically Harappan. In the late phases of Period B at
Lothal, Period II B, II C and III at Rangpur and at Somnath in the late and the post-Harappan periods, chert blades are replace^ ^ 0 J ^ by small blades of jasper, agate and chalcedony which in the materials used are different from the traditional Harappan-
Such blades have been collected from the surface of many other
s i t e s .
At most of the sites graffiti marks on the pottery occur throughout all the periods. Most of them are composed of
linear designs and a very few of them are similar to the Harappan s c r i p t .
Copper objects from Lothal Period A and Rojdi Period
I A and I B and Rangpur Period II A, II B, II C and III are
Harappan in nature. But in the late periods they are seen to decrease. Most of the ornaments occuring at Lothal Period A and
B, Rangpur Period II A, II B, and Rojdi Periods I A and I B are
Harappan in nature. In the late phases the Harappan beads decrease in number and terracotta beads become popular.
What is evident from the available material is that phases ii, iii and iv, of Lothal Period A have yielded most of the Harappan elements including pottery. Therefore, it is a mature Harappan settlement, though a few provincial'elements are also naturally present. Most of these Harappan elements at
Lothal Period B, are found to continue along with the newer elements. Some of the important Harappan characters are found at Rangpur Period II A and II B, and Rojdi Periods I A and I B.
The early phases of most of the excavated sites have yielded
Harappan wares- T ROJDI SOMNATH WARES L O T H A l RANGPUR I
1. Harappan Seals and Sealing
2. Persian Gulf Seal
3. Harappan Cubical weights of chert and agate
h. Spheroidal or elliptical CD Is] w e i g h t s
5. Parallel-sided chert blades Petioc/ jQ- P«.y|oc/ 6. Short paralle-sided blades -V------of jasper, agate and chalcedony
ID 7* Obsidian blade flake M n ^ 0 A 8. Harappan type of town constructior P C Y l O c / ID V ® citadel, lower town, lanes and drainage system PtYfOc/ Ifc PoiOcl- J c . a IMI ID 9. Mud-brick platforms and drainage E n ^ s y s t e m Pc. yjo cl B ® ^ ■ PevJoc/ J 10. Triangular terracotta cakes ------m S i '^ K © A lag:( [0] s b ® ^ n Pevjocf JX B 11. Gramesmen E ® 0 BB s n ® ® 12. Indus script on pottery V 13* Rectangular or circular en ^ ^ ^ Q V closures (Fire-places) _ ® _ ___ 3 ? A P<.y\oJ~X fi lU. Harappan-type ornaments B b ffi ^ li ® Pe-y/oc/ A ^ i s i a 15". Harappan-type copper objects 16. Harappan-type toys
17« Etched beads of carnelian
l8. Disc beads of steatite
19* Beads of lapis lazuli 23ti
A great change Is noticed in Period B at Lothal,
Period II C and III at Rangpur, Period I C at Rojdi, the Period
II (Prabhas Period) at Somnath, and at the other sites. On the
whole in these periods the Harappan elements decrease but many
of them still linger along with the replaced elements. At most
of the other sites the Harappan culture is replaced by the
lustrous Red Ware culture or the Prabhas Ware Culture along with
the Coarse Red Ware, houses of mud with post-holes and thatched
roofs of rubble, using mud as mortar, and blades of jasper, agate, and chalcedony. The '‘Saurashtrian Harappans" degenerated when they lost actual contact with the Sind where the Harappan culture was either destroyed, or disappeared / declined owing to the original inspiration having dried up. In course of time these provincial capitals were gradually replaced by indigenous or other forces. However, this shows the wide distribution of the Harappan culture in the earlier periods, replaced by the Lustrous Red Ware and Prabhas Ware, as the post-Harappan cultures in Saurashtra.
3. The Malwa Culture
In Madhya Pradesh, in the valleys of the Narbada,
Chambal and ^^ina, many chalcolithic sites have been discovered. 62 A few of them are excavated, namely Navdatoli on the bank of the
Narbada (Nimar district); Wagda^^ on the Chambal (Ujjain district)
Kayatha®"^ on the Chhotikall Sind, a tributary of the Chambal
(Ujjaln district) and Avra®'^ on the Chambal (Mandasar district) and Eran^® on the Bina (Sagar district), Navdatoli is the best <) O A. O {
known site, excavated horizontally on a large scale and reports are published in detail.
The Navdatoli excavation revealed four periods. The earliest is chalcolithie and on the evidence of its material culture and stratification is divided into four phases.
The main ceramic of the Navdatoli-MaIvra. culture is pale red, mattred and crimson thick slipped ware, painted in black.
This ware is known as Malwa Ware. It has a wide distribution and occurs throughout all the phases. Dishes-on-stand, high necked pots, pots with corrugated cylindrical necks, funnel-shaped mouths and globular bodies, carlnated bowls, large varieties of goblets (bowl-on-stand) are the types which occur in the phase i.
The depicted designs consist of large varieties of geometric, animal and bird motifs. Other ceramics are black-and-red Ware and
Cream-slipped Ware. Concavo-convex sided bowls and inturned- rimmed bowls painted in geometric designs in white are the types in former ware. In the Cream slipped category many types are common to Malwa Ware. Many designs are also common to Malwa Ware, but a band of antelopes facing right and dancing human figures are characteristic. A row of human figures holding each others hands occur at Somnath in Prabhas ware, though the arrangement is d i f f e r e n t .
Phase 11 has yielded Cream-slipped Ware, Malwa Ware,
T^urnished Red slipped Ware, black-and-red Ware and a Metallic
Ware with snuff coloured slip. Metallic Red Ware and Jorwe Ware 238
make their anpearance at this stage. Most of the types from
the earlier phases continue. In Jorwe Ware high necked pots,
basins and dishes-on-stand, bowls with short and squat stands
occur. Lustrous Red Ware occurs in a small quantity.
Phase ill is marked by Ma Iwa and Jorwe Wares. Lustrous
Red Ware and Metallic matt painted Ware also continue.
In phase iv all the wares from phase ill continue except
the Cream-slipped Ware. Malwa Ware dominates and Jorwe Ware and
Grey Ware decrease in number.
