Fukushima J. Med. Sci., Vol. 57, No. 2, 2011 WHAT IS FUHYOHIGAI ?

NAOYA SEKIYA

Associate Professor, Department of Media and Communications, Faculty of Sociology, Toyo University, Tokyo, Japan

(Received December 6, 2011, accepted December 21, 2011)

accident. What is Fuhyohigai ? As a phenomenon, Fuhyohigai, is closely related Since the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi to . The origin of Fuhyohigai came Nuclear Power Plant took place, a social problem from the fact that the Atomic Energy Damage called Fuhyohigai has continued to occur. Compensation Law does compensate for economic Prior to the events of March 11th, Fuhyohigai damage caused by accidents related to nuclear could be defined as economic damage caused in an power. This has become problematic because, area stricken by incident, accident, environmental despite safeness, economic damage affects people pollution, disaster, or recession. Such problem cir- involved in the food industry, product manufacturing culates in the area through the media, leaving people and trade, not only locally but with clients or part- feel threatened and consequently leads to the halt of ners out the region. The local fishing businesses local product consumption, trade, or the decline in have been especially affected. tourism within the area. The economic damage that we refer to as Fuhyohigai is not attributable to rumor gener- Fuhyohigai dates back to 1954 when “Radiation ated by human communication but actually to media Panic” occurred after the H-bomb test at Bikini fol- blitz. Those who are outside the disaster-stricken lowed by the exposure of Daigo Fukuryu Maru. area are affected by such media reports cause this After the test, radioactive particles settled into soil Fuhyohigai. nationwide, contaminating fish and shellfish. Rumor is generated and passed on among peo- Nobody bought tuna even after inspection for radia- ple with anxiety who are usually located nearby the tion. In 1974, a radiation leak occurred in a incident, accident, or disaster. This eventually may nuclear-powered ship, Mutsu. And in 1981, an lead to discrimination or the spread of incorrect accident at the Tsuruga Nuclear Power Plant led to information which flusters the society. an issue as to where nuclear-related facilities should Fuhyohigai is a unique Japanese word and be set up. Kasperson et al. have submitted a concept of “Social In Japan, Atomic Energy Damage Compensation Amplification of Risk” which presents a phenome- Law compensates economic damages caused by “the non similar to Fuhyohigai. This Social Amplifica­ ­ effects of the fission process of nuclear fuel, or of tion of Risk implies that the whole social process is the radiation from nuclear fuel etc., or of the toxic generated due to actual threat such as in nuclear nature of such materials.” Therefore, financial accidents or global warming. However, Fuhyohigai losses, which are caused by the plunge in sales of specifies the damage occurred in spite of “safe- vegetables or fish, or by the refusal of dealings, even ness”. Social Amplification of Risk analyzes pro- when there is no contamination, have not been cov- cesses of various social effects such as economic, ered. psychological, and political, while the Japanese word, Atomic Energy Damage Compensation Law did Fuhyohigai, basically applies to economic damage. not compensate the damage caused by the accident Fuhyohigai, nowadays, may also include psychologi- at Turuga Nuclear Power Plant in 1981 as the radio- cal damages. active contamination was not seen as the cause of The word “Fuhyohigai” has been created from harmful effects on the human body. The compen- that Nuclear power generation in Japan will be no sations were paid by Japan Atomic Power Company,

関谷直也 Corresponding author : Naoya Sekiya E-mail address : [email protected] http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/fms http://fmu.ac.jp/home/lib/F-igaku/

93 94 N. SEKIYA

Ltd. (JAPCO) for those who filed lawsuits against three types : JAPCO or who had direct negotiation with JAPCO The first is media. This is a social problem according to the civil code, not to Atomic Energy being reported over and over with the use of bad Damage Compensation Law. images of a place, a product, or a company. Reports To solve such problems, Fuhyohigai has been on incidents or accidents with negative messages explicitly written in a safety agreement and compen- such as “This place is dangerous.”, “This product is sations are to be made when necessary. For exam- dangerous.”, or “This company is dangerous.” can ple, Fuhyohigai is expressed in an agreement on lower the value of the targeted company or product “The safety agreement and environment agreement from the financial and marketing point of view. of Hokkaido Electric Power Co.’s Tomari Nuclear Thus negative effects of advertisement or PR are Power Plant” in 1986, “The safety agreement of created. Co.’s the Onagawa Nuclear To resist Fuhyohigai means to deny “media Power Plant” in 1978, and “The confirmation on value = advertising effects” which is what the countermeasures against huhyo-higai”, and “The media industry is based on. As long as people put basic cooperative site agreement for Japan Nuclear value on the media, it would be difficult to restrain Fuel’s nuclear fuel cycle facility” for the Rokkasho- Fuhyohigai. Therefore, in this information-over- mura nuclear waste treatment facility” in 1991. loaded society, we can say that Fuhyohigai is a type As doses of radioactive substances can be mea- of damage related to natural disaster, environmental sured by a Geiger counter, a monitoring post, and so problems, food