December 2019 Volume 3 Issue 7 BurchGene ISSUE ISSN 2490-3531 7 Bacterial Horizontal Gene Transfer Dear colleagues, students, respected professors, 4 collaborators and respected readers, We are glad to announce that the newest issue of CONTENT BurchGene magazine is finally seeing the daylight Searching for solutions: new genetic discoveries to and is full of entertaining and informative topics. 6 explain debilitating diseases This issue was once again special, due to the in- flux of new students, who are mostly juniors, and have done tremendous work in research and writ- ing. What’s new about this issue is that we tried Gregor Mendel to organize it in such a way that most articles are 8 Executive Editor: Kenan Kraković written in a way that is accessible to wider au- dience, but also not leaving those willing to dig Editorial Assistants: through the rough scientific jargon in pursuit of a The effects on long term spaceflight on eyesight Sarah Hotić good read unsatisfied, thus having a few articles 10 Hannah Boone done in a thorough manner. Some of the enter- Iman Alihodžić taining topics we dealt with in this issue were the Advisory Board: Ahmed Osmanović, Adnan short biography of the father of genetics: Gregor Famous equations in genetics Fojnica, Fatima Mrkulić Mendel, unusual mutations, or genes which came 12 to be known by their first system of naming- func- Editorial board: tion- making them somewhat famous in today’s Prof. Dr. Damir Marjanović Genetically modified chickens lay anticancer eggs Assoc. Prof. Dr. Amina Kurtović Kozarić scientific world filled with codes and numbers. Assoc. Prof. Dr. Almir Badnjević We dug a little bit in math and explored the most 15 Assist. Prof. Dr. Lejla Gurbeta Pokvić widely used mathematical equations in biology. Assist. Prof. Dr. Lejla Smajlović-Skenderagić We talked in depth about biological consequences Assist. Prof. Dr. Monia Avdić astronauts have on their eyesight upon prolonged Alzheimer’s disease: Uncovering the truths Teaching Assist. Adna Sijerčić spaceflights.We introduced neurolinguistics for 16 the first time to our readers with a brief, yet in- Lector: Dženeta Šišić formative introduction. We have discussed topics such as Alzheimer’s disease and Xenobiology and Unusual genetic mutations in humans Graphic Design: Dado Latinović are happy to say that our readers will have a wide range of biological topics to lay their thoughts 18 upon. Publisher: International Burch University We would like to thank the International Burch Xenobiology and Xeno Nucleic Acids. Are we play- University dean and the rest of the board, since 20 ing god? Address: this is the first issue, directly and fully financed by Francuske revolucije bb, Ilidža 71210 the University, making our efforst worthwhile and keeping the magazine free of charge, as always. Funny gene names Telephone: 033 782-130 Enjoy reading, The Editors 22 E-mail: [email protected] The Language of thee brain. A crash course in neuro- 24 linguistics

26 2262222622 Interview BACTERIAL HORIZONTAL GENE TRANSFER another gene that codes for antibiotic resistance for Eda Sarić-Hanjalić easier recognition of bacteria which have taken up the wanted DNA. After the bacteria has taken up the plasmid, all of its offspring will replicate the same plasmid and many copies of that plasmid will be made pressed will aid that process and attack bacterial DNA (Wybouw et al, 2014). by cutting it into smaller pieces. The bacterial cell will Normally genetics is the study of vertical transmission undergo lysis (cell death), and the new viruses will exit but it has become clear to scientists that horizontal the cell in search of a new host (Clark, 2013). transmission of genes is very important as well. The Sometimes, mistakes are made in this process and the discovery of HGT has been a huge scientific virus picks up bacterial DNA instead of viral DNA. breakthrough and it helped microbiologists to better This will cause the next bacteria that is attacked by understand bacteria. that virus to gain the genes that have been picked up Even though bacteria cannot sexually reproduce, they by mistake (Clark, 2013). can share their DNA with other bactria. This is done In the lysogenic cycle, the phage attacks the bacteria, with horizontal gene transfer (HGT), a process in which but it contains genes to repress bacterial lysis and in- bacteria or some lower class eukaryotes exchange ge- stead it incorporates its genome into the bacterial chro- netic information within one generation (Clark, 2013). mosome. This cell will then vertically transfer this vi- Gene transfer can be done either ral DNA to its offspring (Wybouw et al, 2014). horizontally or vertically. Vertical transfer of genes is done from parent to offspring, while horizontal gene transfer is a lot more complex (Clark, 2013). HGT can be done in three ways: conjugation, transformation and transduction (Wybouw et al, 2014).

CONJUGATION References: The DNA that can be transmitted through this type of • Wybouw, N., Dermauw, W., Tirry, L., HGT must be short. Short DNA molecules that Stevens, C., Grbić, M., Feyereisen, R., & Van replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome Leeuwen, T. (2014, April 24). A gene horizontal- are called plasmids. The most important plasmid for ly transferred from bacteria protects arthropods conjugation is called the F (fertility) plasmid. Cells Figure 2: Lytic cycle from host plant cyanide poisoning. Retrieved Figure 1: Conjugation (retrieved from: https://www.bioexplorer.net/ that posses this plasmid (F+ cells) have the ability to (Retrieved from: http://ib.bioninja.com. bacterial-transduction.html/) from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ form pili (sg. pilus), tube-like structures on the perifery au/_Media/bacterial-conjugation_med.jpeg) PMC4011162/ • Clark, D. P., & N. J. (2013). Horizontal of cells (Low, 2001). TRANSFORMATION Gene Transfer. Retrieved from https://www. When the pilus is secreted out of F+ cells, it searches TRANSDUCTION Bacteria may also pick up free DNA through their sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/horizon- for cells that do not contain the F plasmid, and binds to In contrast to conjugation, transduction does not re- cell membrane from their surrounding environment. tal-gene-transfer them. After making the connection, specific pathways quire direct bacterial contact. This process is done by For this process to occur, the bacteria must be in the • Low, K. B. (2001). Bacterial Conjugation. are followed so that the F+ cell is left with one strand bacteriophages: viruses that attack bacteria. There are state of competence, which means that there must be Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/ of the F plasmid, and the other strand is transferred to two cycles that phages can undergo: either the lytic specific environmental conditions for it to take place. topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biol- the F- cell through the pilus (Low, 2001). and lysogenic cycle (Clark, 2013). These environmental conditions may be: starvation, ogy/bacterial-conjugation The F plasmid may contain other genes that have In the lytic cycle, the phage attaches to the bacterial cell density or any other extreme condition (Wybouw previously been incorporated into it. These genes are cell wall and inserts its genetic material into the host et al, 2014). usually beneficial to bacteria in the sense that they may cell. Those inserted genes undergo replication and are This process is commonly used in laboratories for gain specific antibiotic resistance or may be able to then expressed. The replicated DNA will be used later genetic engineering. Plasmids containing a specific grow in specific environments (Low, 2001). for the creation of new viruses and the proteins ex- gene are produced by genetic engineers with

4 5 5. Mutations in MCF2L could lead to therapies for 8. RGS17 gene associated with lung cancer osteoarthritis sufferers Cancer cell biologists identi- fied gene which is linked to Searching for Solutions: New “Osteoarthritis, also called os- increased lung cancer devel- teoarthrosis or degenerative opment. “Gene called RGS17 Genetic Discoveries to joint disease, disorder of the is highly expressed in tumor joints characterized by progres- tissues, and loss of the RGS17 sive deterioration of the artic- transcript inhibits the growth of Explain Debilitating Diseases ular cartilage or of the entire xenografted tumors, making it Aida Lavić joint, including the articular likely that this gene and its variants may play a role cartilage, the synovium (joint lining), the ligaments, in lung cancer development in familial lung cancer.” and the subchondral bone (bone beneath the carti- (Christiani, 2009) Imagine that you could predict an illness or even use your DNA 3. PRPS1 gene linked to hearing loss in lage).” (Duignan, 2018) Previous epidemiological and to help scientists unlock some of the humanity’s biggest females genetic research has established that osteoarthritis is mysteries. Well, evolving research suggests that this might be a REFERENCES a multifactorial disease with both environmental and possibility. This technology exists and it’s quickly revolutioniz- “The gene is associated genetic components. Team of scientists were able to ing the entire healthcare industry, introducing new options for with DFN2, a progres- Ani, (2009). Gene linked to rare form of progressive identify a new gene connected with this painful condi- diagnosis and treatment of debilitating diseases. sive form of deafness hearing loss in males identified. [online] DNA India. tion and offer new lines of research for possible treat- that primarily affects Available at: ments, and that is MCF2L. 1. Seizure dogs can help with epilepsy males. Boys with D2 https://www.dnaindia.com/health/report-gene- begin to lose their hear- linked-to-rare-form-of-progressive-hearing-loss-in- 6. Five new genes that increase the risk of develop- “Epilepsy, chronic neurological disorder characterized by sud- ing in both ears roughly between the ages males-identified-1325030 ing Alzheimer’s disease den and recurrent seizures which are caused by an absence or of 5 and 15, and over the course of sev- “Alzheimer disease, de- excess of signaling of nerve cells in the brain. eral decades will experience hearing loss Augustyn, A. (2019). Epilepsy | pathology. [online] generative brain disorder Seizures may include convulsions, lapses of that can range from severe to profound. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: that develops in mid-to-late consciousness, strange movements or sensa- Their mothers, who carry the defective https://www.britannica.com/science/epilepsy adulthood. It results in a tions in parts of the body, odd behaviors, and PRPS1 gene, may experience hearing progressive and irreversible emotional disturbances.” (Augustyn, 2019). loss as well, but much later in life and in Bauer, P. (2018). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis | pa- decline in memory and a de- After training, some dogs are able to recog- a milder form.”(Ani, 2009) thology [online] Encyclopedia Britannica. Available terioration of various other nize seizure and alert you that it is about to occur. Dog responds at: cognitive abilities.”(Rogers, in a way that could not hurt his owner. They can be trained to 4. MYB-NFIB fusion gene found in ad- https://www.britannica.com/science/amyo- 2019) Five new genes that are associated with this press help button or lie next to the person who is having seizure. enoid cystic carcinomas trophic-lateral-sclerosis disease are IQCK, ACE, ADAM10, ADAMTS1 and WWOX and once they are examined with functions of 2. SIGMAR1 causes ALS MYB-NFIB gene fusion is considered Duignan, B. (2018). Osteoarthritis | Definition, Caus- the 20 known genes, researchers will be in better posi- an early event in the tumor genesis of es, Symptoms, & Treatment [online] Encyclopedia tion to discover where genetic hubs of this disease are. “Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig these lesions. It was believed that fusion Britannica. Available at: disease or motor neuron disease, degenera- genes were implicated only in blood and https://www.britannica.com/science/osteoarthritis 7. Thirteen new genetic markers associated with tive neurological disorder that causes muscle bone marrow cancers like leukemia, for heart disease atrophy and paralysis. The disease usually many years. Recent studies shown that Heart disease is the number occurs after age 40; it affects men more of- the MYB-NFIB fusion gene was found Rogers, K. (2019). Alzheimer disease | Definition, one killer worldwide. Inter- ten than women. ALS is frequently called in 100% of adenoid cystic carcinomas - Causes, Symptoms, & Treatment [online] Encyclo- national research has discov- Lou Gehrig disease in memory of the famous a glandular cancer usually found in the pedia Britannica. Available at: ered 13 new genetic markers baseball player Lou Gehrig, who died from head, neck, and breasts. https://www.britannica.com/science/Alzheimer-dis- and confirmed ten previously the disease in 1941.” (Bauer, 2018) Gene called SIGMAR1 ease identified markers associated codes for protein which plays important role in functions of with heart disease. Research- tissues that are associated with immune and nervous system. Christiani, D. (2009). Lung Cancer Genetics: A Fam- ers suggest that there are Researchers reported that ALS patients exhibit mutation in this ily Affair? [online] AACR journals. Available at: many other unknown causes of heart disease, so this gene replacing glutamine for glutamic acid. Expression causes http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/con- study is significant and it opens the door to new ave- mitochondrial injury aggravating ER-stress induced neuronal tent/15/8/2581 nues for treatment. death in neuron cells.

