Journal of and Anthropology Vol. 2, No. I, pp. 60-79(1980).

Inferences Regarding Aboriginal Hunting Behavior in the Saline , Inyo County, California

RICHARD A. BROOK

HE documented use of stone "hunting a member of the 1861 Boundary Survey Party Tblinds" behind which marksmen hid them­ reconnoitering the region. The selves "ve'/7//-6'o?m-e"i (Baillie-Grohman 1884: chronicler observed: 168) waiting for sheep to be driven along trails, can be found in the writings of a number of . . . curious structures ... on the tops of early historians (Baillie-Grohman 1884; round bald hills, a short distance to the Spears 1892; Muir 1901; Bailey 1940). Recent northwest of the springs, being low walls of archaeological discoveries of rock features loose stones curved in the shape of a demi­ lune, about ten feet in length and about believed to be hunting blinds at the Upper three feet high . , . , There were twenty or Warm Springs (Fig. I) in , Inyo thirty of them [Woodward 1961:49], County, California, provide a basis to substan­ tiate, build upon, and evaluate these observa­ This paper discusses a series of 60 such piled- tions and the ethnographic descriptions of up boulder features recorded within a I km.^ hunting in the Great Basin (Steward 1933, area at Upper Warm Springs (Fig. 2). 1938, 1941; Driver 1937; Voegelin 1938; The same chronicler offered some tentative Stewart 1941). An examination of these explanations as to their function: features, their location, orientation, and asso­ ciations in conjunction with ethological attri­ ... we took [them] to be graves, but which, butes, strongly support the notion of a hunting as they face in one direction—that is to the function, and the argument is made that northwest—were probably intended as (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) were lodging places to break the force of the the primary target of this activity with perhaps violent prevailing winds; but why they a secondary emphasis on hunting of Prong- should resort to the tops of these hills, and horn Antelope (Antilocapra americana). neglect the shelter of the numerous caverns and rocky crevices, is inexplicable. It may Perhaps the earliest mention of hunting be that the bottoms have been subjected to blinds in western North America, was made by deluges, and that it is to provide shelter Richard A. Brook. U.S. Bureau of Land Management, Desert during these overflows that the hills are Planning Staff, 3610 Central Ave., Suite 402, Riverside, CA chosen for the erection of these small para­ 92506. pets of stone; but the greatest probability is

[60] ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 61

= UPPER WARM SPRINGS = PROBABLE HUNTING BLIND LOCATION

BIGHORN DISTRIBUTION

= CONCENTRATION AREA

= PERMANENT RANGE

= SEASONAL RANGE

= TRANSIENT RANGE

= FORMER RANGE

= KNOWN CORRIDOR

= DECLINING POPULATION

Upper •lUNo Warm Springs

Fig. 1. Distribution of Hunting Blinds in the Southwest Great Basin (California) and Historic Bighorn Sheep Range. 62 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