contamination, and the worsening of on the distribution of radioactive substances can be business, etc. scientifically confirmed to some extent at the initial The second is distribution. Japan as well as stage. Therefore, when radioactive substances are many advanced countries has a highly sophisticated not scattered, we can scientifically say that it is safe distribution system. This indicates interdepen- or whether only rumor labels it is as dangerous. dency of national markets and the possibility of The economic damage caused then is called acquiring replacements from all around the country. Fuhyohigai. In short, damage caused by disregard- Upon occurrence of an accident or an environ- ing safeness is the premise of Fuhyohigai. mental pollution problem, people concerned with The word, Fuhyohigai, was beginning to be used marketing or distribution consider matters in a cer- in the second half of the 1990s for accidents that tain way. They assume that consumers will not were not related to nuclear power but related to buy the questioned product as long as its safeness is environmental issues or disasters. For instance, it not assured. Consequently, those people will was used for the Nakhodka oil spill in the Sea of decrease the price and stop dealing the product. Japan and for the dioxin problem report from Tokoro­ Fewer reports on an incident, accident, environ- zawa. mental pollution, or disaster will affect fewer peo- When the JCO criticality accident happened in ple. However, the people concerned with the mat- Tokai-mura in September, 1999, radioactive sub- ter (including those involved in marketing) are stances were not widely dispersed. However, the curious and many people around them talk about the economic damages suffered were large and the paid issue. Those involved in marketing or distribution compensation alone reached 15.4 billion yen. The often obtain information on a matter when ordinal economic damage suffered then was mainly referred citizens have no idea of it. This availability of infor- to as Fuhyohigai and the word has started to take mation lead those concerned with marketing or dis- root. tribution to respond to the matter excessively. The Atomic Energy Damage Compensation In the distribution terms, there is an expression Law was first applied to the JCO criticality accident called “Bullwhip effect”. A bullwhip is a whip in Tokai-mura in 1999. This was due to the then nomadic people use to drive their domestic ani- Science and Technology Agency having changed its mals. The movement given to a whip to crack is policy and included Fuhyohigai in nuclear damage as small but it becomes large as the force conducts there was a considerable causal relationship through the whip. In the same way, the further the between Fuhyohigai and the nuclear accident. distance from a store becomes, the larger the oscil- lation in the supply chain becomes in the distribu- tion. As moving up the distribution, the need to Causes of Fuhyohigai forecast long-term demand rises and consequently Main causes of Fuhyohigai are classified into businesses respond to changes in the market exces- WHAT IS FUHYOHIGAI ? 95 sively whereas variations in demand are amplified at from the very beginning of a matter, and there have the upstream in the supply chain. Thus, if there is been no reports on the safety issue, they can be any concern over the safeness of certain food or refused and therefore involved in Fuhyohigai. The product, overreaction can occur at the upstream in reason for this only comes down to the location the distribution. being close to ‘those in question’ or because their On the other hand, in a society with such highly foods or products being in relation with ‘those in sophisticated distribution, consumers have freedom question’. of choice. Consumers buy what they want and they People’s general knowledge of geography is not do not have to buy if they do not want to. There­ always perfect. We laugh at the ignorance shown fore, once a product loses its good image, consumers by TV stars when they are unable to name will exclude that product from their choices, result- Prefectures, however, our knowledge is not so dif- ing in a decrease in value. ferent. We too are unable to give precise locations The third is the safeness. when asked questions to name cities, towns or vil- Japan holds a safe society and people there con- lages. Unless we have been to the place, we are sider the safeness is a major premise to live along in limited to what we know. This lack of knowledge is the society. The Japanese often use a phrase, “a the first pattern of Fuhyohigai. sense of safety and security.” Rather than requir- The second pattern of Fuhyohigai is caused by ing them, they take that for granted. self-imposed control. People refrain from visiting a Occurrence of Fuhyohigai is inevitable as long sightseeing spot not through safety concern but due as our society is overloaded with information from to the fact that the area was stricken by disaster. the mass media. A highly advanced distribution People are fully aware of the safeness of the sight- system and people’s safety consciousness also con- seeing area and the area itself has been primarily tribute to its occurrence. It is more appropriate safe but they hesitate to visit. This is also often and practical to regard Fuhyohigai as a kind of dam- referred to as Fuhyohigai. age caused by environmental problems, disaster The third pattern of Fuhyohigai is based on “sci- damages, infectious diseases, and nuclear accidents entific safeness”. This Fuhyohigai is caused when in the modern society. certain food, land, and products are scientifically and Fuhyohigai