6 7 Mendel’s first experiments were on mice. He was interested in mating wild-type mice and al- binos. His research on mice had to be shut down because of his bishop, who refused to let friars study animal sex. This forced Mendel to continue his genetic research on plants, par- ticularly plant hybridization, on common edible peas. Over the course of seven years, he conducted various tests on approximately 28 000 plants most of which Figure 3.Example of plant hybridization on a pink and blue were Pisum sativum or edible pea. He chose to work flower mainly on peas because they required minimal care, (/ http://plantbreeding.coe.uga.edu/index.php?title=4._ Plant_Reproductive_Systems) had male and female reproductive organs, grew quick- ly and it was easy to control pollination. In these ex- periments, he looked at seven features of peas such He died on January 6th 1887 from chronic nephritis. as flower color, seed color, height, and seed shape. The significance of his work was recognized in the Mendel concluded the three principles of inheritance: early 1900s, almost 20 years after his death. De Vries, THE STORY OF GREGOR MENDEL the Law of segregation, independent assortment, and Correns, and Tschermak rediscovered his work. Each Neira Crnčević dominance. of these three writers was able from his own experi- ence to comfirm Mendel’s conclusions and to extend In 1866, he published a them to other cases (Bateson, 1909). De Vries stated “My scientific studies have afforded me great gratification; and I am convinced that it seminal paper called “Ex- that he was unaware of Mendel’s work while he was do- periments on Plant Hybrid- ing these experiments. When he found Mendel’s paper, will not be long before the whole world acknowledges the results of my work.“ These ization” which the scien- he changed certain things in his experiments and pub- are the words of Gregor Mendel, the “Father of genetics”, whose findings and - re tific community ignored lished them in the French journal “Comptes rendus de search shaped the world of science in which we are living today. and could not understand. l’Académie des Sciences”. He did not mention Mendel Although some libraries re- as his reference, and he was criticized because of it. ceived a copy of Mendel’s Although many failed to recognize the importance of paper, it did not receive any attention. He ordered 40 Mendel’s work at the beginning of his career, today he reprints, but today we only know where 8 of those re- is known as the “Father of genetics” and the founder He grew up in a rural setting in the Czech Republic and prints went. Many people believed that some of his re- of modern genetics. There is a small museum next to a spent most of his days helping his family on their farm. sults were made up. One of those people were Sir Ron- garden in Brno. Here you can see his brass microscope Although his family expected him to take over the farm ald Fisher who said: “It is interesting that Mendel’s and some notes that he kept. It resembles his original since he was their only son, he soon realized that he original results all fall within the limits of probable garden and has his statue at the end of the garden. wanted a higher education. He studied physics and phi- error” and said that Mendel may have “unconsciously losophy at the Philosophical Institute of the University of placed doubtful plants on the side which favored his REFERENCES Olomouc. His parents were unable to support him, so he hypothesis.” However, redoing the experiments results William Bateson “Mendel’s Principles of Heredity“, decided to become a friar, a member of a religious order in similar results, showing there is no real bias in Men- 1909, University press New York in the Catholic church. This enabled him to receive the del’s data (Pettinger, 2018). Apart from studying peas Olby, R. (2019). Gregor Mendel. Retrieved from education he wanted for free. He also started tutoring and mice, he also had an interest in experiments with https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gregor-Men- other students and working as a substitute teacher to earn bees and designing beehives. Unfortunately, none of del some extra money. In 1856, he failed the third part of his results for these experiments were found. He was Pettinger, J. (2018). “Gregor Mendel Biography”. Re- his exam for becoming a certified teacher for the second particularly interested in Cyprian and Carniloan bees. trieved from https://www.biographyonline.net/scien- time. Afterwards, he had a nervous breakdown and nev- These bees were extremely aggressive to each other tists/gregor-mendel.html er tried to take the exam again. Many people do not know and visitors of the monastery. This forced Mendel to that the name Gregor was actually given to him after he get rid of them. became a friar. For him, the new name represented a new beginning and a symbol of his religious life. Before that, his name was Johann.

8 9 reductase, methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, serine is a thriving field of research, hydroxymethyltransferase, and cystathionine b-syn- often being propelled into pub- The effects of long term thase could be the reason why some astronauts fall into lic view. The continuous stud- high-risk categories. The polymorphisms were studied ies done on this topic will only with the intent of making a thorough comparison. Due bring more attention to the ISS to the fact that some astronauts experience changes to and its explorations. NASA their eyesight and some do not, a hypothesis was made will probably never have a lack spaceflight on eyesight on whether or not one-carbon metabolites played a of individuals interested in the role in sight deterioration and how it affected the over- prospect of participating in the ISS expeditions, thus Ajla Džanko all physical state of an individual orbiting the Earth allowing more ground-breaking studies to be approved 400 kilometers above the ground. (Zwart et al., 2016) by the agency. Even with the garnered information from this experiment, it is still difficult to guess the This is not a new concept, given the ominous aberrations that may appear during prolonged fact that a similar study proved that space flight. This accumulated data may generate a Serum Hcy, cystathionine, 2MCA, better idea on how to treat and elude consequential vi- A large number of astronauts and cosmonauts have gram which is made with the intention of selecting and MMA concentrations could be sion changes however, only time will tell if these kinds reported various health issues as a result of serving the best possible candidates for the long and draining almost 50% higher in astronauts of scientific breakthroughs will ever come to pass. aboard the International Space Station. One of the missions by examining their physical and psychologi- that were susceptible to various vi- main concerns of prolonged space-flight is the risk cal state. This is made with the goal of preparing each sual impairments than those who of suffering detriment to eyesight. Although multiple person for the special experience of living on the ISS. did not indicate any ophthalmic studies have been conducted in an attempt to eluci- From all the dangers the crew face aboard one of the anomalies. (Zwart et al., 2012) date the possibilities of preventing permanent physi- greatest risk factors is the gradual impairment of vi- A total of 49 astronauts were brought in to participate cal damage, there are still many unknown factors that sion. It cannot be said for certain what makes some as- in the experiment. The information on the partici- influence these optic abnormalities. This review aims tronauts more susceptible to these changes, but it may pants, relevant to the experiment, was obtained from to evaluate and abridge the latest research done on the be hypothesized that the individuals display unidenti- NASA’s Lifetime Surveillance of Astronaut Health correlation between genetics and vision deterioration, fied similarities. Upon return, the crew is always fol- database, which yielded the necessary statistical data. but also provide a brief account of the current state lowed up by a full body examination, which also seeks However, any supplemental details were brought in of space expedition. It will also discuss what obtained to inquire about any optical changes which may have from the ISS mission-associated research and nutri- results mean for the future of human spaceflight. occurred before, during and after flight. These optical tional assessments. The most important results gained examinations have been implemented since the late from this study - a correlation between dietary habits, eighties and continue to provide useful insight into the biochemical and biological components exist and may Space exploration has always been one of mankind’s possibility of defects of near or distant vision. (“NASA cause health problems. Furthermore, it was discov- greatest scientific endeavors. Perhaps one of the most - Vision Impairment and Intracranial Pressure”, 2019) ered that a minor allele of MTRR 66 and a major al- Figure 1. The International Space Station, image fascinating ventures ever attempted is the numerous lele for SHMT1 are one of the factors responsible for retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/mission_ manned and unmanned space flight programs -con There have been reports of some detrimental effects, these problems. In addition, when paired with a lack pages/station/images/index.html ducted by one of the leading government agencies such as cotton wool spots, disc swelling, globe flat- of B-vitamin the individual threat becomes even more of space exploration, the National Aeronautics and tening and choroidal folds (Mader et al., 2017). When dangerous. Higher androgen accumulation prior to Space Administration or as it is more commonly re- contemplating these changes one must consider the the mission may also be a factor. (Zwart et al., 2016) ferred to as NASA. Decades of research and exper- fact that a person’s genetic makeup may play a role in As it turns out, the days spent in outer-space and the References iments have provided significant information about the untimely outcomes. A study by the name of “Gen- difficulties the crew encountered on board the station 1.Zwart, S., Gregory, J., Zeisel, S., Gibson, C., Mader, T., & Kinchen, J. et al. (2016). the cosmos and given us more questions than answers. otype, B-vitamin status, and androgens affect space- Genotype, B-vitamin status, and androgens affect spaceflight-induced ophthalmic were never concise indications on the likelihood of changes. The FASEB Journal, 30(1), 141-148. doi: 10.1096/fj.15-278457 It would be a wise decision to first look at the rising flight-induced ophthalmic changes done” (verified by experiencing various physical defects. With all the 2.Zwart, S., Gibson, C., Mader, T., Ericson, K., Ploutz-Snyder, R., Heer, M., & Smith, anomalies developed in the human body and how they NASA’s Johnson Space Center) tried to provide an S. (2012). Vision Changes after Spaceflight Are Related to Alterations in Folate– and limitations that this study had to overcome the results Vitamin B-12–Dependent One-Carbon Metabolism. The Journal Of Nutrition, 142(3), may affect the future of interstellar travel. Since NA- answer for this query. The aim was to find the link be- still provided an informative analysis and opened 427-431. doi: 10.3945/jn.111.154245 SA’s launch of the International Space Station (ISS) tween vision alternations and genotypes. It was specu- 3.Mader, T., Gibson, C., Otto, C., Sargsyan, A., Miller, N., & Subramanian, P. et al. (2017). the prospect of further research into this topic. This Persistent Asymmetric Optic Disc Swelling After Long-Duration Space Flight. Journal on November 20th, 1998, 220 men and women have lated that five polymorphisms in methionine synthase was not a complete study, as the topic is still being Of Neuro-Ophthalmology, 37(2), 133-139. doi: 10.1097/wno.0000000000000467 been aboard and in turn, produced valuable informa- 4.NASA - Vision Impairment and Intracranial Pressure. (2019). Retrieved from https:// researched and more information is being gathered www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/1038.html tion for the continuous research done on the human with every new hypothesis. In order to prevent any 5.International Space Station Facts and Figures. (2019). Retrieved from https://www. physiology when placed in microgravity. Astronauts nasa.gov/feature/facts-and-figures/ severe health issues, more studies have to be con- 6.Space Station Images. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/ go through a rigorous, two-year-long training pro- ducted and more tools provided for further testing. station/images/index.html It can be argued that the future of space exploration 10 11 FAMOUS fitness is given by the formula: s =1-w