that they are connected with some of their DESCRIPTION OF FEATURES religious observances [Woodward 1961 ;49]. The stone features around the Upper In another instance. Spears (1892:73) reported Warm Springs were placed along low rock es­ that prospectors watched the Indians construct carpments, rocky crags and eminences, and these rock features with a great deal of appre­ even on the . Some are found on hension. They jumped to the conclusion that gentle rises above the springs or in the open the Indians were building forts to protect their areas surrounding them. Architecturally, the mines of fabulous wealth and were preparing features are simple, consisting of basalt to attack the White travelers. Clearly, then, a boulders or natural blocks of travertine piled good deal of lore and mystique surrounded the two or three courses high (Fig. 3). The rock earliest accounts of these features. features are constructed in circular, semi­ circular, and horseshoe-shaped alignments, THE LOCAL ENVIRONMENT and rectilinear and curvilinear arrangements, Saline Valley is situated in the southwestern oftentimes incorporating stone outcrops (Fig. Great Basin in east-. It is 4). The 60 recorded features range from 60 cm. bounded by the on the west, to 4.2 m. across (maximum interplanar dimen­ the on the east, the Saline sion) (X = 1.75 m., S = 78 cm.), and from 25 cm. Range on the north, and the Nelson Range on to 1.2 m. in maximum height (X = 60 cm., S = the south. Upper Warm Springs is located 19 cm.). Two multiple rock features are charac­ along the corridor connecting the northeastern terized by small, contiguous "hollowed out" extension of Saline Valley to the southern end spaces that could be manned by more than one of Eureka Valley. Low hills, forming part of hunter (Fig. 2, \a-c, I3a-d). At least three soli­ the , partially surround the study tary features are also large enough to have area on the west, north, and northeast. These concealed more than one individual. hills are bisected by a wash opening on a broad Data on location differentiate the rock alluvial fan. A low-lying, north-south ridge features and assist in determining the relation parallels this wash, terminating at two hillocks of the stone structures to the other archaeo­ referred to as "Arrow Makers Knoll" (Baldwin logical sites present. Many of the stone features 1931). This ridge separates the broad alluvial are positioned in ways that seem to maximize fan on the east from the mounded deposits of use of natural landforms for purposes of con­ salts formed by discharging hot springs on the cealment or as vantage points. For example, west. Three springs are west of the ridge and an there are features located on alluvial fans equal number lie to the east (Fig. 1). The south­ where cobble/boulder "alignments" due to ern foothills of the Saline Range, adjacent to hydraulic flow are common, the latter serving Upper Warm Springs, are characterized by to conceal the man-made features located in Pleistocene volcanic basaUs adjoining Paleo­ their midst. Stone features located on bluffs or zoic limestone deposits. prominent hills afford a commanding view of The study area is dominated by Creosote the lowland areas. These latter features appear Bush (), Burro-Weed (Am­ designed to monitor movements in the flats, brosia dumosa). Desert Holly (Atriplex particularly where they overlook the water hvmenelvtra), with minor quantities of Screw- sources. bean Mesquite (Prosopis pubescens). Honey Most of the 60 rock features overlook or Mesquite (/". glandulosa), cottonwood (Popu- adjoin existing game trails (Fig. 2). The dis­ lus sp.), various cacti, and other desert plants. tance of these features from recognized game ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 63

= PROJECTED TRAILS • = BLIND LOCATION o = OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL 1 -2 .3 .4 FEATURES AND SITES O = SPRINGS

Fig. 2. Distribution of Hunting Blinds, Trails and Other Features. Upper Warm Springs, Saline Valley, Inyo County, California. trails varies from several meters to 130 m., with There is a question of the degree of corres­ a majority located within 20 m. of modern pondence between modern game trails and trails. The springs are currently used by some aboriginal/historic ones. The modern game of the approximately 350 feral burros that trails possibly vary in number and exact roam the floor of the Saline Valley (Savercool location from the aboriginal/ historic ones, but 1977). There is some indication that other trails judging from the deposits of travertine, the were used by game in the past. Along the base springs have been present at least since the of the hills on the west side of the study area advent of the Holocene, and game animals and on the ridge above, faint paths are present have certainly frequented the spot for a very that may represent abandoned game trails. long time. One of these faint paths, which was traced, Spatial distribution is important as a passes directly alongside four stone features meansof assessing the probable function of the not in direct association with any existing rock features. Two observations are particu­ game trails. larly relevant. First, aUhough distance between 64 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Fig. 3. Horseshoe-shaped hunting feature (number 44) constructed of blocks of travertine. Upper Warm Springs, Saline Valley, Inyo County, California. individual structures varies from a few to closest to the trails) are the actual ambush several hundred meters, the rock structures locations. The features that would most likely closest to the springs tend to be more clustered. have functioned as observational/signaling Second, there appears to be a direct correlation stations are those on Fig. 2 numbered /, 7, 10, between the distance of features from existing I3a-d, 18, 50, 51 and 52. An alternate explana­ game trails relative to their distance from tion for the features farthest from the springs is springs. In other words, the greater the dis­ that they were also ambush locations situated tance of a given feature from the nearest spring to help ensure killing an animal even if a herd (as measured along a trail), the farther that was alarmed before it reached the watering structure tends to be from the trail (as measured spot. The Indians would certainly have been to its nearest point). This supports the notion very familiar with the habits of the animals of disparate functions for rock structures situ­ they were hunting and would have located ated at various distances from springs. One their hunting facilities accordingly. possibility is that the features farthest from the The orientation of the stone features is also springs (and therefore farthest from the trails), relevant for determining their function. Where are observational/signaling stations, while openings are present, they are oriented so they those closest to the springs (and therefore face away from the nearest game trail. They ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 65 appear to be designed to conceal the hunter slick near another (Fig. 2, 4). from game either approaching or leaving the Where debitage was observed, it generally springs, although there are one or two excep­ consisted of retouch flakes of chalcedony, tions. The latter may have been oriented with chert, and obsidian. Its significance is most respect to trails no longer visible. likely that of". . . demonstrating that waiting huntsmen often whiled away the hours fashion­ ing arrowpoints and other stone tools" ASSOCIATED ARTIFACTS (Wallace 1976:152). Heizer and Baumhoff AND FEATURES (1962:43) note a similar paucity of remains at The only artifacts found in direct associa­ such sites in . tion or within 10 m. of the rock features were The diagnostic artifacts (Table 1) recovered debitage (stone flakes), a few cores, a hammer- from the Upper Warm Springs features include stone, some bifacially and unifacially flaked 13 projectile points (Figs. 5, 6) and one white, tools (including projectile points and possible opaque glass trade bead (Fig. 6). The possible knives), a glass trade bead, and a possible temporal range represented is ca. 4000 B.C. to "spirit stick." The only associated features the historic period, but all the time-diagnostic include a single grinding slick near one of the artifacts except one post-date ca. 1200 B.C. boulder structures (Fig. 2, 2) and an incipient (Bettinger and Taylor 1974). The glass bead