is sometimes referred to as an indi- stochastically judged as having almost no risk or rect damage implying that it is economic damage, extremely little risk. People belonging to the rather than physical or health damage. However, Central and Municipal Governments, people at such definition is made only by including economic related companies, and scientists are desperately damage in indirect damage. We have to recognize trying to assure the safety of food, land and prod- in the first place that Fuhyohigai is economic dam- ucts. However, the public does not believe or age that is caused by a direct effect of an accident. remains uncertain about the safeness due to the lack of available information, or to the misunderstanding of safeness, or even because they do not believe the Fuhyohigai and safeness standard safety agreement declared by untrustworthy orga- Here I would like to argue the meaning of “safe- nizations. Many people do not have the tools to ness” I described above. measure the safeness and this creates “information As I mentioned, Fuhyohigai originally means asymmetry”. This third pattern was typically seen economic damage caused in spite of the safeness in marine and agricultural products harvested after and no radioactive contamination in relation with the JCO criticality accident, the Mutsu accident, and nuclear power plants. the Tsuruga nuclear power plant accident. To be recognized as Fuhyohigai, foods, products, Apart from those related to the nuclear power, lands, and companies, which are suffering economic toxic substances and bacteria contained in the foods damage, need to be safe. In order to make judg- have also often disturbed the public and caused ment on Fuhyohigai, three patterns have to be Fuhyohigai since 2000. Representative examples looked at. are Escherichia coli O157, the dioxin report from The first pattern is called “ripple effect” in the Tokorozawa, Bovine spongiform encephalopathy term of “Social Amplification of Risk”. This eco- (BSE), the South African Revenue Service, avian nomic damage is caused by entanglement. Even influenza, and norovirus detected in oyster. when there are no concerns with regards to the con- In this way, Fuhyohigai is often attributed to tamination of certain foods, products, or lands has accidents, pollution, or disasters which ordinal peo- 96 N. SEKIYA ple cannot observe themselves or cannot differenti- Fuhyohigai after the Great ate between safeness and risk. East Japan Earthquake When we argue about safeness in relation to Fuhyohigai, we need to understand the concept of Mainly, there have been three types of damage tolerance. referred to as Fuhyohigai after the Great East Japan The Japanese government made the “provi- Earthquake. sional regulation values” but in reality radioactive substances have been dispersed and detected at the 1. Insufficient supply of everyday commodities Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant acci- Everyday commodities did not reach the cities, dent. Moreover, some scientists and specialists towns, and villages that are located within 30 km of have not agreed on planting restrictions or annual the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant such as Soma, radiation exposure doses concerning the safe- Minami Soma, or Iwaki. The governors of those ness. Rather than Fuhyohigai, this can be a matter municipals call that phenomenon Fuhyohigai. They of tolerance that how far a society or an individual interpreted the stagnation of daily commodity deliv- can allow the risk. We need to consider this toler- ery as people involved in transportation had the fear ance problem independently of Fuhyohigai. of possible spread of radioactive substances. Some claim Fuhyohigai for a product since it is However, the nuclear accident may not have been below the permissible doses suggesting its safe- the only cause. For example, suspension of busi- ness. Others have a different idea of Fuhyohigai. nesses, shreds in roads, shortage of gasoline, or They say that is not Fuhyohigai because it is not safe safety agreement of employees may also have con- even though it is below the permissible doses. tributed to the stagnation. What we can see from such argument is not the con- Nonetheless, the inability to obtain daily neces- fusion in the definition of Fuhyohigai but uncertainty sities was a serious problem for the residents in of safeness provided by permissible doses and toler- places where the government assured safeness. ance. When it is obvious that radioactive substances 2. Rumor damage to safe food have not been scattered, the possible economic Radioactive substances were detected in some damage must be prevented by sweeping away peo- agricultural products in Northern Kanto and their ple’s anxiety on safeness. shipments were prohibited. After this incident, On the other hand, no one can stop people from other safe agricultural products suffered economic becoming anxious when actual radioactive sub- damage. The government emphasized the safe- stances are scattered as with the accident at the ness of foods of restricted distribution but resulted Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in in creating the Japanese people’ distrust and further 2011. The characteristics of Fuhyohigai occurred fostered Fuhyohigai. People stopped purchasing is different from those of earlier Fuhyohigai. the food even when radioactive substances were not When we look at Fuhyohigai that was caused in detected or contained less than the provisional regu- the past, such as by the JCO criticality accident, lation values. BSE, or the dioxin report from Tokorozawa, we can The same type of Fuhyohigai