Lotka-Volterra Equation EQUATIONS IN 3.If you know phenotype frequencies, you can then Alfred J. Lotka and Vito Volterra contributed to the calculate allele and genotype frequen- equations that had been derived by Pierre François Ver- cies. hulst. Today, the model is known as the Lotka-Volterra model or the predator-prey equation. The model shows GENETICS that the populations of predators and prey depend on each other. These equations are nonlinear, differential Sara Deumić equations, which are used for describing the dynam- ics of biological systems in which two species coexist. Perhaps biology students aren’t the most fond of mathematics The relations are shown by the following equations: Fitness Equation dx/dt =x(α- βy) dy/dt= -y(γ- δx) among natural scientists, but math is an incredibly useful tool for The following equation is related to the Hardy-Wein- describing the living world. Equations are mostly used for gather- The equations might seem complicated at first glance, berg equilibrium. If we add variable w to the first equa- but, on the contrary, they are very simple and logical ing information considering genotypes, allele types, and frequen- tion we get the expression for fitness: when you know what the variables present. cies. In this article we are going to list the most famous equations y – the number of the predators used in genetics. p^2 w_11+2pqw_12+ q^2 w_22 = w ̅ x – the number of the prey Hardy-Weinberg Equation dy/dt and dx/dt – the growth rate of the populations In this expression w represents „relative fitness“, which with respect to the time The first equation we are going to talk about is called is a measurement of the relative probability of repro- t – the time the Hardy-Weinberg equation, that expresses the prin- The equation links frequencies of alleles to the one of ducing successfully. Considering the Hardy-Weinberg α, β, γ and δ – the parameters showing the interaction ciple known as the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The genotypes: equation, w11 is the relative probability of the individ- of two species equation states that the amount of genetic variation in 1.If you have information about allele frequencies, uals with „AA“ genotype of reproducing successfully. The first equation is related to the growth rate of prey. a population will remain constant from one generation you can predict genotype frequencies. The same goes for w22 and w12. When you divide the Let’s say that there is an environment with plenty of to the next in the absence of disturbing factors: 2.If you know frequencies of the genotype, you can equation by the average fitness w ̅, you get the second food and that there are no predators. The population of equation: prey in such an environment will increase over time, because -βxy would be 0. The second equation is relat- p^2 (w_11/w ̅ )+ 2pq(w_12/w ̅ )+ q^2 (w_22/w ̅ ) =1.0 ed to the growth rate of predators. In this equation -γy shows the rate of extinction of predators. The cause What does this equation tell us? First of all, you have can be either death or emigration, to know that w is always between 0 and 1. If we get a which leads to decrease in the num- number greater than 1, the genotype is fitter than aver- ber of predators. The equation shows Here p represents the frequency of the „A“ allele and age, whereas if a number is less than 1, the genotype the change in the predator population, q represents the frequency of the „a“ allele in the pop- is less fit than average. If it is fitter, it’s frequency will and increase of food reduced by nat- ulation, likewise p2 shows the frequency of genotype increase in the next generation, while if it is less fit, its ural death or emigration (Kovačić, I., „AA“ and q2 the frequency of „aa“ and finally 2pq frequency will decrease (Sheehy, R, n.d). & Omerzo, S., 2010). represents the frequency of „Aa“. Locus is the position There is one more term related to the Hardy-Weinberg of the alleles on the chromosome and alleles for a sin- and the Fitness equation, and that is selection coeffi- gle trait all are located on the same position, that is on DNA melting temperature cient (s). It is a measure of differences regarding rel- As we all know, bases that make up the DNA are: ad- one locus. So, the sum of the alleles frequencies must ative fitness of individuals in a defined environment. be 1 (p + q = 1). Since p + q = 1, we have our equation Values for selection coefficient go from 0 to 1. If an (p + q)2 =p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (Sheehy, R, n.d). individual does not have offspring (then its fitness is Figure 5. A schematic representation how the Hardy-Wein- berg equation looks llike 0), we say that selection against it in a genetic sense is This equation is applicable assuming the following (Retrieved from/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardy– 1 (100%) and secondly if there is no selection against conditions are met: no mutation, random mating, no Weinberg_principle) a phenotype, then s = 0 (Springer, & Dordrecht, 2016). gene flow, infinite population size, and no selection. The relation between selection coefficient and relative Now, the question is what can we calculate using this predict allele frequencies. equation. 12 13 enine, guanine, thymine and cytosine. There are two the following formula: Genetically modified hydrogen bonds between adenine/thymine base pairs, P(k│n)= (■(n@k)) p^k 〖(1-p)〗^(n-k) and three between cytosine/guanine base pairs. In or- In this formula P(k│n) is the probability of k success- der to disrupt these bonds DNA sample needs to be es in n trials. (■(n@k)) can be written as n!/k!(n-k)!, heated. DNA with a greater number of GC pairs re- in which n! = n · (n-1) · (n-2) ··· 2 · 1, where n is a chickens lay quires a higher temperature to denature, so there is a positive integer, also n – k represent the trials that are linear relationship between the amount of GC pairs failures, each with probability 1 – p (The University of and the temperature (melting point, tm). Arizona, 2007). The equation used to calculate the melting point of a Sometimes, as we have seen through this article math anticancer eggs DNA molecule is: can help us in solving problems in genetics. It is useful to know some of these equations, to know what they Sabina Pandža t_m =81.5+16.6 (log[〖Na〗^+ represent, and how to apply them in your work. To do ])+0.41 (%GC)- (500/(length of that, you need to know some basic math, so don’t run DNA)) away from it. The length of DNA is measured in base pairs (bp), and the molar References: concentration of sodium ions (Na+) in moles per liter Kovačić, I., & Omerzo, S. (2010, June). Lotka-Volterra Scientists have genetically to use the chickens for animal health (Ghoush, 2019). (mol/L) (The University of Arizona, 2006). model. Retrieved from http://matematika.fkit.hr/novo/ modified chickens that can Recently, this method of modifying the eggs is already izborni/referati/Iva%20Kovacic%20i%20Sonja%20 lay eggs with cancer-killing used to create viruses used for vaccines, such as the flu Tumor growth Omerzo%20-%20Lotka-Volterra%20model.pdf proteins. At the Roslin Insti- jab. The hen’s eggs are incubated for a few days after Tumors can be either benign or malignant. When it (2008) Selection Coefficient. In: Encyclopedia of tute at Edinburgh Universi- the viruses are injected into them, to allow the replica- comes to benign tumors, cells can accumulate addi- Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics and Informat- ty, research has successfully tion (Ghoush, 2019). tional mutations and cause more complications, like ics. Springer, Dordrecht. Retrieved from https:// produced GMO hens whose In the end, we definitely should pay attention to this re- becoming malignant or cancerous. Malignant tumors link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007% eggs carry proteins the hu- search and method because of the good and promising have a capsule that holds the tumor in place. Losing 2F978-1-4020-6754-9_15281 man immune system uses to results. If the researches start producing medicine for that capsule causes the spreading of cancer throughout Sheehy, R. (n.d). Review of Population Genetics Equa- fight disease. Those proteins are the same one that are humans it would solve a lot of problems in a cost-ef- the body. The equation for tumor growth, known as the tions. Retrieved from https://www.radford.edu/~rshee- used to make certain types of drugs and also for cancer ficient way. von Bertalanffy equation, is: hy/Gen_flash/ABLE_Workshop/Popgen_Equations. medication (Ghosh, 2019). f(x)=ax^α-bx^β pdf Dr Lissa Herron is Head of the Avian Biopharming All parameters in the equation are positive constants The University of Arizona. Department of Biochem- Business Unit at Roslin Technologies and the main re- (a,α,b and β). x, which rep- istry and Molecular Biophysics. (2006, May). DNA searcher on this project. While experimenting on eggs, resents tumor size (either in melting temperature. Retrieved from http://www.biol- Dr. Herron discovered that the chickens carried many mass or number of cells) is ogy.arizona.edu/biomath/tutorials/Linear/LinearFunc- proteins (Ghosh, 2019). Her team helped her to focus given as a function of time tionApplication/DNAmelt.html on two proteins that are important for the immune sys- f(x), which describes tumor The University of Arizona. Department of Biochemis- tem: protein IFNalpha2a and macrophage-CSF (Mid- size change over time. ax^α try and Molecular Biophysics. (2007, March). Tumor dleton, 2019). The