Fig. 4. Hunting feature (number 60) incorporating stone outcrop. Upper Warm Springs, Saline Valley, Inyo County, California. 66 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a

Fie 5 Projectile points associated with Upper Warm Springs, a, "Pinto"; b-c, Elko Contracting Stem; d, Elko Eared; e, Elko Series. All points drawn actual size (see accompanymg table). ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 67

g

m

n ©

Fig. 6. Projectile points and bead associated with Upper Warm Springs, f-g, Eastgate Expanding Stem; h-i. Rose Spring Corner-notched; j. Rose Spring/ Eastgate Series; k, Cottonwood Triangular; 1-m, Cottonwood Series; n, glass bead. All artifacts drawn actual size (see accompanying table). 68 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY 60 0 60 0 0 Q Q ffi 130 0

< ._^-A.D . _ _ _ _ _ < -A.D . o o dj o — —

600 - _ _ _ o . . B.C. - B.C . B.C . o •120 0 o CQ CQCQ^ ^ ^ •o ^ — — — o o Q D d Q d Q Ci < 120 0 120 0 5— — •_::_:< A.D . < < < < < <<

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4, a> -^ -C3 X( .D C 3 S S S S .S -ti 1J OJ flj

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l/> t tr."3t: iJ "H t; S t: ii&ii sidi ; iter i 4> J3 SI (u 4j:^i> ct. '^, d D- a> CdCL--5" o 2 o o u oou ^ o a -^ U U^^M •<; u - Q ± z JS — ea c ," -i 4J

tifac t ^ I,. into " agno s EM P ^ 1/ os e S os e Ik o Ik o orne r xp a xpa : ott o ast g ast g ott o ott o ast g H a. O o ria n a < UJ ^ p-i uu UJ UJ UJ UJ Di U oi U Q/ U U h- u u CD c o