Other chalcolithic elements are its blade industry, use
of beads of steatite, bone, copper, segmented faience and lapis
lazuli beads, stone balls (used as sling balls), stone rings, mace-
heads, hammer stones and querns. Bronze with a high percentage of tin was known. Plat celts, fish-hooks, engravers, pokers, arrowheads and bangles, chisel and hallow cones, are some of the objects that were manufactured.
The inhabitants cultivated many varieties of grain and
lived in round or rectangular houses made from wooden posts and bamboo splits. The floor was plastered with cow dung and clay, and white washed with lime and the roofs were probably thatched.
In phase 1 Vedl-like structures indicate the performance 6 7 of sacrifice and other rituals.
Some seven C-14 dates suggest 1600-1300 B»C. as the period 68 of the chalcolithic settlement. 239
At Navdatoli the Lustrous Red Ware occurs from phase iii
and continues down to the last phase along with other wares*
Bowls-on-stand occur in Cream slipped Ware in phase i.
This shape of bowl continued to be made in the Burnished Red 6 9 slipped Meta lie Ware in phase ii. Similar bowls-on-stand occur 70 in Lustrous Red Ware in Period III at Rangpur. The Navdatoli
types, "T.65Aii'' painted with hatched diamondsand *'T.65Bii''
painted with hatched diamonds with a band below, have close affinities with the bowls-on-stand in Lustrous Red Ware of Period 73 III at Rangpur. On the one hand bowls-on-stand occur in phase
iii in Jorwe Ware at Navdatoli"^^ on the other hand similar bowls- 75 on-stand occur in Rangpur Period III in Lustrous Red Ware. A bowl with incipient carination and inturned sides painted with a
rising sun motif (eye-lash motif) occurs in Jorwe fabric in phase iv 76 at Navdatoli. A similar bowl with similarly depicted design occurs 77 at Rangpur Period III.
Among the depicted designs from both the cultures the peacock, rising sun motif (eye-lash motif), wavy-horned antelopes, hatched diamonds between two bands are common designs. But the peacock at Rangpur and Lotlial are more naturalistic and distinctive. 7 8 At Navdatoli the peacock occurs often and in various styles and this is the same case with the depicted antelope motif.
Segmented beads of faience, beads of steatite and lapis
lazuli occur in both the cultures. A few similarities in the bowls-on-stands, and a few common designs. The occurrence of a 24(1
few common beads and Lustrous Red Ware indicate some link between
Navdatoli on the one hand and Rangpur Periods II C and III on the
o t h e r . As seen, C-14 dates for Navdatoli range between 1600 B.C.
to 1300 B.C. Therefore, probably the late phases of Navdatoli
are contemporary with the post-Harappan periods of Chalcolithic
Saurashtra. Both the cultures are proto-historic and probably have
shared a few common elements from a common source, but both have
different origins and developments.
Wavy-horned antelopes and peacocks occur at Nagda, and
have slight similarities with the peacocks and antelopes of Rangpur<
Time and space gap between the two do not show any specific
continuity.
Though the antelope motif occurs both at Eran and Rangpur,
yet they are essentially different and therefore no affinities can be postulated.
4. The Jorwe Culture
7 9 The Jorwe Culture derives its name from the site Jorwe
situated on the bank of the river Pravara, a tributary of the
river Godavari (Ahmednagar district). South of the Narbada a number of chalcolithic sites of this culture have been discovered- 8 0 Some of them have been excavated, among them Jorwe and Naslk on the bank of the Godavari (Naslk district); Prakash on the Taptl o -| 8 2 83 and Bahai on the Glrna (east Khandesh); Nevasa and Dlamabad 241
84 on the hank of river Pravara near Jorwe; Chandoli on the g c river Ghod, Songaon on the conflaence of the rivers Kama and
Nira (Poona district).
The ceramic of this culture is a red slipped ware with matt
surface, painted in black, Black Ware and Grey Ware. The depicted
designs are geometric and mostly linear designs; plant and floral'
designs, wavy-lined antelope, wavy lines, human and bird designs
also occur.
The types are utilitarian and the common comprise cari-
nated bowls, globular funnel-mouthed pots with tubular spouts.
Grey Ware consists of large storage jars, burial jars, bowls and
high necked jars. The fabric is coarser than the Bed Ware. At
Bahai the Burnished Grey Ware was painted in dull white and the
Grey Ware with ochre paint.
At Diamabad three phases were revealed in the chalcolithic
culture. Phase 1 was characterized by wheel-made and hand-made
Grey Ware similar to that of Brahmaglrl I, with incised, applique and painted decoration. Phase 11 was marked by Red slipped Ware
t painted in black with geometric designs such as hatched triangles,
squares, lozenges, lines and a dog or goat motif- A few types of
Malwa Ware also occur. Phase 111 Is characterized by Jorwe Ware
with its typical forms and designs. Other characteristics of
Diamabad are its blade Industry, beads of terracotta and semi precious stones and in phase 11, the use of copper and beads of
shell and faience. Here Jorwe Ware occurs later than the Malwa
W a r e . 242
At Nevasa Period ITT is chalcollthlc and characterized by Jorwe Ware, Grey Ware, Coarse Red Ware and Orange slipped Ware.
Jorwe Ware occurs with Its typical shapes and is painted with geometric designs. Of the animal motifs the dog and running wavy- horned antelopes are significant. Beads of semi-precious stones steatite, lapis luzuli, and faience were known. The use of copper was known as evidenced by chisels, pokers, bangles and beads.
The excavation at Chandoli has revealed a chalcollthlc settlement characterized by its rich ceramic industry, which comprises Jorwe Ware, Malwa Ware, Lustrous Red Ware, ”Sojdi-type
Ware", Black Ware, Orchre-washed Ware, Coarse Red Ware, Grey Ware and Cream-slipped Ware. Jorwe Ware is predominant and occurs with its typical shapes and designs. Lustrous Red Ware is represent ed by a very few sherds whose shapes are not known. In Jorwe Ware wavy horned antelopes, loops, lattice, hatched diamonds are the important designs. The culture is also known by its beads of semi-precious stones, steatite and terracotta, and copper objects such as bangles, chisels, fish-hooks, beads and a very rich blade and arrow-head industry. \
At Songaon, a pair of crane motif and the wavy horned ante lope occur as the depicted designs.