former one has very powerful anti- is the growth of the tumor and Growth. Retrieved from http://www.biology.arizona. viral and anti-cancer effects. The macrophage-CSF is bx^β is the degradation (The edu/biomath/tutorials/Power/Applications/Tumor- involved in production of white blood cells that help University of Arizona, 2007). growth.html with stimulation of damaged tissues to repair them- The University of Arizona. Department of Biochemis- selves (Middleton, 2019). try and Molecular Biophysics. (2007, March). Binomi- Although researchers are not yet producing medicine References Binomial Distribution al Distribution. Retrieved from http://www.biology.ar- for human consumption, Professor Helen Sang at the Pallab Ghosh, 2019, „The GM chickens that lay eggs In science, we conduct a lot of experiments to find an- izona.edu/biomath/tutorials/polynomial/Applications/ Roslin Institute says that this study is paving the way with anti-cancer drugs“, BBC News, swers to our questions, or to prove our hypothesis and Binomial.html for producing proteins suitable for drug discovery stud- https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environ- assumptions. Sometimes, it is easier to do some math ies and other applications in biotechnology (Ghoush, ment-46993649 than to conduct the whole experiment. The binomial 2019). Scientists believe that commercial quantities of Jen Middleton, 2019, „Hen eggs with human proteins distribution gives us the probability of success in inde- the drug can be produced because of the low number offer drug hope“, The Roslin Institute, pendent trials, known as the Bernoulli trials. It is used of eggs needed to produce the drug: three eggs can https://www.ed.ac.uk/roslin/news-events/latest-news/ in genetics to calculate the probability of having a par- make a dose (Middleton, 2019). They are also hopeful hen-eggs-human-proteins-drug-hope ticular genotype. The binomial distribution is given by 14 15 cal” form of the disease, the gene APOE on chromo- some 19 may be the most responsible for the illness. There are many allele forms of the gene, with APOE Alzheimer’s disease: e4 as the most common one- however, some individ- uals homozygous to this allele form never develop the disease, while some individuals with Alzheimer’s do not have any APOE e4 alleles. Recent research has Uncovering the truths lead scientists to believe that the CD33 gene increases Hena Hadžimujagić one’s chances for developing the disease, as it does not effectively eliminate amyloid plaques. (US National A little forgetfulness is natural to come with age, and should be nothing to cause extra worry. However, what precursor proteins, and degraded by the cells. Howev- Library of Medicine, 2019) happens when the memory loss starts interfering with daily tasks and forgetting more and more things that are er, in a brain struck with Alzheimer’s, the fragments incredibly important in one’s life? build up in the hippocampus and disturb connections Treatment Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease, triggered by brain cell death. The disease causes dementia, between neurons, directly affecting memory and the Currently, there is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease, a gradual memory loss, with the forgetfulness being moderate at first, but developing more and more as time inclusion of short-term memory in the long-term one. but some medications are known to relieve sever- passes. The changes in brain tissue can be so severe that individuals experience personality changes or loss of Amyloid plaques may also interfere with spatial navi- al symptoms of the disease. The main ones used are language skills, along with developing dependence on others. Affected individuals usually survive eight to ten gation (going from place to place) and spatial memory, acetylcholine esterase inhibitors, which help neurons years after symptom appearance. which is the recognition and processing of informa- communicate with one another by preventing the en- As Alzheimer’s disease becomes better known in society, doctors and researchers are exploring various rea- tion from the outside. (Healthline, 2011; Brightfocus, zyme from degrading acetylcholine, hence prolonging sons for the existence of the disease, well as potential options. 2015) the nerve signals. Memantine is often used with severe cases of Alzheimer’s, and it is a way of blocking the large amounts of glutamate, a type of neurotransmit- “age-related changes” of the brain, like the production Symptoms and risk groups ter. Besides these, antidepressants and antipsychotics of free radicals in the tissue, mitochondrial dysfunc- can be given to patients that show the need for those. Even though one may conclude that dementia and Alz- tion, and inflammation of certain tissue parts. Howev- Additionally, certain lifestyle choices as prevention heimer’s disease are essentially the same thing, they er, recent studies have shown that the disease also has methods are often recommended, like decreasing alco- differ. A patient having dementia does not necessari- some genetic background, making certain individuals hol and tobacco usage, exercising and eating healthily. ly have Alzheimer’s; yet it can occur due to a variety more prone to the disease. (Alzheimer Europe, 2015) (NHS, 2018) of conditions. Besides the aforementioned disease, it Initially, we knew nothing about the Alzheimer’s can be caused by Parkinson’s, Huntington’s, and HIV. Gene and scientific background causes, but now we have insights into its roots. The (Healthline, 2014) research related to Alzheimer’s disease is a long way Dementia is the main symptom of the Alzheimer’s dis- The Alzheimer’s disease has long been a mystery re- from where it began. From knowing nothing of its ease. It starts with light memory loss and progresses garding the exact causes of the rigorous memory loss Figure 6. The difference between the causations, we now have insight insight in the genetic further with the patient becoming confused, getting and dying of the brain tissue. Even though significant normal neural and Alzheimer disease cells and environmental processes behind it. As scientists lost in familiar places, having problems with speech, progress has been made up until now, it is not with ab- (Retrieved from/ http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/ continue to make progress, we may one day be able to becoming aggressive or being suspicious of others and flash/d/d_08/d_08_cl/d_08_cl_alz/d_08_cl_ solute certainty known which processes are involved create a very effective treatment for this illness. having impaired judgement. During the later stages of in the causation and progression of the illness. Howev- alz.html) the disease, symptoms include and hallucinating and er, it is now believed in the scientific community that having difficulty swallowing and walking in the later the illness occurs due to accumulation of neurofibril- Scientists have also made progress in discovering the References stage of the disease. (US National Library of Medi- lary tangles and amyloid plaques. Alzheimer disease - Genetics Home Reference - NIH. (2010, May 28). Retrieved risk factors lying primarily in genetics. cine, 2013) Neurofibrillary tangles are twisted fibres of- ahigh from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/alzheimer-disease The mutations on genes APP- chromosome 21, Alzheimer’s Association. (n.d.). Genetics. Retrieved from https://www.alz.org/alz- The population group that is most likely to be affect- ly phosphorylated protein, tau. This protein usually heimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers/causes-and-risk-factors/genetics PSEN1- chromosome 14 and PSEN2-chromosome 1, ed by the disease is the elderly, or individuals above forms a part of microtubules which serve as a way of NHS. (2008, March 11). Alzheimer’s Disease. Retrieved from https://www.nhs.uk/ are considered to be the culprits for the early-onset conditions/alzheimers-disease/ the age of 65. Some studies also reveal that women transporting information and substances between neu- National Institute on Aging. (2017, July 28). Alzheimer’s Disease Fact Sheet. Re- Alzheimer’s, occurring in individuals’ 30s and 40s. are more often affected by the disease than men. Yet, rons. In people with Alzheimer’s, the conformation of trieved from https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-disease-fact-sheet There is a probability of 0.5, or 50% chance, that a Alzheimer’s Association(2018, July 11). What Is Alzheimer’s? Retrieved July 11, this could be a result of the longer life span of women, tau is changed as it becomes tangled, collapsing the 2018, from https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers https:// child of a parent with early-onset Alzheimer’s disease without direct correlation to gender. There is still in- microtubule system and clogging the brain. (Health- www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-alzheimers will also develop the illness by inheriting the muta- Healthline. (2014, September 30). What’s the Difference Between Dementia and sufficient amount of data explaining why Alzheimer’s line, 2011; Brightfocus, 2015) Alzheimer’s Disease? Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/alzhei- tion on one of the aforementioned genes. (Healthline, disease develops in the later stages of life, but there Amyloid plaques are clusters of beta-amyloid. These mers-disease/difference-dementia-alzheimers 2011) Healthline (2011, June 10). Alzheimer’s Disease Causes: Genetics, Plaques is a speculation that the disease develops due to the structures are, in a healthy brain, cut off from amyloid and More. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/alzheimers-dis- In the later onset of Alzheimer’s, so to say the “classi- ease-causes 16 17 Unusual genetic