also occurred recognize that people forget Fuhyohigai as time when radioactive substances were detected in young passes and as their memories fade. People start to lancefish that had been caught off the coast of buy the product which once suffered Fuhyohigai Fukushima and Ibaraki leading to the refusal of before being aware of it. The damage caused by whole seafood dealing. Fuhyohigai often makes a recovery with the passing of time or when the media stops making an issue of it. 3. Regarding Japan as dangerous Several months have passed since the accident Foreign countries cause Fuhyohigai in Japan. at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant took The Great East Japan Earthquake and the place. The sales of some effected products have nuclear power plant accident made foreign countries recovered in Ibaraki and other prefectures whereas regard Tokyo and Japan as dangerous. In Aomori in Fukushima, the volume of business and the value prefecture, apples for export have been labeled as of transaction have yet to regain to the state prior to containing radiation doses as a safety certificate. the accident. This measure was started in order to respond to an inquiry by importers from Taiwan. Some embas- WHAT IS FUHYOHIGAI ? 97 sies ordered their staff and families to go back to Distribution problems their own countries. Australia and Germany trans- ferred their embassy functions from Tokyo to a con- Retailers and distributers cut procurement sulate general in Osaka. when they forecast that consumers will restrain Immediately after the disaster, the Japanese from buying. Wholesalers follow accordingly. media focused on dispatched rescue teams and coop- Supply routes are closed not due to the actual eration work for the nuclear power plant provided by restrained buying but by the anxiety of probable foreign countries with an exaggerated feeling like in dead stock. This can not only take away the chance the book A Paradise Built in Hell. At first, the of economic recovery in the disaster-stricken area overseas media expressed sympathy, however, as but leave it as impoverished. the accident at nuclear power plant had taken time Compensation for products in which radioactive to settle, they started running reports that fueled substances were detected and for those which suf- lasting fear. fered Fuhyohigai are to be proceeded as a matter of The accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear course. Besides that, people and companies in Power Plant that occurred after the Great East Japan Fukushima prefecture, and companies concerned Earthquake is the largest nuclear accident the media with products in Fukushima including consumers has ever experienced. The nuclear accident in need to get through another phase. Chernobyl was disclosed by Sweden two days after Raddish Boya, a company which delivers food the accident. Sweden detected radioactive sub- and groceries to its members, voluntarily measures stances and started interrogating the Soviet Union. radiation doses, has the analysis of radioactive con- On the other hand, the accident at the Fukushima tamination done by a third party, and releases the Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant occurred when the results. The company also indicates the place of whole world was watching the Tsunami following production on their products. According to Raddish the massive earthquake. People overseas were Boya, their week sales increased to 150% when they watching the transition in real time. This media started this indication compared to the week without effect was undeniably huge. indication. The sales of shiitake mushrooms pro- In addition, distrust of communication and infor- duced in Fukushima also became 2.3 times higher mation provided by the government and specialists than in the previous year. Another increase also widely spread. In a press conference, Edano, for- has been recorded in two types of assorted products mer Chief Cabinet Secretary, said that there was no of specified locations since the company started sell- immediate risk to the human body regarding with ing them simultaneously. One is a set composed of the intake of food containing radioactive substances. products made in Western Japan, Koshinetsu, and Some specialists who majored in nuclear engineer- Hokkaido. The other is a set made for the sake of ing or nuclear medicine also said that there would be supporting Northern Kanto and Tohoku. Raddish no effects on health. Contrary to the claims and Boya mentioned that many elderly people buy prod- explanations on the safeness and assurance given by ucts of Tohoku (Shogyokai for October in 2011). U politicians and experts, it was difficult for people to Coop Jigyo Rengo also analyzes their products and believe in such words on an emotional level while announces results of radioactive contamination with being in a serious nuclear situation. “Not detected” or “Within the provisional regulation People’s distrust was further extended by the values” labels. media. When radioactive substances were de­‑ It is not my intention to say that we have to tected in tap water in Tokyo, newspapers and TV believe the provisional regulation values announced programs reported this problem one after another. by the government. At the same time, I do not However, at the same time they tried to avoid caus- value a bargain with decreased prices nor a cam- ing panic and inspiring fear by reporting many more paign of safeness and security. Also I do not deny other news stories emphasizing safeness. This the preventive measures taken for children and resulted in making people have more fear and pregnant women against ingesting