No specific similarities have been noted between Saurashtra and the Jorwe culture. The occurrence of a few sherds of Lustrous
Red Ware at Chandoli and a few beads indicate a very remote link with the Deccan, probably via the southern out-posts of the post-
Harappan cultures in south Gujarat. The antelope has regional 243
differences and the Rangpur antelope is more naturalistic.
The occurrence of a pair of cranes at Songaon is not similar to that depicted at Lothal, the latter is hi^ly naturalistic.
C-14 dates for Nevasa, Chandoli and other sites indi cate a total time spread for this culture of 1500-1000 B.G*
5. Blaok-and-Red-Ware Culture
In southeast Rajasthan nearly 50 chalcolithic sites 86 have been discovered, among them Ahar and Gilund have
"been excavated. Ahar, 'because of its large-scale excava tion and detailed publication is better known. This is a riverine culture and most of the sites are located in the pn valley of the Banas river and its tributaries.
The characteristics of this culture are copper imple ments including knives, copper smelting and manufacturing, beads of terracotta, bone, shell and semi-precious stones, houses built with rough dressed slabs of schist for the plinth and mud and mud-bricks for the walls. Timber was also used. The houses had sloping roofs thatched with bamboo and covered with grass. At G-ilund mud bricks and burnt bricks were u ed in place of stone because of the unavailability of the latter.
The culture is well-knowti by the profuse occurrence of blaok-and-red Vfere painted in various white designs. 244
This ware occurs throughout all the phases. Most of the vessels are medium thin with a dull black compact core.
Various types of rimless howls, out-going rimmed oars, howls-on-stand, globular vessels with outgoing rims are the common forms in this ware. The painted designs are geometric strokes, wavy lines, concentric circles, hatched diamonds, dots, strokes and loops. The other ceramics are
Chocolate slipped Ware, Cream-slipped Ware, Cut- Ware,
Buff Ware and painted Black-on-Red Ware. In Period IB at
Ahar, Cream-slipped Ware and Buff Ware disappear and Ware with a Red Wash, and Ribbed Ware appear. Lustrous Red Ware occurs in the middle levels of Period I C. Dishes-on-stand
(only the stands were found) high-necked jars, carinated pots, jars with short concave necks are the types which occur in Lustrous Red Ware. Horizontal bands, vertical and horizontal zigzag lines, loops, hstched diamonds and tri angles are the painted designs. Dishes-on-stand and copper celts occur throughout all the phases.
Lustrous Red Ware and black-and-red Ware occur in both the cultures, but the black-and-red Ware types of
Saurashtra are absent at Ahar. The painted designs on black-and-red Ware in Saurashtra are very limited, whereas it is the dominant fabric in Ahar with various designs which are unknown to Saurashtra. Stud-handled bowls,
convex-sided bowls, are absent at Ahar. At Rangpur in 245
Periods IIC and III and at Somnath In Period III (post-
Prabhas Period) Lustrous Red Ware is the dominant ceramic.
At Ahar Lustrous Red Ware occurs in Period IC with limited
t y p e s .
C-14 dates for Ahar are 1900-1200 B.C.®^
The occurrence of Lustrous Red Ware in Saurashtra and
at Ahar might indicate a remote link between them. But as
"both the cultures are indigenous probatly there was no
direct link between the two.
6. P ainted G-re.y Ware
The Painted Grey Ware culture is associated with the
use of iron and is one of the most important po st-Harappan
cultures, located in the G-angetic valley. It was first
"brought to light by B.B.Lal in his excavations at Hastina- 89 pur and limited explorations in Rajasthan, Haryana,
Punjab and Uttar Pradesh followed. It was encountered at 90 Ahichchhatra in the early forties. Various explorations
carried out by scholars have revealed more than.one
hundred and fifty sites in the above mentioned areas and
in Bihar and the Tarai Nepal.
The ware is of fine quality made from well-levigated
clay. The surface colours vary from ashy-grey to dark
grey and buff grey and are painted in black, or occasionally
in red or chocolate, yellow, white grey and bichrome. The 24B
pots are well-fired. Straight-sided 'bowls, cups, and inter
nally curved rimmed dishes with round “bases are the common
types. The depicted designs are mostly geometric, such as
wavy, horizontal, intersecting lines, concentric semi
circles, concentric circles with rows of lines representing
hooks, lines of dots, dashes and swastikas.
The excavation at Atranjikhera has revealed some im
portant evidences. Here Painted G-rey Ware occurs with
habitational levels indicating different floor levels with
post-holes, an iron-furnace, a potter's kiln and domestic
hearths. The excavations also yielded iron implements from
all the layers.
At Hastinapur the ware occurs atove the Ochre Coloured
Pottery associated with Red Ware and Black Ware. It occurs
in good quantity, where %at Atranjikhera it occurs from the
early levels.''^
The C-14 date for the Painted G-rey Ware at Atranjikhera
is 1025 B.C. Dates from Hastinapur and Ahichchhatra
indicate a period of 800 B.C. - 400 B.C., and from Foh 900 -
700 B . C . ^ ^
The fatrics, types and depicted designs of the Painted
G-rey Ware are different from the chal col ithi c pottery of
Saurashtra. The total number of C-14 dates from these sites
indicate a time-spread of 1025 B.C. - 400 B.C. for this 247
culture. There is a time gap between these two cultures as the Saurashtrian chalcolithio culture is much earlier than the Painted Grey Ware culture. Therefore, there is no link
■between the two cultures.