Ectrodactyly affects males and females equally. Fre- mutations in humans quency of the condition is estimated at one out of Selena Hadžić 18,000 newborns. The diagnosis is based on physical features present at birth. Reconstructive surgery can be A genetic mutation is a heritable change in the nucle- Epidermodysplasia Verruciformis, also known as performed when applicable, and prosthetics are avail- otide sequence of an organism’s DNA. Throughout “tree man syndrome”, is a remarkably rare autosomal able to achieve normal functioning of the limbs. Any the course of evolution, genetic mutations served as recessive hereditary skin disorder. It makes the skin other treatment is symptomatic and supportive. a source of genetic diversity. These permanent alter- susceptible to the human papillomavirus causing war- ations in the DNA sequence are the basic tool of evo- tlike lesions that cover parts of the body, particularly Progeria is an extremely rare autosomal dominant ge- lutionary progress. However, some genetic mutations on the hands and feet. The condition is also associat- netic disorder that causes a person to age prematurely. were not as favorable as others. Many human diseases ed with a high risk of skin cancer. A single mutation in a certain gene causes it to make an have a genetic component. They are usually congeni- abnormal protein. Cells using this protein, called pro- The standard treatment for SCID is bone marrow trans- tal, meaning they are present at birth and usually in- gerin, break down more easily. Since progerin builds plantation. It has been very successful using either a curable. Here are some of the most interesting and rare up in many cells of kids with progeria, it causes them matched related or unrelated donor. As an alternative ones. to grow old quickly. It is estimated to affect one in 4 to the bone marrow transplant, gene therapy has been Congenital hypertrichosis, also known as “Were- million newborns worldwide. Life expectancy of indi- attempted recently. SCID was the first human illness wolf syndrome”, is a rare genetic mutation resulting viduals with this disease is low. Most of the patients treated my gene therapy. Individual’s blood samples in an abnormal amount of hair growth over the body. die in their mid-teens to early twenties. are collected, some of their white blood cells are iso- The condition can develop all over the body or it lated and a retrovirus is used to insert a healthy gene can occur only in small patches. It is believed to be into them. These cells are then injected back into the a genetic disorder that is inherited or occurs as a re- body, and they begin to express a normal enzyme. The sult of spontaneous mutation. It is extremely rare result of this treatment is SCID patients with a func- and always present at birth. Since the Middle Ages, tional immune system. only 50 cases of congenital hypertrichosis have been Ectrodactyly is a genetic disorder characterized by the recorded. Individuals with hypertrichosis have hair complete or partial absence of some fingers or toes. The growth in excess of what is expected for age, sex, There is no cure for the disorder. Treatment includes hands and feet of people with this condition are often and ethnicity in areas that are not androgen-sensitive. surgically removing plaques, without guarantee that described as “claw-like”. It is a rare form of a congen- they will not return. Methods such as cryotherapy are ital disorder in which the development of the extrem- also used. With this procedure, the warts are frozen ities is disturbed. Split-hand deformity is an inherited with liquid nitrogen and then later removed. trait but may also occur as a result of a random muta- tion. When one of the limbs is affected, the cause is of- Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disorder ten a new gene mutation, whereas when four limbs are (SCID) is a rare genetic disorder characterized by im- affected, the cause is often an inherited gene mutation. paired immune system. This happens due to a defect in specific genes controlling development of an antibody response. They are born without an effective immune Most kids with progeria start to show symptoms in system, unable to fight off infections and protect the their first year. They do not grow or gain weight nor- People with this condition often found jobs as circus body from foreign pathogens. It is also known as the mally, causing them to develop unique physical traits. performers, making the best of their unusual appear- “bubble baby disease” because individuals that have Despite their uncommon looks, child’s intelligence ance. There is no cure for this disease. Depending on this disorder are extremely vulnerable to infectious and brain development is not affected by this condi- the method used, temporary hair removal can last from diseases. In order to avoid infections, patients have tion. There is no cure for this disease, however, treat- several hours up to several weeks. These procedures to live in a sterile environment. These individuals, if ments that help delay some of the disease’s symptoms are purely cosmetic. More recently, laser hair removal untreated, usually die within one year due to severe, are available. and electrolysis is being used as a treatment option. It recurrent infections. has fewer side effects and produces a longer lasting result.

18 19 Waardenburg syndrome is a rare genetic disorder Xenobiology and most often characterized by a few symptoms. Indi- viduals that have this syndrome are most often pre- senting some degree of deafness, various neurologic manifestations, as well as pigmentation changes. The Xeno Nucleic Acids. syndrome was first describes in 1951 and since then, four types have been distinguished. Various genes are responsible for the condition and symptoms vary Are We Playing God? from one type of the syndrome to another.

In some cases, heterochromia iridum is part of some Dženan Kovačić other congenital syndrome such as Waardenburg syndrome, Sturge-Weber syndrome, Parry-Romberg syndrome, or Horner’s syndrome. Heterochromia also occurs in animals, where it usually involves one blue eye.

To someone even vaguely fa- The pursuit of such a goal has guided research towards miliar with the concept of the expanding the genetic alphabet in order to store more genetic code, the notion that information. Experiments in xenobiology have, so scientists are currently attempt- far, led to completely novel information-containing ing to reassemble it by utilizing biopolymers often used as extensions for templating artificially engineered nucleic DNA strands and even as biocatalysts. The initial acids might sound something question that xenobiology aimed at answering has not along the lines of a science fiction film. However, such progressed beyond mere hypotheses, which state that a thought is very far from the truth. Xeno nucleic ac- Earth’s conditions either favoured DNA and RNA, or ids are analogues of naturally occurring nucleic acids, that these molecules were randomly selected. Monu- Waardenburg syndrome is estimated to occur 1 in References: 40,000 people. 2 to 5 percent of all cases of congen- 1. Hypertrichosis whose chemical structure and biochemical function is mental breakthroughs have emerged from xenobiol- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertrichosis very similar to that of DNA and/or RNA. Such acids ogy laboratories, whose implications raise numerous ital hearing loss are associated with this syndrome. 2. Congenital generalized hypertrichosis: the skin as a clue to complex Waardenburg syndrome is commonly inherited in an malformation syndromes represent the very core of xenobiology, a branch of syn- questions regarding the very nature of biological or- Pavone et al. thetic biology centred around designing new life forms ganisms. (Pinheiro, V.B.; Holliger, P., 2012 and Pin- autosomal dominant pattern, meaning that an affect- https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4526284/ ed person has one parent with the condition. Most 3. Epidermodysplasia verruciformis utilizing different, yet biologically viable, chemistries. heiro, V.B. et al., 2013) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermodysplasia_verruciformis This branch of science, often referred to as alien biolo- cases of Waardenburg syndrome are diagnosed in 4. Epidermodysplasia verruciformis: An early and unusual presentation early childhood or infancy, although some cases can Emsen & Kabalar gy, manipulates biological systems through means that The last two decades represents a remarkably fruitful https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2851455/ defy the standard RNA-DNA system which uses the period of research which saw the rise of xeno nucleic go undetected for many years. 5. Severe combined immunodeficiency https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency canonical 20 amino-acid language to code biological- acids as means to subvert the central dogma of biolo- 6. Learning About Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) ly functional proteins. Xenobiology is initially driven gy, giving it the name of “alien DNA”. Namely, there Heterochromia iridum is a rare feature in humans, https://www.genome.gov/13014325/learning-about-severe-combined-immuno- resulting from a mutation of the genes that determine deficiency-scid/ by two questions that are perhaps the most prominent is a total of eight known XNA molecules currently 7. Ectrodactyly ones of our time: how did life evolve on Earth and why being used in synthetic biology laboratories; several melanin distribution in the iris. The color of the irises https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectrodactyly is determined by the concentration and distribution 8. Split Hand/Split Foot Malformation were DNA and RNA chosen for its evolution, over a of which may possess the potency to be used in the https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/split-handsplit-foot-malformation/ variety of other chemically viable structures for build- pharmaceutical industry for their aptameric charac- of melanin. Individuals with this mutation can have 9. Progeria one iris with a different color from the other (com- https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progeria ing nucleic acids? (Taylor I. Alexander et al., 2015) teristics. The XNA molecules currently in existence 10. Progeria: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatments are: - 1,5-anhydrohexitol nucleic acid (HNA), Cy- plete heterochromia), part of one iris with a different https://www.webmd.com/children/progeria color from its remainder (sectoral heterochromia) or 11. Waardenburg syndrome - Genetics Home Reference – NIH Another long-term goal of this scientific branch is the clohexene nucleic acid (CeNA); Threose nucleic acid https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/waardenburg-syndrome development of a cell that would store its information (TNA); Glycol nucleic acid (GNA); Locked nucleic they can even experience a ring around the pupil or 12. Waardenburg syndrome: Types, symptoms, and causes possibly spikes of different colors radiating from the Villines into a xeno nucleic acid molecule; such a molecule acid (LNA); Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) and 2’-fluo- https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320549.php would, in theory, be able to contain larger quantities ro-arabinonucleic acid (FANA). pupil (central heterochromia). 13. Heterochromia iridum https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterochromia_iridum of genetic information than naturally occurring DNA. 14. Heterochromia iridis https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/8590/heterochromia-iridis 20 21 The most astonishing and promising steel need to be surpassed for it to be breakthrough in xenobiology to date is the viable in its ultimate purpose of sus- creation of so called “Hachimoji” (com- taining life. (Schmidt, 2010) prised of two Japanese words for ‘eight’ and ‘letter’) DNA. This synthetic mol- Xe- nobiology has opened the doors for ecule does not replace the existing DNA u s to explore biological life beyond the nucleotides (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine narrow frames of the central dogma and Guanine), but rather adds four new o f molecular biology, and undoubtedly letters to the genetic code, thus creating yield even more outstanding results an 8-base DNA molecule. This, discovery, i n the future. Although many ethical however, would not be as amazing had it and moral issues might rise during not been for one key aspect of this mol- the progression of this branch of syn- ecule: unlike its predecessors, hachimoji thetic biology, one thing is certain: DNA is structurally stable - just like nat- through “playing god” with XNA, we urally occurring DNA. Storage of genetic might obtain the answer of whether there is one. Not information might be an incredibly important factor yet regardlessly present points can be made regarding only are we discovering how far our capabilities can in Darwinian evolution and heredity, but mere storage DNA: Adenine, for example, does not have a hydro- reach, but we are redefining the conversational trajec- means nothing without the ability to transcribe the in- gen bonding group and cytosine, guanine and adenine tory of one of the most prominent philosophical ques- formation into biologically functional molecules. Ex- Xenobiology has shown us that, although DNA and require continuous repair due to their constant deami- tions: “What is life?”