z ^ ^ I ^zu. z .., w'^z w z ^ UJ lit E _ P ^ E E o o Q U. Oi

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>d > c — H .2 ^ •0 ac 0- 0 rj Tf — rj 1— oo 00 OJ 0^ 00 U. u. u. U. U- U. U. U- u^. c QC QC cx: Q: Di a: a: a; a; ^C 3 ffi S E 0 atur e u 0e U. u ^ v-> be -c C CA U J<£ •U CC ^, ^\ tW iH *iS^ sc ^O ^c vO 0 ca 0 rt oJDQJjaij 00 aboiob ob ci oo 50 oi) 00 Q Ci Q Fig . tZ ii LI LZ iZ tZ IZ IZFig . tZ iZ tZ LZ u. 3 , ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 69 was the only artifact found at one rock struc­ hunting and others for permanent water and ture (Fig. 2, 49). vegetable resources. In addition, with a sea­ In a slight overhang (Fig. 2, '"Cave 9") im­ sonal emphasis on spring-side hunting, habita­ mediately below one of the rock features (Fig. tion would have been possible at the springs 2, 42), a stick was discovered with side branches during the alternate or non-hunting seasons of trimmed and dulled and most of the bark the year. Coombs' finding provides support for missing. It was 61.5 cm. long and 1.8 cm. in the idea that the Upper Warm Springs was diameter, and was wedged into a crevice in the used primarily for hunting. wall. Meighan (1953:175) recorded similar A number of cleared circles, that may have features in the Coville Rock Shelter, approxi­ been temporary camps, are scattered through­ mately 22 km. southeast of the Upper Warm out the area. In all cases they too are located Springs. Meighan cites Campbell (1931) who away from the springs. also found such items. Campbell claims that A number of non-habitation loci are found these sticks were "spirit protectors" or taboo in close proximity to the rock features. Most signs to guard the cave against robbery. What are lithic workshops related to tool manufac­ function the stick served at this site, however, is ture. With the exception of a large workshop unclear. area at Arrow Makers Knoll, all are small loci. These loci seem randomly distributed with INTER-SITE PATTERNING respect to the rock features. An important consideration is the relation On the western side of the study area, of the rock features to the other sites in the another site associated with the rock features is general area. composed of small rock piles (Fig. 2, "Monu­ Three loci have been identified at the Upper ments"). They are in a desert pavement setting Warm Springs that were probably seasonally and consist of generally fewer than five rocks occupied habitation sites based on the presence piled together—as many as 50 piles were noted. of midden, surface artifacts, and/or structural Similar occurrences have been reported else­ features. All are located to the east and south­ where in Saline Valley: 16 km. southwest of the east of "Arrow Makers Canyon" (Baldwin Upper Warm Springs, at Hunter Canyon 1931). Not only are the habitation sites situated (Crowley 1980) and 1.5 km. north of Upper slightly away from the two nearest springs, but Warm Springs (Baldwin 1931). The significance these springs are peripheral to the main con­ of these rock clusters and their association with centration of rock emplacements taking all of proposed hunting features is unknown. them into account. It appears that the aborig­ An apparent intaglio is located within 40 m. inal inhabitants intentionally minimized of a rock feature (Fig. 2). A single petroglyph domestic activity around the three western (56 cm. X 36 cm.) was found 30 m. east of springs. A possible explanation is that in order Arrow Makers Knoll on a dolomite boulder. A to avoid alarming game that came to water and highly stylized design has been pecked through feed at the springs, habitation sites were situ­ a light brown (not desert varnished) surface. ated at a "safe" distance. Coombs (1979:7), for Highly varnished surfaces suitable for petro­ instance, found that the highest densities of glyph manufacture are present on the hill prehistoric sites in relation to springs in the marking the western boundary of the study California Desert occur immediately at the area. The virtual absence of petroglyphs in the spring or at a distance of 0.6 mile to 1.0 mile study area is thus noteworthy and will be dis­ away. This bimodal distribution suggests that cussed later. some springs were used predominantly for The only evidence of historic habitation is ^w

70 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

a rock slab and earth covered circular domed Silver peaks in the Coso Range of Inyo County structure with vestibule that outwardly (Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968). These were resembles a Navajo hogan. Baldwin makes no interpreted as mountain sheep hunting blinds, mention of this feature in his 1931 manuscript. an interpretation supported not only by loca­ He did document the archaeological remains tion with respect to terrain but also by associa­ at Arrow Makers Knoll adjacent to which this tion of petroglyphs depicting mountain sheep "hogan" is situated, and a post-1931 date seems and sheep hunting scenes. reasonable. It is conceivable that the structure Recent work in the southwest Great Basin was built and occupied by remnant Shoshone has resulted in the documentation of new blind people, locations (WESTEC Services 1979; Clewlow et al. 1980). There are also numerous reports of hunting features from Nevada (Heizer and COMPARATIVE DATA Baumhoff 1962; Hagerty 1970; Nissen 1974; The crude stone structures referred to in Thomas 1976). Additional features have been the literature as hunting blinds have a wide recorded outside the Great Basin, including distribution in the southwest Great Basin (Fig. eastern Wyoming (Renaud 1931), Baja Cali­ 1; Table 2). Many such features have been fornia (Ritter 1977), and the Upper Snake and recorded in Death Valley National Monument, Salmon River country of Idaho (Butler 1978). mostly by William J. Wallace (1968a, b; 1973; 1976; 1977). His 1976 article is especially useful EARLY HISTORIC ACCOUNTS since it describes these features in detail and references the earliest accounts of them. Other Some early historians chronicle the hunt­ published accounts of hunting blinds from ing of mountain sheep from "specialized rude Death Valley include Hunt (1960), who reports stone constructions" (Renaud 1931) similar to 29 sites, and Craib (1978), who accounts for 17 those described above. additional stone features. Isolated blinds are John R. Spears, a reporter for the New also reported for Death Valley (Wallace and York Sun, described rock structures in Death Taylor 1955; Wallace 1968/b). The Bureau of Valley and their function in hunting bighorn Land Management's Desert Planning Staff sheep: documented the existence of numerous addi­ These sheep find their feed on the benches tional hunting blind locations in the southwest and gulches of the mountain side and, Great Basin. In the Saline Valley, Crowley while eating, it is said, they never look (1980) recorded eight blinds at Hunter upward. But when they are alarmed they Canyon, and one more 8 km. north of the fly to the top, and if there is a ridge there, Upper Warm Springs. The Hunter Canyon follow it to the highest peak. Having ob­ rock features are located adjacent to many big­ served this peculiarity, the Paiutes build horn sheep petroglyphs and provide the best blinds on the ridgetop runways. They started in during the fall of 1891 to build a associational evidence that sheep were hunted number of such blinds on crests overlook­ in Saline Valley. A probable hunting feature ing several Death Valley trails. . . . The was also noted (Crowley 1980) by a spring near blinds were in all cases semicircular walls Grapevine Canyon at the south end of Saline of stone . . . when all preparations were Valley. complete, [the Indians] posted their best Small rock-piled circular enclosures have marksmen in the blinds while the others been observed at the entrances to narrow chased the sheep up to the slaughter gorges and on the rocky crags of Coso and [1892:73]. ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 71