7. Ochre Coloured Pottery
This is an ill-fired thick-textured Ochre Coloured
Ware fragile and rolled in appearance which has been found in the G-anga and Sutlej valleys. It was first recognised by g Q 3a B.E.Lal at Hastinapur. '' The recent excavation at Saipai near village Saipai in Uttar Pradesh (Etawah district) has thrown some important light on this ceramic. Here it is noticed that it is a Red Ware painted in black over the surface. At Saipai, for the first time it is found asso ciated with a copper hoard therefore it is now called
'Saipai Ware' also. At present more than 90 sites have been located in the districts of Sahranpur, Muzafarnagar, Meerut and Bulandshar in Uttar Pradesh, and also in the districts of iknbala and Jullundar in East Punjab. It covers an area of nearly 300 km. from Hardwar to Noh (north to south) and 9 4 450 km. from (east to west) Ahichchhatra to Jullundar. 95 Among these, Ambkheri and Bargaon (Sahrainpur district),
Saipai, Ahichchhatra (Bareli district) and Noh near Bharat- pur, have been excavated. 248
The pottery revealed at Saipai is a Red Ware painted in “black. The jars v>rith flaring rims, bowls, basins and dishes- on-stand are the types encountered. Some of them have spouts or handles. The pots are decorated with incised decoration executed on the upper part at the exterior and sometimes on the ribs. A rov/ of dots, dashes or a series of triangular compartments enclosing rows of dashes are the designs in the incised decoration. A sherd has been found painted in criss cross design in black over the red surface.
The other evidences at Saipai are copper Hoard objects represented by hooked spearheads, harpoons, and an anthro pomorphic figure; bells, querns, pounders, rubbers and pellets of sandstone; a chalcedony flake and a chert blade; several pieces of kiln-burnt clay and a few parts of burnt brick. There are evidences showing that some of the were made of wattle-and-daub. The zebu (Bos indicus) appears to have been domesticated.
The types from Saipai which are published are absent in Saurashtra. At Saipai the incised decoration seems to be frequently used. Most of these incised designs are absent in Saurashtra. Until the detailed reports of pottery have been published we are unable to come to any conclusive comparisons between these two ceramics. 96 At Atranjikhera, Ahichchhatra and Noh the pottery has been encountered from the earliest levels above the natural 24 9
soil. At Hastinapur it is followed by the Painted Grey
Y/are. At Bisauli, (Bardwan district) and Rajpur Parsu in
(Bijnor district), at Bahadarabad (Saharanpur district),
Nasirpur near Ajnbkheri and at Bargaon the pottery is found associated with copper hoards.
At Bargaon it is associated with the Harappan culture.
A few pottery shapes and the designs have affinities with
Cemetery-H pottery, characterized by jars with splayed-out rims and medium sized high-necked flasks. It also indi cates contact with Bara as evidenced by its incised de coration of chevrons and w^avy lines.
At Alamgiipur typical Harappan shapes such as goblets, beakers, perforated jars, dishes-on-stand were copied in the Oohre Coloured Pottery, whereas a few Ochre Coloured Q? Pottery shapes were copied in Harappan Ware."
At Atnbkheri the pottery was associated with Harappan elements and the ceramics have strong affinities with the ceramics of Bargaon, Alamgirpur, Eupar and Bara. Atranji~ khera pottery has close affinities with pottery of Hastina- 9 8 pur, Bahadarabad and Ambkheri. Most of the sites have yielded Harappan elements along with Ochre Coloured Pottery.
These Harappan elements include some of the typical
Harappan shapes which are common to the early levels of
the "Saurashtrian chalcolithic sites”, as well as to the
Ochre Coloured Pottery levels in the Gangetic valley. 250
Thermoluminescence dates from Atranjikhera, Lai Qila QQ Nasirpur and Jhinjhana range from 2070 B.C. to 13^0 B.C., and are nearly contemporary with the chalcolithic culture of Saurashtra.
Prevdously it was thought that Ochre Coloured Pottery was Harappan in nature and also that the Ochre Coloured
Pottery sites were temporary Harappan settlements of the
Harappan refugees who v;ere forced to leave their home-land as was the case in Saurashtra,^^^ but it seems to be a different ceramic industry contemporary with the late phases of the Harappan culture.
The Harappan shapes and the elements which are common to both the cultures have a common source and origin but different developments. There is no link between the
Ochre Coloured Pottery sites of the G-aHgetic valley and the chalcolithic sites of Saurashtra. Ochre Coloured Pottery is absent in Saurashtra,whereas Prabhas V/are, Micaceous
Red Ware, black-and-red Ware and Lustrous Red Ware are absent from the Ochre Coloured Pottery sites*
I
9. Neolithic Cultures
The neolithic culture has been noticed in north,east and south India. In the north it is found at Burzahom, 24 km. north-east from Srinagar and at a few other sites in the
Jhelum valley of Kashmir. 10 2 In the east it is mainly found 251
in Kachai (Mayurbhanj district, Orissa), Daojali Hading, situated on a hill-top in the north Caohar hill (united districts of Makir Hills, Assam), in the Sanjay valley
(Sin^ghum district, Bihar). In south India this culture was more widespread and has been discovered in the valleys of the Bhima, Krishna, Tungbhadra and Kaveri rivers in north and southern Mysore, in Andhra Pradesh and western
Tamil Nadu. Nearly 32 sites have been explored by V.R.
Reddy^®^ in southwestern Andhra Pradesh. Among these eight sites have been excavated and the reports published. They are Brahmagiri^^(Chitradurg district), Maski,^®^ piklihal 1 0 7 (Raichur district), Sangankul, Tekkalkota (Bellary dis- trict)^^®, Hallur^*^^, (Dharwar district) T.Narsipur^^^,
(Mysore district), Utnur^^^, and Paiyampalli^^^ (north
Arcot district).
The neolithic culture of Burzahom has two phases. The first is characterized by its pit dwellings, polished stone implements, bone tools - awls, needles, points, chisels and harpoons. The pottery is hand-made and has mat impressions on the underside of the base. In the second phase the use of mud and mud-brick dwellings, black-burnished ware appear. The inhabitants had domesticated the dog and cattle.
Animal and human burials were a significant aspect of this
c u l t u r e . The excavated sites of the eastern neolithic are re presented "by polished stone tools and a coarse red ware, probably hand-made and having impressed and incised deco rations, whereas the pottery from Daojali Hading has cord and mat impression. Neolithic pottery of the east has regional differences.