. periments have confirmed that hachimoji DNA is able RNA have been chemo-physically the most competent nation. These alone are in no way minor conundrums, to exactly that. (Hoshika, S. et al., 2019) solutions for Darwinian evolution and heredity, by no and a few other prominently plague the Watson-Crick means are these two molecules the only ones capable model. Despite this, however, it is this exact model of The successful synthesis of an information-carrying of such a function. In fact, the alternative molecules DNA that is responsible for the incredibly diverse and molecule capable of being transcribed into another, bi- shown above are capable of both information storage and immensely complex life that we see today, simply ologically functional, molecule (RNA), broadens the and information retrieval; information from the lan- because it works. Whether we will ever come to a com- criteria that we use when looking for signs of extrater- guage of DNA can be successfully translated to the pletely sense-filled understanding of the fine details References: restrial life. Although DNA and RNA were evolution- 1.Schmidt, Markus (April 2010). “Xenobiology: A new form of life as the ultimate biosafe- language of XNA (and vice versa), using these syn- governing the molecular basis of life - one may only ary the most viable molecules for the successful Dar- ty tool”. BioEssays. 32 (4): 322–331. doi:10.1002/bies.200900147. PMC 2909387. PMID thetic molecules. (Pinheiro, VB., et al., 2012) speculate. (Benner, 2016) 20217844. winian evolution of life on Earth, conditions present on 2.Schmidt, Markus (9 May 2012). Synthetic Biology. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 151–. ISBN 978- 3-527-65926-5. other plants could favor molecules such as hachimoji 3.Taylor, Alexander I.; Pinheiro, Vitor B.; Smola, Matthew J.; Morgunov, Alexey S.; Peak- Despite the progress made in developing such nucle- How will XNA impact the future of biological engi- Chew, Sew; Cozens, Christopher; Weeks, Kevin M.; Herdewijn, Piet; Holliger, Philipp (2015). DNA - at least in theory. (Warren, 2019; Georgiadis, ic acids, numerous fundamental issues still impair the neering? For starters, such scientific feats are almost “Catalysts from synthetic genetic polymers”. Nature. 518 (7539): 427–430. Bibcode:2015Na- M. M. et al, 2015; Hoshika, S. et al. , 2019) tur.518..427T. doi:10.1038/nature13982. PMC 4336857. PMID 25470036. ability of most XNA molecules from being incorpo- certain to substantially simplify and cheapen the pro- 4.Sismour, A.M.; Benner, S.A. (2005). “The use of thymidine analogs to improve the replica- It is not at all strange that xenobiology managed to tion of an extra DNA base pair: a synthetic biological system”. Nucleic Acids Research. 33 (17): rated into biological organism, or to code completely cess of DNA sequencing and PCR amplification, if not 5640–5646. doi:10.1093/nar/gki873. PMC 1236980. PMID 16192575. yield such fruitful results in such a relatively short 5.Pinheiro, V.B.; Holliger, P. (2012). “The XNA world: Progress towards replication and evolu- new forms of life. However, the notable issue of natu- make it immensely more powerful. Another incredibly time frame. The “structure theory” often used in chem- tion of synthetic genetic polymers”. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology. 16 (3–4): 245–252. ral polymerases not recognizing these synthetic mole- powerful potential use of this approach will be the abil- doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2012.05.198. PMID 22704981. istry is a very insufficient one, as it does not in any 6.Pinheiro, V.B.; Loakes, D.; Holliger, P. (2013). “Synthetic polymers and their potential as cules prevents them from becoming biologically via- ity to design completely new biological systems; some- genetic materials”. BioEssays. 35 (2): 113–122. doi:10.1002/bies.201200135. PMID 23281109. way demonstrate which molecules are in need to be 7.(Synthetic genetic polymers capable of heredity and evolution. Pinheiro VB, Taylor AI, Coz- ble as carriers of genetic information. Albeit the both thing that will ascribe to genetic engineering greater ens C, Abramov M, Renders M, Zhang S, Chaput JC, Wengel J, Peak-Chew SY, McLaughlin synthesized to achieve some sort of desired molecu- timely and costly synthesis of such molecules might depth and relevance. Thanks to XNA we are most likely SH, Herdewijn P, Holliger P. Science. 2012; 336 : 341-4. ) lar behavior. The numerous technological advances 8.Sismour, A.M.; Benner, S.A. (2005). “The use of thymidine analogs to improve the replica- seem arbitrary and pale in comparison to the numerous decades away from making genetic engineering wide- tion of an extra DNA base pair: a synthetic biological system”. Nucleic Acids Research. 33 (17): have not gotten us any closer to understanding why 5640–5646. doi:10.1093/nar/gki873. PMC 1236980. PMID 16192575. domains of science that hold higher priority, the poten- ly available to a broader audience, including amateur 9.Pezo, Valérie; Liu, Feng Wu; Abramov, Mikhail; Froeyen, Mathy; Herdewijn, Piet; Mar- a certain molecular configuration is present in - bio lière, Philippe (2013). “Binary Genetic Cassettes for Selecting XNA-Templated DNA Syn- tial utility of XNA has been demonstrated to exceed biologists and so called “biohackers”; such broad avail- logical organisms, nor how to successfully engineer thesis in Vivo”. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 52 (31): 8139–8143. doi:10.1002/ its initial theory-advancing purpose. An experiment ability is likely to yield new and relevant discoveries anie.201303288. molecules based on a desired outcome. Not even the 10.Hoshika, S. et al. Science 363, 884-887 (2019) conducted on E. coli, for example, had demonstrated in greater numbers. Numerous other benefits might 11.Warren, Matthew. “Four New DNA Letters Double Life’s Alphabet.” Nature News, Nature Watson-Crick model of complementarity in DNA un- Publishing Group, 21 Feb. 2019, www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-00650-8. the ability of XNA to serve as a template for DNA in arise from this branch of synthetic biology, and each 12.Georgiadis, M. M. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137, 6947-6955 (2015) derstood in a way that can be considered sufficient; it vivo. Depending on the extent of laboratory manipu- advance will certainly harbor new fears and concerns. 13.Benner, Steven A., et al. “Alternative Watson–Crick Synthetic Genetic Systems.” Cold shows various inconsistencies with widely accepted Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, vol. 8, no. 11, 2016, doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a023770. lations, these artificially expanded genetic information However, individuals responsible for forming and ap- 14.Schmidt, Markus. “Xenobiology: A New Form of Life as the Ultimate Biosafety Tool.” Bio- and taught rationale regarding the “simplicity” and the Essays, vol. 32, no. 4, 2010, pp. 322–331., doi:10.1002/bies.200900147. systems have also displayed ability to bind to certain proving biosafety regulations have the comfort of time “sense” behind DNA base pairing. However, even if cancer cells in vitro. (Sismour, A.M.; Benner, S.A., before any XNA-based organisms come to life. Even one might argue that DNA was, indeed, the ideal mol- 2005; Pezo, et al., 2013) though hachimoji DNA has significantly changed the ecule for Darwinian evolution, a few incredibly odd, overall scope of synthetic biology, numerous obstacles 22 23 Funny gene names outrage for its associations with derogatory term for Hasnija Bajrektarević homosexuality. (Wade,1996) Although early gene names are often light-hearted, funny, and entertaining, they do cause issues. In the genomic era, these unsystematic names are hard to pro- cess in rapidly growing databases. Therefore, the need Outside of the scientif- This fascination probably led to rather unusual or even have a Dracula gene mutation. for ordered sets of letters and numbers conforming to ic community, scientists slightly disturbing naming. Sometimes, two correlated genes are named in pairs. specific rules that would serve as names for genes lead have always been viewed When someone hears “I’m not dead yet” (or INDY When the genes Grim and Reaper work together, they to formation of the Human Gene Nomenclature Com- as highly-serious individ- for short), they might think of a scene in Monty Py- guide the cell through the process of a programmed mittee. HGNC published the first set of guidelines in uals following strict rules thon and the Holy Grail.But in scientific circles, this cell death, known as apoptosis. Similarly, the gene 1979. This made naming newly discovered genes a lot of conduct, with no interest is a gene that encodes for transporter proteins in the Kryptonite suppresses the gene called Superman, a less challenging. (Wain et al.,2002) of the mainstream popu- Krebs cycle and its mutation is connected to the lon- plant gene firstly discovered in Arabidopsis. Nevertheless, the whimsical names remain to testify lar sensations. Therefore, ger-than-average life of a fruit fly. Aside from being a popular video-game charac- on the intertwining of two seemingly opposite worlds many consider light-heart- But, this is not the only movie reference found in fruit ter, Sonic the Hedgehog is also a gene. The naming of science and mainstream entertainment. ed enjoyment derived from pop culture, entertainment, fly’s DNA.Tinman, the beloved character from The originated from a mutation that causes flies to have media, or social interactions to have no correlation Wizard of Oz, is universally known for lacking a heart. spike-resembling projections. Sonic the Hedgehog is with any aspect of science.Proof of this misconception The mutation of the Tinman gene will lead to heartless of great interest recently because of its connections to is blatantly apparent in the naming of basic units of flies because the gene encodes a transcription factor stem cells and tumor genesis. hereditary-genes. These DNA sequences posses in- involved in formation of the heart and vascular mus- structions on how to build differing molecules, each culature. However, this humorous and witty nomenclature of