Table 2 HUNTING BLIND LOCATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST GREAT BASIN (CALIFORNIA)

Fig. 1 Ref. No. Mountain Range/Location Reference

Inyo Mountains Corral Springs County Site Files Hunter Canyon Crowley 1980

Saline Range

Inyo-1839 BLM Saline Planning Unit Upper Warm Springs BLM Saline Planning Unit

Panamint Range

5 Dry Mountain BLM Saline Planning Unit 6 Grapevine Canyon Crowley 1980 7 Mormon Gulch BLM Panamint Planning Unit 8 Wildrose Canyon (Death Valley) Wallace and Taylor 1955 9 Quartzite Spring (Death Valley) Hunt I960 10 Mesquite Springs (Death Valley) Wallace I968fl II N. Mesquite Springs (Death Valley) Wallace l968o

Grapevine Mountains

12 Scotty's Castle (Death Valley) County Site Files 13 Grapevine Springs (Death Valley) Wallace 1968a

Funeral Mountains

14 "Hunting Blind" Springs (Death Valley) Craib 1978 15 Table Spring (Death Valley) Hunt I960 16 W. Table Spring (Death Valley) County Site Files 17 Scraper Spring (Death Valley) Hunt 1960 18 Nevares Spring (Death Valley) Hunt 1960; Wallace 1973 19 NW Nevares Spring (Death Valley) County Site Files 20 Texas-Travertine Springs (Death Valley) Hunt I960 21 W. Navel Spring (Death Valley) Hunt I960 22 Navel Spring (Death Valley) County Site Files

Coso Range

23 Upper Centennial Spring BLM Darwin Planning Unit 24 Coso Peak (China ) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 25 Petroglyph Canyon (China Lake) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 26 Sheep Canyon (China Lake) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 27 Renegade Canyon (China Lake) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 28 S. Sugarloaf Mountain (China Lake) Clewlow, Wells, and Whitley 1980

Argus Range

29 BLM Darwin Planning Unit 30 Junction Ranch (China Lake) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 31 Carricut Lake (China Lake) Grant, Baird, and Pringle 1968 72 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Table 2 (continued)

Fig. I Ref. No. Mountain Range/Location Reference

Slate Range

32 Early Spring (Mojave "B" Range) WESTEC Services 1979

Almond Mountain

33 SBr-1029 BLM Red Mountain Planning Unit 34 SBr-3113 BLM Red Mountain Planning Unit

Red Mountain

35 Squaw Spring BLM Red Mountain Planning Unit 36 SBr-1059 BLM Red Mountain Planning Unit 37 SBr-1061 BLM Red Mountain Planning Unit

El Paso Mountains

38 S. Terese Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 39 Black Hills #1 Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 40 Black Hills #2 Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 41 Black Hills #3 Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 42 Black Hills #4 Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 43 Black Hills #5 Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980 44 Black Mountain Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980