The southern neolithic is marked by polished stone implements, a blade industry, working in bone and beads.
The people lived on the terraces which were also used for agriculture and cattle keeping. The ceramic industry con sisted of hand-made dull grey ware which is burnished and a cream brownish red ware, micaceous red ware and a few sherds of buff ware. At very few sites red ware painted in black also occurs. The repertory usually consists of large bowls, jars, medium-sized pots v^ith tubular spouts and a few sherds of perforated pots. At Piklihal, Brahmagiri, and Maski in the lower strata, painted sherds of red ware occur. The urn burials in houses were practised. At piklihal in the later neolithic levels the use of copper and potter's wheel was known.
There is no link between the neolithic culture of
Burzahom and the chaloolithic culture of Saurashtra. Both the ceramic industries are distinctive and the types are different and there is both a temporal and spatial gap between the two cultures. 253
The grey ware and micaceous red ware though common
between the Southern neolithic culture and the chalcolithic
culture of Saurashtra. But the southern neolithic wares are hand-made, whereas the Saurashtrian wares are wheel-made with
clear striation marks. The types occurring in these ware
in both the cultures are different.
Micaceous red ware occurs at piklihal and Maski and
Hallur. The Deccan micaceous red ware is hand-made, whereas
the Saurashtrian micaceous red ware are wheel-made, fine, glossy and well burnished and the types and the depicted 11 3 designs are distinctive. Allchin sees similarities between the neolithic wares of the Deccan and the chalco- lithic wares of Saurashtra. But as already pointed out the
so-called affinities are not true affinities, Buff ware in
Saurashtra which is Harappan and is of fine fabric wheel- made and differs from the neolithic buff ware in shapes, painted designs and fabric.
The occurrence of disc beads of steatite and a few chalcolithic elements such as parallel-sided chert blades and the use of copper at Piklihal, Maski and Brahmagiri, indicate some remote links with the northern chalcolithic
cultures as they are contemporary with them. Chert blades and beads of steatite occur in the Harappan levels of
Rojdi, Lothal and Rangpur, and these elements also occur 254
in the Southern neolithic culture, though the sources are d i f f e r e n t .
C-14 dates from Sangankallu, Hallur, Tekkalkota, T.
Narsipur and Paiyampalli range between 1800 B.C. - 1500 B.C. and are contemporary with the late phases of the chalco— lithio culture of Saurashtra. Prom the Utnur ash mound the 0-14 dates are 2000 B.C. to 650 B.C. Thus some of the sites are contemporary with Saurashtrian chalcolithic culture. On very meagre evidences All chin indicates folk movements to the south bourging the Harappan influence.
The occurrence of these meagre evidences indicates some remote links which are noted at the Harappan sites. But we do not have any direct evidence to demonstrate links with the chalcolithic culture of Saurashtra.
Ill Origin of the Saurashtra Culture
Sabbarao described Saurashtra as an area of ’relative isolation', because it was separated from the mainland by difficult routes of communication^^'^ Its geographical location however, has resulted in contact with Africa,
Arabia, the Persian Gulf, southeast Asia and the rest of western India, because its extensive coastline promoted maritime activity, which has greatly influenced the cul ture of Saurashtra. 255
Here we shall try to attempt to understand the origin and chronology of the chalcolithlc cultures of Saurashtra on the tasis of the available evidences. The scholarly work done on the Adivasis of Gujarat by ?imal Shah^^^ has throvvn interesting light on this problem. The scholar has shown spread of these Adivasis all over Gujarat including
Kutch and Saurashtra. He has also given statistical 1 1 7 tables and maps of their present distribution. At pre sent these Adivasis are found spread all over eastern
Gujarat in forested and hilly areas, though very few of them are still found scattered in Saurashtra and Kutch.
(PI. No.
It has been thought that before the later colonization of Gujarat (including Saurashtra and Kutoh) these Adivasis 1 1 8 were the original inhabitants. The colonizers might have pushed back these Adivasis to the forested, hilly areas of east and south Gujarat. At present we do not have any evidence to substantiate this hypothesis. If a detailed study of the Adivasi culture is carried out and it is found they migrated there from Saurashtra then we will gain further insight into this problem.
As far as the available archaeological evidences go before the intrusion of the Harappan culture in Saurashtra, the indigenous people lived there. They used Micaceous 256
Red Ware, black-and-red Ware and Coarse Grey Ware which are
in fabric and types different from the Harappan. vStud- handled bowls, flared-rimmed globular jars, basins and bowls are the types used by the inhabitants. These ceramic
industries have been noticed at Rangpur, Lothal, Rojdi,
Somnath, Budhel, Vasai and Akru from the earliest levels of the Harappan culture.
The occurrence of blades of jaspar and chalcedony and other tools throughout all the periods at Rangpur and
Somnath and in the later phase of Rojdi and other **Sau- 1 1 9 rashtrian sites”, indicates that probably these were indigenous products. This indigenous culture of Saurashtra was probably a small village culture dependent on small-
scale agriculture, animal husbandry and fishing. It was
spread on the sea coast also as indicated at Lothal,
Somnath, Budhel and Vasai. More excavations are necessary to elucidate this problem.
The expansion of the Harappan culture into Saurashtra 1 2 0 1 2 1 took place both by sea and land routes during the late levels of the Harappan culture in Sind. C-14 dates
from Lothal phases iii, iv, and v indicate that Lothal
Period A was probably contemporary with the later levels
of Mohenjo—daro. 122 Most of the sites in Saurashtra are not excavated, therefore, we do not know the precise nature 257
of the settlements and their chronology. It has been thought
that because of natural and human calamities the Harappans
moved from Sind to Saurashtra and the northeast part of
India. For Saurashtra they followed a land route, via Sind
and Kutch,^^^ Surkotada indicates this route.C-14 d a t e s
from Surkotada and its location, indicate that this route might have been used for communication between Saurashtra, 1 2 5 Kutch and Sind, as it was before Independence.