References: with a specific function. Technological advances and genes has been met with a great deal of criticism and, Moore, M. S., Dezazzo, J., Luk, A. Y., Tully, T., Singh, breakthroughs have led to rapid growth of gene dis- The most interesting naming of the fruit fly’s genetic in several cases, even legal issues. The main problem C. M., & Heberlein, U. (1998). Ethanol Intoxication covery. It is estimated by the Human Genome Project material is one segment called the Cheap Date. This arose when human illnesses were connected to muta- in Drosophila: Genetic and Pharmacological Evi- that we possess between 20 to 25 thousand genes. This gene causes flies to be more susceptible to the effects tions of genes with “cute or humorous names” such as dence for Regulation by the cAMP Signaling Pathway. requires for each and every new gene to have a spe- of alcohol: like cheap dates, the flies get drunk quickly. POKEMON or Sonic the Hedgehog. Defects of these Cell,93(6), 997-1007. cific and unique name. So, upon discovering a new (Moore et al.,1998) genes lead to serious and sometimes fatal conditions. Lukacsovich, T., Yuge, K., Awano, W., Asztalos, Z., gene, geneticists have the privilege of creating a name. The gene that acts in terminalia development can mu- Therefore, medical workers avoid these names by us- Kondo, S., Juni, N., & Yamamoto, D. (2003). Theken This is where we testify to the influence of the” outside tate and cause malformation of fruit fly’s genitalia. ing acronyms or other alternatives. and barbie gene encoding a putative transcription world”. This results in no external genitalia.The popular Bar- When a paper was published relating the POKEMON factor with a BTB domain and three zinc finger motifs bie dolls, who share this feature, were what first came gene and cancer development, the company behind the functions in terminalia development of Drosophila. When researching model organisms, different expres- to mind to the scientists who named this gene. The popular franchise threatened to sue the scientists.(Si- Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology,54(2), sions of the same gene are analyzed in order to deduce Barbie and Ken genes have been mentioned in scientif- monite,2005) 77-94. the specific function . In many cases, caused mutations ic papers ever since. (Lukacsovich et al.,2003) In another case, the company VELCRO took legal ac- Simonite, T. (2005). Pokémon blocks gene name. Na- served as an inspiration for naming. Drosophila melanogaster is not the only organism that tion based on copyrights reserved on the name, which ture,438(7070), 897-897. Such model organism is (Drosophila Melanogaster) or has “funny” names for their genes. For example, ze- led to the renaming of the said gene. Gene names and symbols - Genetics Home Reference simply, a fruit fly. The fascination to geneticists with brafish with two hearts possess a Casanova gene muta- The naming of a fruit fly gene -fruitless (firstly named - NIH. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ this tiny insect comes from the ease of manipulation tion. Ones with unusual pointy ears have a Spock gene fruity) - provoked a large-scale debate about politi- about/gene-names-symbols and fast observable effects of its hereditary material. mutation, and others that are severely sensitive to light cal correctness and attracted attention from the popu- Wade N (December 13, 1996). “Mating Game of Fruit lar press. This gene directs development of brain sex Fly Is Traced to a Single Gene”. The New York Times. differences. Mutations in males lead to altered sexual Wain, HM; Bruford, EA; Lovering, RC; Lush, MJ; behavior in the form of change in sexual preferences, Wright, MW; Povey, S (Apr 2002). “Guidelines for hu- and the mutation in females cause them to behave as man gene nomenclature”. Genomics. 79 (4): 464–70. males. Aside from initiating discussions about genet- ics of sexual orientation, gene fruity provoked a large 24 25 The Language of the Brain A Crash Course in Neurolinguistics Iman Alihodžić

What is neurolinguistics? 2008). Namely, Broca successfully identified the left uman Language is a unique cognition, which region of the brain as the one responsible for language enables communication as we know it, thus after a patient who hit the left side of his head, lost the Hsetting human beings apart from other ani- ability to speak, while the others who hit the right side, mals. Have you ever wondered how the brain under- retained their ability (Poeppel and Embick, 2005). stands the language? How did it come to be the way it Perhaps, the major legacy of the lesion analysis is the is? Where does the gut feeling about what a random direct mapping between linguistic or psychological set of letters means actually come from? What pro- functions and brain regions (locations). In the past two spoken language. Language acquisition is unique more complex when learning to read in two languag- cesses enable you to comprehend this very sentence decades, novel means of studying the structure and to humans, as no other animal exhibits an ability es, especially simultaneously, as the brain must create as you read it? Historically, scientists were interested function of the brain have emerged. These novel tech- to communicate with both spoken words and signs two separate cognitive processes for adequate lingual in the pathological aspects of brain processing as early niques don’t rely on inspection of a damaged neurolog- (Bouchard, 2015). Scientists are still unsure about acquisition (Kovelman and Marks, 2018). This sug- as 400 B.C., when Hippocrates’ described infirmities ical system, but rather enable the normal system to be how language evolved in the human minds, and the gests that people who learn more languages develop linked with language loss (França, 2004). On the other examined directly. The techniques, which have ruled genetic evolution of language remains largely un- increased brain complexity, which may benefit in other hand, the more intriguing questions, such as how we out the post-mortem examination as the norm, include explainable, for all language evolution theories fall areas of life besides language. acquire our mother tongue were neglected for a long positron emission tomography, functional magnetic short in one way or another to explain how brain time. It wasn’t until 1950s when Noam Chomsky pub- resonance imaging, magnetoencephalography, high complexity necessary for language could evolve in The benefits of Bilingualism lished Generative Grammar (Chomsky, 1968) that the field event-related encephalography, optical imaging. humans but not in chimpanzees or gorillas, which are As mentioned earlier, the human genome encodes the investigation took on a more bio-linguistic approach, Furthermore, techniques such as transcranial magnetic close genetic relatives of humans (Bouchard, 2015). genes for speech ability, which evolves with train- with research specific to language-brain relations at stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation, Additionally, researchers believe learning more than ing. The brain’s neuroplasticity reaches its peak at work starting in 1980s (França, 2004). Hoping to de- permit the lesions to be studied repeatedly across the one language may increase brain complexity, though 0-3 years of age, meaning the brain is the most adept code the language of the brain, scientist from various different states of the system (Small, 2008). However, whether this is accomplished by “quantitative chang- to language acquisition during this period. (Calvo et fields have joined forces in the field known- asneu the technological advancements alone wouldn’t suffice es in processing capacity . . . [or by developing] a al., 2016) Research has shown that infants, exposed rolinguistics. Namely, it‘s an interdisciplinary field, for the development of neurolinguistics as we know qualitatively different system” is still unclear (Kovel- to bilingualism, were able to detect a language switch drawing theories from fields such as linguistics, neu- it. Arguably, one of the most important advancements man and Marks, 2018). One acquires languages by at only 6 months old. (Trautner, 2019) Moreover, bi- roscience, cognitive science, neuropsychology, genet- would be the formal linguistic theory (Poeppel and the building of neural networks in the brain, which lingual children exhibit higher cognitive flexibility, in ics, and others, with the aim of understanding neural Embick, 2005). Nowadays, scientists are trying to val- run through four major areas of the brain: the visu- terms of lexical competitiveness, meaning that when mechanisms in the brain that control comprehension, idate the concepts in linguistic theory through neurobi- al cortex, the auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area, and they speak both languages are activated and the brain acquisition, and production of language. ological methods. Combining the traditional with the Broca’s area (Mandal, 2019). As language is ac- has to pick out the right word and suppress the oth- The Link Between Neuroscience and Language novel methods has led to the conclusion that some of quired, neural pathways related to lingual cognitive er language. (Trautner, 2019) Other instances indic- Over the course of the last two centuries, scientists in- the distinctions in linguistics (e.g. syntax vs. phonolo- process are traversed multiple times, thus adding in- ative of bilingualism benefits include the 2004 study terested in the structure of the human brain had very gy) reflect in the biological data (Poeppel and Embick, formation through which language can be generated, which showed that bilinguals were better at solving few means of conducting experiments. Due to this, 2005). Still, there is room for improvement, since, at although this process is far more complicated than mental puzzles. The benefits of bilingualism can be they heavily relied on the behavioral investigation of times, the findings don’t ultimately lead to the under- can be simply summarized (Mandal, 2019). Also, seen throughout a person’s life, as it is correlated to subjects suffering from brain lesions. The aim was to standing of brain structure, mainly due to the tendency one must consider how written and spoken language cognitive reserve. (Calvo et al., 2016) Namely, the relate the extent of the injury with the one of behav- of the data to exceed our ability to interpret it (Poeppel affect brain complexity in different ways. For exam- research regarding Alzheimer’s is indicative of cog- ioral changes. This type of investigation, known as and Embick, 2005). ple, learning to read increases the interconnection of nitive reserve enhancement by lifelong bilingualism the “lesion analysis” or “clinicopathological correla- Brain Complexity and Language differing visual systems in order to be able to recog- (Sandoiu, 2019). In a 2008 study of 211 Alzheimer pa- tion,” enabled many advancements in the field, such as The human brain’s extraordinary complexity is what nize and understand written words on page (Kovel- tients, equal in factors such as education, occupation, that of the French physician Pierre Paul Broca (Small, allows humans to communicate using written and man and Marks, 2018). However, this process is even and immigration, 102 were bilinguals. The bilinguals