Lava Mountains

45 Bedrock Spring Tom Chapman, pers. comm. 1980

Granite Mountains

46 NE, NE Myrick Spring (Fort Irwin) Carolyn Shepherd, pers. comm. 1980

In the same year Vernon Bailey, a biologist for The historic record is not rich in the des­ the U.S. Department of Agriculture's "Death cription of hunting techniques employed by Valley Expedition," noted the presence of Native Americans. One of the best descrip­ hunting blinds in the mountains around Death tions, however, was provided by the naturalist Valley: John Muir:

At some of the springs high up on both the On the tops of nearly every one of the Panamint and old Nevada mountains that I have visited, I blinds built of stone walls were near found small nestlike enclosures built of enough to water for safe bow and arrow stone, in which I afterwards learned, one or shooting of the mountain sheep when they more Indians would lie in wait while their came to drink. As these sheep, before rifles companions scoured the ridges below, were brought to bear on them, must have knowing that the alarmed sheep would been abundant they were probably the surely run to the summit, and when they main meat supply of the Indians [Bailey could be made to approach with the wind 1940:10]. they were shot at short range [Muir 1901: 320-321]. ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 73

Edward Nelson (1922:132) provides a good permanent association of families occurred description of the potentially devastating during the winter months. effects of human predation on bighorn popu­ Steward grouped neighboring winter vil­ lations in Baja California, probably by modern lages whose members presumably associated hunters using rifles: with one another into "districts" (1938:77), of which he recognized four for the Panamint Mountain sheep are peculiarly endangered Shoshone. These differ only slightly from the , , . owing to their habit of going in bands and drinking at certain watering places, five sub-groups identified by Driver (1937:58). where hunters lie in wait behind blinds The Saline Valley district includes four prin­ built of loose stones and kill individuals of cipal winter villages, located in Hunter Canyon, all ages and sexes, often in a few minutes at Waucoba Spring, at Goldbelt Spring and in destroying an entire band, I have been in­ Cottonwood Canyon. The former two are formed of one party having killed more located along the eastern base of the Inyo than 100 sheep in this manner to make Mountains, while the latter two are in the dried meat during a single season. Panamint Range. Judging from the hunting techniques em­ Panamint Shoshone territory was charac­ ployed by the Indians, there apparently was a terized by Kroeber (1925:589) as the most thin­ much higher density and wider distribution of ly populated area of California, An informal mountain sheep at the time the observations census placed the number of persons living in were made. Phrases such as "chased the sheep" SaHne Valley at 65 (Steward 1938:48) for the and "scoured the ridge" suggest a careless period 1870-1880. These estimates may be mis­ approach to stalking game, which probably leading for earlier periods. This figure does was not the case. The accounts also imply a serve as a relative indicator of how many sound familiarity with habits of large mam­ people might have participated in communal mals, in these instances, mountain sheep. activities. In rare instances, individuals or families from the northern Death Valley vil­ lages (e.g.. Grapevine Canyon, Surveyor's ETHNOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTIONS Well) may have augmented the total number of The Panamint Shoshone, also referred to people available for cooperative undertakings as the Koso (Coso) and Shoshone of eastern in Saline Valley. They were known to have California (Grosscup 1977:109) occupied the participated in rabbit drives and fall festivals whole of the Saline Valley (Steward 1938:71). held in the mountains separating Saline, The Panamint Shoshone are generally des­ Death, and Panamint valleys (Steward 1938: cribed as having incorporated an area "... from 80). The extent to which the sub-groups co­ the Sierra Nevadas on the west to the Amargosa operated with one another is unknown, al­ Desert of eastern Nevada on the east, and from though Saline Valley Shoshone occasionally Owens and in the north to an traveled up to 75 miles to participate in com­ ill-defined boundary in the south shared with munal antelope hunts near Brown, 10 miles southern Paiute groups" (Grosscup 1977:109). south of Little Lake (Steward 1938:82). Among Shoshonean groups, the indepen­ The ethnographic accounts of Panamint dent economic unit was, of necessity, the indi­ Shoshone hunting activities (Driver 1937; vidual family (Steward 1938). People relied Steward 1938) are generally lacking in detail. principally on vegetal resources; game was Steward's (1938:81-82) consultants mention an­ distinctly of secondary importance although it telope hunts to the south of Little Lake, to the required much of the hunters' time. The most south of , and to the north end of 74 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY

Saline Valley. Steward's (1938:82) account of to drive or trail the animals (Driver 1937:61; the Little Lake Shoshone antelope hunts des­ Steward 1941:220). Enclosures, traps, nets, cribed eight or ten men, perhaps aided by fire, and snares were believed to be largely ineffec­ driving the animals into a corral built of posts tive in hunting mountain sheep. Thumping spaced about 20 feet apart and covered with logs together (Steward 1941:220) or pounding brush. The corral had a wide opening but no a moccasin against a rock (Steward 1941:329; wings. However, Steward (1938:33) indicates Stewart 1941:423) are said to have attracted that, for the most part, deer and mountain bighorn. Thinking other rams were fighting, sheep were taken through the perseverance of the animals came to investigate and were killed a single hunter or small groups of men, while by concealed hunters. antelope were hunted communally. Steward That Steward's informants did not em­ states that hunting methods varied by herd size phasize communal sheep hunting does not and type of animal. Deer and mountain sheep mean that their predecessors were similarly more often ran in small bands, and antelope disposed because detailed accounts of techni­ formed small herds of between 100 and 300 ques for antelope and deer hunting are also animals (Steward 1938:34). However, Baillie- lacking. Although antelope were present in the Grohman (1884:163) indicated that aUhough low hills between Saline and Eureka valleys bighorn sheep usually were found in groups of (Steward 1938:79), they were considered too 6-10 or 12 animals, he had seen herds of between rare to warrant communal hunts outside the 50 and 60 individuals. Elsewhere, there is men­ central and southern parts of Shoshone terri­ tion of 30 mountain sheep being killed in one tory. Antelope hunting, particularly, seems to drive (Chalfant 1930). Contrary to what have been associated with much magico-reli- Steward's consultants claimed, larger herds of gious activity. Deer were too scattered and too bighorn sheep may have been accessible for swift and agile to be driven into corrals or over communal hunts. At the time Steward did his cliffs according to Steward (1938:218). Saline fieldwork and within his consultants' lifetimes, Valley people hunted deer mostly in the Inyo possibly these large herds were severely de­ Mountains (Steward 1938:77). pleted or no longer existed. It is reasonable to assume that the hunting Driver's (1937:61) Panamint Shoshone techniques described by Steward and Driver consultants indicated that mountain sheep reflect a shift away from communal hunting as were driven to hunters concealed behind blinds a result of drastic reductions in animal herds. on mountain tops, along trails or overlooking This is suggested by Geist (1967), who studied canyons. In some instances, fire may have been habits of mountain sheep bands in the Pacific used to drive the game. Where "trailing" was Northwest. He remarks on the inflexibility of employed, a single hunter followed the game their feeding habits and attributes these habits until he could obtain a shot (Driver 1937:110). to their social organization. Due to excessive A poisoned arrow smeared with decayed blood human predation, the death of the older ani­ from an animal's heart was probably used mals results in a loss of the knowledge of the (Wallace 1977:41; Grosscup 1977:124). Other migratory routes. Once this happens, the big­ techniques included ambushing and driving horn will not reoccupy their former ranges, sheep over cliffs (Steward 1941:220). Regard­ and they adapt to new territory very slowly. ing the latter technique, Butler (1978:54), Panamint Shoshone consultants do not noted the use of poisoned sticks, pointed and refer to the distance at which game could be placed vertically at a spot where the sheep was shot with a bow and arrow. However, Pope's expected to jump from above. Dogs were used (1962) experiments with aboriginal flight ABORIGINAL HUNTING IN SALINE VALLEY 75