The early levels of most of the sites have yielded many Harappan types and fabrics. Some of the sites have yielded Harappan ceramics along with the indigenous Micaceous
Red Ware, G-rey Ware and black-and-red Ware. In the
Harappan period these indigenous ceramics continued in use
along with the Harappan types and fabrics. These two
traits of cultures are noticed at Rangpur, Lothal, Rojdi,
Akru, Budhel, Yasai and some of the other sites.
Wtienever migrations have taken place by land routes,
especially from North V/est Frontier Provinces into
Saurashtra via Sind and Kutch, the people having entered
this peninsula found that there were no other routes
available for going out from the peninsula except the
bottle-neck passage through which they had entered. This
happens to the people who always follow the land routes.
Sattrashtra has accepted people by sea-route also but mass 258
movements have followed the land route. Therefore, at present what we see in Saurashtra is a variety of different peoples. Most of them have come ty land routes and have
mingled with the local people, though still keeping their
characteristics.
After the Harappans, another strain of culture known as the Prabhas Ware culture appeared at Somnath. It probably entered by the sea-route when the Harappan culture was gradually dying. A few sites'of this culture have been located in the southwest and the interior part of Saurashtra indicating inland movement of this culture. The depicted designs, types and the varieties of slips are different from the Harappan traditions. Though a few types such as dishes-on-stand and rarely the convex-sided bowls were
copied in Prabhas Ware.
At Rangpur and many other sites the Lustrous Red Ware appears along with late Harappan ceramics. Most of the
types of depicted designs in Lustrous Red Ware are different from the Harappan traditions and types. There fore, it is not an evolution from the Harappan culture as
scholars have thought, but an intrusion from outside, probably by the land route. This culture shares some
affinities with the other chalcolithic cultures of the
sub-continent. 251)
During the intrusion of this culture the Harappan culture was gradually disappearing. A few Harappan types such as olutbed-rimmed jars, dishes~on-stand, stud-handled I bowls and probably small globular pots were copied in
Lustrous Red Ware. But the stud-handled bowls with long corrugated handles were unknown to the Harappan and Mica ceous Red Ware traditions.
In the depicted designs, concentric circles, inter secting loops, loops and fish-scale designs were copied in
Lustrous Red Ware. The lattice design is common through out. Lustrous Red Ware has common links in the post- 1 2 7 Harappan chalcolithic cultures of India.
The earliest settlers in Saurashtra were probably
Adivasis. We have evidence of pre-Harappan ceramics. These are the people who used Micaceous Red Ware, ^l^ck^M-red
Were and G-rey ware. But we do not have evidence to corelate them with the Adivasis. Then we have evidence of the
Harappans who had colonized most of Saurashtra, though concentrated more in the river valleys. The Prabhas culture is concentrated in the southwest and central parts of
Saurashtra. Though a very few sites have yielded this culture, a few sherds have been reported from Lothal Period
B. But at present we do not know more about the Prabhas culture at Lothal. The occurrence of Prabhas ware at very few sites indicates the arrival of saiall groups of people. 2 6 0
The occurrence of Lustrous Red Ware, at many sites along with a few Harappan traditions in the ceramic indicates the spread of this culture throughout Saurashtra.
IV Chronology
Fortunately w6 have a few 0-14 dates from lothal,
Rojdi and Somnath which may give some idea about the chalcolithic culture of Saurashtra.
C-14 dates from Lothal range between 2080 B.C. - 1500 1 2 8 B.C., though this has not satisfied some of the 12Q scholars. For Rojdi period I B the date is 1970 B.C. -
1975 B.C. 1 3 0 The Prabhas culture which is post-Harappan ranges from 1615 B.C. - 1515 B.C. We do not have C-14 dates from Rangpur, Rojdi Period lA, and the earliest phase of Lothal Period A. Rangpur has yielded some of the important Harappan elements which we have seen previously and therefore could be contemporary with the later phases of Lothal Period A, at least on the basis of the ceramics.
On the basis of C-14 dates we may assume th^ beginning of the Harappan culture at Lothal to begin at least 2100
B.C. as for Phase lA we have a' C-14 date of 2080 B.C. and the end of the Harappan culture in Saurashtra may be placed around 1600 B.C. This chronology is supported by a C-14 date from Somnath for the Prabhas culture where the initial stages of the post-Harappan culture (which is the Prabhas 2 6 1
culture) has been placed c.l6l5 B.C. 1 Thus, probably the
occupation of the Harappan culture in Saurashtra ranges
between at least 2100 B.C. - 1600 B.C.
C-14 dates from Rojdi Period IB are 1970-1945 B.C.^^^
Therefore, Rojdi lA must be earlier than 1970 B.C. And
therefore, the terminal date for Period lA should be at least around 2000 B.C. C-14 dates for the Prabhas culture are l6l5 B.C. - 1515 B.C. Therefore, for the pre-Prabhas
Period which is late Harappan, the terminal date comes at least around 1650 B.C. We have previously seen that the
Harappan phases at Somnath have yielded less Harappan
elements than Rangpur and Rojdi, therefore, it could be later than Rangpur Period IIA and early levels of Period
IIB and Rojdi Period lA and late levels of IB. Rangpur
Periods IIA and IIB have yielded some of the important
Harappan elements which appear at Rojdi Periods lA and IB, which also appear at Lothal Period A» Therefore, Rangpur was probably occupied between 2000 B.C. ~ 1600 B.C. This
terminal date is supported by the C-14 date for the Prabhas
culture where the initial stages are dated C.1615 B.C.
Therefore we can assume that between 2100 B.C. — 1600
B.C. Saurashtra was occupied by the Harappan culture and
succeeded by the Prabhas culture at Somnath, It is significant
that the middle phases of Lothal Period A, Rojdi Period lA U fw
and protatly IB, and Rangpur period IIA and pro 1381317 I I B 1 3 5 were contemporary with the late phases of Mohenjo-daro 1 and Surkotada, 36 though Lothal seems to be earlier than
S a r k o t a d a .