26 27 reported a 4.3 year delay in the onset of symptoms, Mg8-KrBJkU&redir_esc=y#v=on while the only factor setting them apart from the oth- epage&q&f=false er 106 patients was language ability (Craik, Bialystok Craik, F., Bialystok, E., & Freedman, M. (2010). De- & Freedman, 2010). Another research involving Alz- laying the onset of Alzheimer disease: heimer and mild cognitive impairment patients shows Bilingualism as a form of cognitive reserve. Neurolo- that the bilinguals had a thicker cortex and higher gray gy, 75(19), 1726-1729. Retrieved matter density than monolinguals. (Sandoiu, 2019) from: The researchers also concluded that bilingualism aids https://n.neurology.org/con- the development of areas related to attention tasks and tent/75/19/1726?sid%3D63045016-6a3b-4c35-86d2- executive function, establishing bilingualism/multilin- ea932 gualism as the ultimate cognitive exercise (Sandoiu, 15d4fde10.1212/wnl.0b013e3181fc2a1c 2019). França, A. (2004). Introduction to Neurolinguistics. University College Dublin. Retrieved Language is incredibly complex. It’s evolution still re- from: http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/langimp/Relatorio- mains a mystery, and how it affects the brain contin- Evelin2004.pdf ues to present questions for neuroscientists to answer. Kovelman, I. and Marks, R. (2018). Tracking qualita- However, with the creation of new techniques, the inti- tive changes in cognition and brain mate relation between the neural networks responsible development through bilingualism. ScienceDirect. Re- for language may be studied. The complexity of the trieved from: human brain and its ability to acquire language is a https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/ key defining factor is separating humans from genetic S0911604418300460?fbclid=IwAR1 relatives, as well as allowing different systems of lan- nYWj4XTDMge8lO7tfEQ_9Bd9Hq_UtmOJUaE- guage to be acquired. Multiple language acquisition, FrRSzsL4mqinkyJ3_dPmM#bib13 or bilingualism, may present several benefits in devel- Mandal, A. (2019). Language and the Human Brain. oping areas of the brain, as well as increasing brain News-Medical. Retrieved from: complexity as a whole. In conclusion, neurolinguistics https://www.news-medical.net/health/Language-and- is a fascinating field that helps us learn the language the-Human-Brain.aspx of our brains, in order for us to know how our brains Poeppel, D., & Embick, D. (2005). Defining the rela- learn language. tion between linguistics and neuroscience. Linguistics Network. Retrieved from: References http://www.linguisticsnetwork.com/wp-content/up- Bouchard, D. (2015). Brain readiness and the nature of loads/Linguistics-Neuro-.compresse language. Frontiers. Retrieved from: d.pdf https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/ Sandoiu, A. (2019). How bilingualism may protect fpsyg.2015.01376/full against Alzheimer’s. Medical News Today. Calvo, N., García, A., Manoiloff, L., & Ibáñez, A. Retrieved from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/ (2016). Bilingualism and Cognitive articles/320864.php Reserve: A Critical Overview and a Plea for Method- Small, S. (2008). The neuroscience of language. Else- ological Innovations. Frontiers In vier, 1-3. Retrieved from: Aging Neuroscience, 7. Retrieved from: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ S0093934X08000655?via%3Di PMC4709424/10.3389/fnagi.2015.00249 hub Chomsky, N. (1968). Syntatic structures. The Hague: Trautner, T. (2019). Advantages of a bilingual brain. Mouton. Michigan State University. Retrieved https://books.google.ba/books?hl=en&lr=&id=SNeH- from: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/advantages_ kMXHcd8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5& of_a_bilingual_brain dq=Chomsky,+Noam+(1957).+Syntactic+struc- tures.+The+Hague:+Mouton.+117+pp &ots=AV9uNzYppM&sig=9qV_NOhA8-Oj_RcnW- 28 2929 INTERVIEW Emina Imamović 3.If possible, could you pick out the most in- 2.Not everyone knows, but you played chess teresting part of your profession? As a scientist, Dr. Lejla Smajlović Skenderagić has extensive experience working in the past on a pretty professional level. in a laboratory for more than 17 years. She has been responsible for planning, Could you tell us more about that part of It is difficult to pick just one situation, but perhaps the preparing, and managing all activities in a high throughput post-amplification lab- your life and how it made an impact on your biggest challenge for me was the establishment of the oratory, accredited according to the ISO/IEC 17025 standard. Currently, Dr. Lejla mtDNA analysis in the process of DNA-led identifica- Smajlović Skenderagić is working as Assistant Professor and Head of Genetics scientific career? tion of missing persons. I was fully responsible for all and Bioengineering Department at International Burch University and today she phases of this project, testing, optimization, validation, agreed to answer some of our questions: At the age of 4, I was taught how to play chess by writing reports, writing standard operating procedures my grandfather. In the third grade of primary school, and practical application of the mtDNA analysis in the I joined the chess section and very soon started play- identification of missing persons. The implementation ing and winning first chess tournaments. I continued 1.The pathway of your scientific career is 2.What are some of your current projects of this method enabled DNA-led identification of sev- to play chess in the years of aggression on Bosnia and eral persons who had only distant maternal relatives. very interesting. Could you please tell us the and could you explain to our readers what Herzegovina. There were five of us who would come story behind it? they are about? every weekend in the local chess club to play chess My interest in genetics started in high school, and al- From February 2018, when I started working at the In- and have fun, as we were joking all the time. In 1995 4.With a lot of projects, teaching and being ready at that time, I knew that genetics would be my ternational Burch University, I was mentoring several I represented Bosnia and Herzegovina at the World the Head of Genetics and Bioengineering profession. Firstly, I was considering to go abroad, but small research projects, where we analysed individual Youth Chess Championship in Halle, Germany. As a Department, you must be busy. How do you I stayed in Bosnia and Herzegovina and enrolled in SNPs associated with BMI, gluten and lactose intoler- member of the woman chess team, I represented Bos- balance your personal life with work? general biology studies at the Faculty of Science in Sa- ance. In the next few months, we are also going to in- nia and Herzegovina on two Chess Olympiads (1996 rajevo. In the first few post-war years, the conditions vestigate SNPs associated with androgen alopecia and in Yerevan, Armenia and 1998 Elista, Kalmykia), and I have two young kids under the age 4 and, in the last for studying were not ideal, but I gained a lot of theo- nicotine dependence. Today, there are far more com- at one European Team Championship (1997 in Pula, year, I changed career, going from practical lab work retical knowledge. In the summer of 2001, the newly plex analyses available in the world, including whole Croatia). I participated in the European Junior Chess to an academic career. It is not easy, but I give my best established company, International Commission for genome sequencing, low-pass whole genome sequenc- Championship in 1997 (Tallinn, Estonia) and the XV to be organized at home as well as at work. I usual- Missing Persons (ICMP) gave an advertisement for ing, and whole exome sequencing, but currently, due World Girls Championship in 1998 (Calicut, India). ly wake up very early in the morning, because I am hiring biologists/geneticists to work in a DNA labo- to lack of financial resources, we are able just to do In the last chess tournament that I played in 2007, I the most productive at that time and I have some quiet ratory. I got this job and for the next 17 years, I was a such a simple genetic analysis. Currently, I am men- was a guest player for the chess team of Oxford (UK). time to prepare for the day, make lunch, answer emails member of a team that worked on DNA identification toring four MSc projects on different STR multiplex Playing chess at the professional and semi-profession- and read while the other members of my family sleep. of tens of thousands of missing persons. DNA labo- system population studies. al level requires a lot of hours of continuous work and During weekends I am totally devoted to my family. ratories of ICMP were established to help in recover- One of the most interesting projects that I am currently preparation, as well as many days of the year dedi- ing and identifying more than 15.000 missing persons involved in, is related to the analysis of miRNA that cated to chess tournaments. At the age of 23, when I 5.Finally, what would you recommend to from the conflicts in the Former Yugoslavia, but we could serve as valuable genetic markers for the detec- was already working in the DNA laboratory of ICMP, your students, researchers and readers of also worked on many projects around the world (Cy- tion of Autism Spectrum Disease (ASD). I decided to stop competing in chess tournaments, and prus, Iraq, Libya, Chile, and others). As a leader of the Also, I am part of the team that will in the next year direct my efforts to a scientific career. However, I have our magazine? Love what you do. Have the courage to set your goals genetic analysis team, I worked on STR analysis of perform the analysis of Y-STR on over 1000 samples a great passion for chess and I will always play chess. post-mortem and ante-mortem samples, the mtDNA from the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. high, and work diligently and enthusiastically to analysis, the final review of the DNA match report and My master’s thesis was done under the supervision of achieve them. in the post-amplification laboratory, that was equipped Academician Prof. Dr. Mirsada Hukic. I was working with instruments for real-time PCR, PCR, capillary on a genetic detection of Hantaviruses that are cir- electrophoresis and system for linear array mtDNA culating in the area of the Balkans, research that had typing). In this period, among other duties, I also had also the applicative significance in the diagnostics of the opportunity to be a trainer and coach for DNA anal- haemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Recently, I ysis of our laboratory staff and visiting international have been given the opportunity to work again on a scientist. I presented my work at three meetings of the research project led by Prof. Hukic, regarding the ge- American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) and netic analysis of the viruses transmitted by sand flies several other scientific meetings and conferences. Phlebotomus. 30 31 Science fiction has these obsessions with certain sciences - large scale engineering, neuroscience. -Paolo Bacigalupi