foods that may doubt. Because of the excessive seriousness of the cause low-dose exposure or internal exposure. situation, the media unnecessarily moderated the Based on the premises of admitting diverse reports and consequently fostered suspicion among senses of value and freedom of consumption, thor- people. ough inspection and measurement of doses, and its disclosure are needed. Specific products or compa- nies must not be discriminated, but be fairly 98 N. SEKIYA treated. There will be no social justice if one is a simple manner. influenced by preconceptions and does not buy or sell a particular product or does not do business with 2. Countermeasures against domestic Fuhyohigai a particular company. What countermeasures can be taken for domes- Campaigns and sales to support the revival of tic Fuhyohigai? the damaged areas, which were held immediately There are some elements which contribute to after the disaster, had important roles to distribute Fuhyohigai. As I wrote above, they are mass media and appeal the safeness of products at the initial that conveys massive information (media), distribu- stage. What more important in the next stage is tion networks that reach nationwide (distribution), not to purchase a product which is substantially and safeness that everyone requires (safeness). cheaper than normal but to purchase a product Although Fuhyohigai cannot be fundamentally elimi- which is normally distributed and normally priced. nated unless changes are made in the systems of the Active involvement is required to let products Japanese society, the three elements above can help to be distributed normally. As long as products are to find a solution of Fuhyohigai. safe, it is a social responsibility to have them circu- Mass media must convey accurate and detailed lated in order. information thoroughly. Mass media is required to promote proper measurement of doses, an establish- ment of a traceability system and a society agreeable Preventive measures for Fuhyohigai permissible value, and smooth proceeding for com- How can we prevent Fuhyohigai? Based on pensation. the definition of Fuhyohigai made in the past and on the premise of safeness, I would like to consider 3. Compensation system countermeasures in general. The final preventive measure is to enrich the safety net. Currently in principle, Fuhyohigai is 1. Countermeasures against foreign Fuhyohigai compensated to a certain extent by Indemnification There has been suspension of business deals of Nuclear Damage Compensation, which is based and a decrease in tourists regardless of products and on the Law on Compensation for Nuclear Damage places. and insurance made by nuclear-related companies. Some of these Fuhyohigai were caused due to a A safety net such as a mutual aid system or an lack of geographical knowledge of Japan. Without insurance system needs to be properly prepared to knowing which part of Japan is suffering radioactive support people suffering Fuhyohigai, within the pollution, they may prefer to avoid dealings with same industry or the same market. Needless to Japan. say, a victimizer must primarily pay victims for the In 2002, more than the maximum residue limit damage. In the past, people engaged in agriculture, of agricultural chemicals was detected in frozen veg- forestry, fishing, and tourism often had Fuhyohigai. etables that had been shipped to Japan from Hebei Decrease in sales of one region makes an increase in and Jiangsu provinces in China. What we viewed sales of other regions. Prices and the volume of as a problem then was not “made in Santo or Kozo business of agricultural products of Western Japan Province” but “made in China”. There must have have been on the rise due to the effects of the cur- been decent Chinese farmers but we avoided them rent Fuhyohigai. A concept of work sharing may be all. necessary in distribution. In the same way, “made in Japan” and “Japanese Public administration and producers will tend to products” is not being accepted. Most People minimize Fuhyohigai when there is no safety net and abroad don’t have geographical knowledge of Japan when they depend only on uncertain compensa- or don’t understand the safeness of a product. tion. However, this only leads them not to openly Primarily the government has to provide scien- disclose the information they have and to make con- tific explanations in order to persuade other coun- sumers suspicious about the information. Distrust tries, which overreacted during the accident, to and anxiety may begin to spread. understand the reality. It is said that not just a few Japanese companies have been asked to provide Conclusion inspection results from their trading partners. Therefore, the central and municipal governments In a society where information is overloaded, need to come up with a way to issue such results in people require safeness, and distribution is WHAT IS FUHYOHIGAI ? 99 advanced, it is impossible not to generate Fuhyohigai. ation for Disaster Information Studies, 102-113, Therefore a required approach for the future is prob- 2004. ably to control damage caused by possible 4. Kasperson RE. The Social Amplification of Fuhyohigai. Risk : Progress in Developing an Integrative In any case, what we currently require is ; the Framework. In : Krimsky S, Golding D, eds. measurement of detailed radiation doses in relation Societal Theories of Risk. Westport, CT, London, - with scatter of radioactive substances, announce- Praeger, 153 178, 1992. 5. Pidgeon NF, Kasperson RE, Slovic P, eds. ment of the information for consumers’ options, the The Social Amplification of Risk. 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