Probably, during the early period of this assumed
chronology, Saurashtra had communication and probably trade
relations with sites in the Punjab and Sind via the present
route, through the little Rann of Kutch and Kutch and 1 3 7 Sind. Therefore, Kotada in Khavada, Kotadi in Khadir
and Surkotada not only indicate the southward route towards 1 38 Saurashtra via Surkotada, and the Little Rann of Kutch
but also suggest a route of communicatioij with Sind,
The Prabhas Culturehas been found to lose its signi
ficance C.1555 B.C. and is followed by the Lustrous Red
Ware Culture which probably lasted up to 1300 B.C. The
Lustrous Red Ware at Ahar occurs in Period IC. At Navdatoli
it occurs from Phase iii. C-14 dates for Ahar range 1 3 9 between 1900 B.C. - 1200 B.C. whereas at Navdatoli they a r e f r o m I 600 B.C. to 1300 B.C. This means that the
Lustrous Red Ware was present in 1300 B.C. at Navdatoli
and 1200 B.C. at Ahar. Therefore, it may be assumed that
the Lustrous Red Ware Period extended from 1555 B.C. - 1300
B.C. R e f e r e n o e a
1 R a o , 1962. op»pit.> p-16; 1956. op,cit., p.88,
2 I b i d .
3 R a o , 1965* op.cit.. p.52.
4 1957-58, pp.18-20; 1958-59, pp.19-21.
5 Agewan, op.cit., p.38.
6 R a o , 1963. op.cit.. p.182
7 Sankalia, 1972b, op.oit.,p. 63.
8 I M d .
9 lAR, 1955-56, p. 7 .
1 0 I b i d .
11 I b i d .
12 lAR.. 1957-58, p.20.
1 3 I b i d .
1 4 I b i d .
1 5 R a o , 1961, op . pit. ,p . 21
16 lAR.. 1955-56, p.7
1 7 I b i d .
1 8 I b i d .
19 R a o , 1965, op.cit., p.184
20 I b i d .
21 lAR.. 1955-56, p.7
22 I b i d .
23 Pandya, op.cit.. p.11, footnote No.2. 2 64
24 IAR«, 1955-56, p.7.
25 Rao, 1963» op« cit., p.184.
26 lAR*. 1955-56, p.7.
27 lAR.. 1957-58, p.20.
2 8 I b i d .
29 I b i d .
30 Pandya, op.cit». pp.15-14.
31 I b i d .
32 I b i d .
33 Marshall, op . cit.. Vol.2, p . 320 ; Maekay, 1943.
op.pit., p.67.
34 Pandya, op . oi t., p. 3.
35 I b i d .
36 Thapar, 1972. op.cit.. p.72.
37 Piggott, 3., 1950. Prehistoric India, p.72.
38 Stein, A., 1929. An Archaeological Tour in Waziristan
and Northern Baluchistan. MASI., No.37, pp.3i-51.
39 Piggott, 1950. op.cit.. p.122.
40 Piggott, 1947. "A New Prehistoric Ceramic from
Baluchistan”, M ., No.3| pp.131-142; Pairservis, 1956.
'Excavations in the Quetta Valley, V/est Pakistan,
APAMNH, Vol.45, No,2, pp.199-402.
41 De Cardi, B., 1965. 'Excavations and Reconnaissance in
Kalat, West Pakistan* PA.. No.2, pp.86-180; Fair-
servis, 1956. op.cit. 2 6 5
42 De Cardi, op» cit», pp.126—134.
43 Hargreaves, op.cit.
44 Stein, 1951. op.cit.. pp.118-127; Wheeler, 1968,
The Indus glvilization. pp.15-17.
45 Khan, op.oit., pp.11-85.
46 I b i d .
47 Agrawal, D.P., 1972. G-enesis of Harappa Culture,
Puratattva No.6 1972-73, pp.37-41 (See the Tables given)
48 1/lTieeler, R.E.M. 1947. Harappa 1946: The Defence and
Cemetery R-37, Al.. No.3, pp.56-130. n 49 Majumdar, op.cit.; Casal, J.M., 1964. Fresh Digging 1’ a t A m r i , PA«. No.I, pp.57-68.
50 Agrawal, 1972. op.cit.
51 Lai, B.B. 1962. "a New Indus Valley Provincial Capital
Discovered: Excavations at Kalibangan in North si Rajasthan, ILN. 24th March, pp.454--l59; lAR.. 1960-61,
pp.31-32; 1961-62, pp.39-44; 1962-6 3, pp.20-31;
1963- 64, p p . 56- 60; 1964- 65, pp.66-73; Thapar, 1972*
op.cit., pp.71-72.
52 Ibid. . p.72; lAR.. 1966-69, pp.29-51.
5 3 l A R . . 1962- 63, p . 20.
54 Thapar, 1972. op.cit., p.72.
55 I b i d . 2 6 6
<1 56 Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. 1972. Trade Meohanisms in Indus » Mesopotanian Interrelations, Puratattva,No.6, 1972-73,
pp.114-115.
57 Ibid.. p.314.
58 Agrawal, 1972. op.cit.. pp.37-38; footnote on p.41
and also see the 0-14 tables.
59 Sali, op.cit.. pp. 90 3- 101; lAR.. 1968-69, p.16.
60 rtlieeler, 1968. op . cit., p.63.
61 R a o , 1963. op » cit., p.147.
62 Sankalia, et al., 1971. op.oit.
63 lAB.. 1955-56, pp.11-18.
64 lAR., 1964-65, pp.32-38; 1967-68, pp.24-25.
65 Trivedi, H.V. 1962. "Excavation at Avra” JMPIP, No.4,
pp .13-40 •
66 lAH.. 1960-61, pp.17-18; 1961-62, pp.24-25; 1962-63,
pp.11-12; 1963-64, pp.25-29; 1964-65, pp.28-31.
67 Sankalia, et al.. 1971. op.cit.. p.49*
68 Ibid.. pp. 39-42. * H 69 Sankalia, et al., 1971. op.cit.. Pig.No.72, T.65 Ai,
”T65Ai3?V”T65Br «T65Bi”, ”T65Bii”.
70 R a o , 1963. op . cit. , pig. 33, 14a, 16.
71 Sankalia, et al., 1971. o p . clt.. Pig.No.72, ”T65Aii”.
72 Ibid. , ”T65Bii''.
73 Dikshit, 1950. op.cit.. p.21, pl.ii. Nos.7,8. 2 6 7
74 Sankalia, et al., 1971. op « cit.. p.218, Pig,No.-88 / ’’T1 1 8 A ’’, ’’Tl l B B ”, **11180".
75 Rao, 1963. op. cit,. p.110, Pig, 37, Nos. 20, 21, 22, 22A;
also Dikshit 1950, op .cit., pl,ii. No.7, 8 , p . 21.
76 Sankalia, et al.. 1971. op.oit., p.218; Pig. 95,
’’T. 1 4 3 A " ; Pig.88, ''TllBC**.
77 R a o , 1963. op. cit. . Pig. 37, No, 21; also Dikshit, 1950,
op.cit.. p.21, Pl.ii, No.7.
78 Sankalia, et al.. 1971. op.cit., Pig,88, D.Nos.592,
59 3 , 5 9 5 , 602,
79 Sankalia, H.D. and Deo, S.B., 1965. Excavations at
Nasik and Jorwe.
80 I b i d ,
81 lAR.. 1956-57, pp.17-18.
82 Sankalia, H.D. , Deo, vS.B. , Ansari 2.D. and Ehrhardt S.,
i 960. Prom History to pre-history at Nevasa.
8 3 J A R . . 1959- 60, pp.25-28; I 96O- 6I, pp,19-20; JAR.»
1958-59, pp.15-18.
84 Deo and Ansari, 1968, op.cit,
85 Dikshit, I 969. Excavation at Songaon, 1965,
86 Sankalia, et al. , 1969. op . cj.t. , pp.2l6, 219.
87 rbidi, p. 219.
88 I~bid. , pp,5-6. 268
89 Lai, E.B. 1955. "Excavations at Hastinapur and Other
Explorations in the Upper G-anga and Sutlej Basins",
Al». Nos. 10-11, pp.9-10.
90 G-hosh A., and Panigrahi, K.C., 1946, "Pottery of
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91 Ballabh Saran, 1969* "Technology of the Painted G-rey
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92 Gaur, R.C., 1969. "The Painted Grey Ware at Atraniji-
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93 Lai, 1955. op. cit.. pp.9~lO; and 1951. "^TPurther Copper
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9 3a Lai, B.B. 1972. "The Copper Hoard Culture of the Ganga
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94 Krishna Deva, 1 9 6 9 . "Problems of the Ochre Coloured
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95 Deshpande, M.N., 1967. Indian Prehistory; 1964 eds. * V.K.Elisra and M.S.Mate, pp.127-29; lAR. , 1963-64, pp.
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96 Gaur R.C., 1967. Indian Prehistory: 1964. eds. V.N.
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97 Krishna Deva, 1969. op.cit., pp.78-79.
98 Ibid., pp.77-76.
99 Huxtable, and Zimmerman D.W., 1972. "Thermo
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1 0 0 R a o , 1969. In ed Sinha B.P., or.cit., p.80
101 Huxtable and Zimmerman, op.oit.. p.62; lAR., I 960- 6I,
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102 Thapar, 1972. op.oit., p. 69,
102a Sharma, T.C. 1967. "A Note on the Neolithic Pottery
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103 Reddy, V.R. 1970. Pre-and Protohistory of South
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104 Vftieeler, R.E.M. 1948 "The Brahmagiri and Chandravali
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105 Thapar,B.K. 1957. "Maski 195 4: A Chalcelothic Site of
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106 Allchin, P.R., I960. Piklihal Excavations.
107 Sabbarao, B., 1948. The Stone Age Cultures of Bellar.y,
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108 Nagarajrao, M.S. and Malhotra, K.C. 1966. " lihe S t o n e
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109 lAR.. 1964-6 5, pp,57-58,
110 lAR.. 1959-60, p.38; 1961-62, pp.5?-36; 1964-65, p.59.
111 All chin, F.E. 1962. Utnur Excavations.
112 lAR.. 1964-65, pp.33-40; 1967-68, pp.27-28.
113 All chin, F.R. I 960. op.ci t.. p.111.
114 Subbarao, B., 1956. The Personality of India, pp.l26«
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115 Sankalia, H.D. 1962. Prehistory and Protohistory in
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116 Shah, Vimal, I 966. Gujarat-na-Adivasio, (Gujarati).
117 Ibid., p .8 and Map. No.16.
118 Maurya, Vijayagupta. 1972. **Gujarat-ni-Praja Kyathi
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p p . 6 4 - 6 5 .
119 Pandya, op.oit., p.10.
1 2 0 R a o , 1963. op.oit», pp.17, 19*
121 Joshi, J.P., 1972b. ’Excavations at Surkotada’,
ISRIA. footnote p.2.
122 Pande B.M. and Ramchandran, K.S., 1971. Bibliography
of the Harappan Culture, pp.45-46. 12!5 Joshi, J.P., 1972a. 'Fresh Light on the Archaeology
of Kutch’ In Archaeolo^^ioal Congress and Seminar
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124 Joshi, 19721). op . cit.. p.2, footnote.
125 Rathod, op.pit., pp. 253-54. 243-258,
126 Misra, V.N., 1965. ”Review of Ancient India Nos.lB-lS”!
Eastern Anthropolo/?ist. Vol.18, No.l, p.49*
127 This is discussed later on.
128 Pande and Ramchandran, op.cit.. p.45.
129 Rao, 1972c. "C-14 Dating as i^plicable to Harappan
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130 Pande and Ramchandran, op .cit., p.^5.
131 Agrawal, 1972. C-14 Date List 1972. Tata Institute of
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1 3 2 I b i d .
1 3 3 I b i d .
134 Pande and Ramchandran, op.cit., p.45.
135 Ibid., pp.45-46.
136 Times of India, 26 September 1972. "Surkotada, Town
ship in Kutch 4100 Years Old”,
137 Rathod, o.p . ci t. , pp. 246, 25 3-254.
138 Joshi, 1972b. op.cit.. p.2, footnote.
139 Sankalia, et al., 1967. op.cit.. pp.5-6.