arrows constructed by Ishi found them to be Human predation in aboriginal times is very effective to distances of 30 to 40 yards known to have severely depleted the antelope (27-37 m.) even though the American Indian herds (Egan 1917:238-241). The Saline Valley bow was found to be generally inferior to a is a deep, relatively narrow, open valley with modern hunting bow. One of Voegelin's few natural outlets, an excellent place to drive (1938:12) Tubatulabal consultants, however, antelope. This may have been responsible for stated that when using a sinew-backed bow, a their elimination there at a comparatively early deer could be hit, but not killed, at a distance of date as Shoshone consultants claimed oc­ 180 m. (600 ft.). The rest of the day was spent curred in the Deep Creek area of Utah (Egan chasing the animal which was generally killed 1917:238-241). the following morning. Nissen (1974:57) con­ Considering the large number of stone ducted an experiment using a 33-pound-test facilities present at the Upper Warm Springs bow shooting a 29-inch arrow from behind a and the fact that, aboriginally, game could blind. She found that "from the ridge top near have approached the springs along many of the the stone circles, the arrows hit about 30 to 50 same trails used by burros today (Fig, 2), it is feet [9 to 15 m.] to the west of the ridge on the reasonable to hypothesize that not all of the floodplain, probably with enough force to stone facilities were used simultaneously even wound an animal." Hagerty (1970:5) records during communal hunts. For example, a sys­ the distance of two talus depression hunting tem or chain of observational/signaling posts blinds from game trails at approximately 12 m. to provide advance warning on herd move­ Estimates from Upper Warm Springs place ments could allow for rapid deployment of most blinds within 20 m. of existing trails. hunters along the trails. Fewer individuals It is generally assumed that when antelope positioned strategically could kill approaching and deer were hunted communally, the hunt game far more efficiently. At the Upper Warm took place during the early spring and in the Springs, the evidence for use of such a system is fall, when they were migrating along known found among the blinds positioned farthest routes (Steward 1938:175). The only mention of from the springs, which are also found to be when bighorn were hunted was "In December farthest from the existing game trails. The .. . when rams were dueling during the mating distance of these blinds from the trails is gener­ season" (Steward 1938). Fall festivals may ally greater than the 30 to 40 yards (27-37 m.) have been another occasion for communal alluded to by Pope (1962) as the distance at bighorn hunts. which the California Indian was most effective as a marksman. These blinds are usually found at the highest point on the respective knoll or DISCUSSION hill and generally provide the widest panorama. Based on the presence of the large number If, however, animals were driven rather of hunting blinds, one may hypothesize that than allowed to approach on their own, their hunting at Upper Warm Springs was a com­ movements could probably be more easily con­ munal activity requiring many individuals. trolled through the use of "beaters" and The complex spans a period from ca. 1200 B.C. "drivers." The advantage of this method is that to the ethnographic present, although sporadic it requires fewer total individuals even if the use before then is possible. The frequency of beaters and drivers are used. With this techni­ these communal events may have depended on que, though, the blinds on the highest respec­ when the last hunt took place and the location tive knoll or hill may have been ambush loca­ of other activities in the seasonal round. tions rather than observational/signaling 76 JOURNAL OF CALIFORNIA AND GREAT BASIN ANTHROPOLOGY posts. They may have been placed there because tions and their orientation with respect to of the habit mountain sheep have of running to existing game trails, are the best evidence for the highest point when alarmed. Egan (1917: such use. Unfortunately, the ethnographic 238-241) cites a similar habit for antelope: "An data are woefully inadequate in terms of descrip­ antelope, when started up, will always run tive data on hunting techniques employed for directly for one of these (knolls) that lay oppo­ animals other than antelope. In other instances site from where he gets his scare from, and they the ethnographic accounts are clearly contra­ run from hill to hill , , ." dictory. On this basis, it is difficult to adequate­ The ethnographic accounts for the Pana­ ly evaluate which of the hunting techniques are mint Shoshone are generally lacking in detail signified by the large number of rock features and sometimes contradictory concerning speci­ present at the Upper Warm Springs. fics of large game hunting. Steward (1938:33) Based on the fact that such a large number indicates that deer and mountain sheep were of rock features are present one may hypothe­ taken by a single hunter or small groups of size that hunting at Upper Warm Springs was men, while antelope were hunted communally. in fact a communal undertaking, although in However, Driver (1937:61) states that moun­ years when no communal hunts were sched­ tain sheep were hunted communally. He says uled, the springs could have been used by indivi­ they were driven to hunters concealed behind dual hunters or even several bowmen working blinds. together. Since the ethnographic accounts are contra­ Final consideration is whether bighorn dictory other evidence needs to be examined. It sheep or antelope or both were hunted at the has been suggested (Heizer and Baumhoff Upper Warm Springs. The historic description 1962:240) that the association between rock art of bighorn sheep, their frequent depictions in and hunting blinds may be one such avenue of rock art in Saline Valley, and the fact that they exploration. The association is not strongly are cited as having been driven along trails and supported by the evidence of a single petro­ ambushed from blinds suggests that bighorn glyph at Upper Warm Springs. However, in were the primary focus of hunting at Upper the Saline Valley, hunting blinds and rock art Warm Springs. are associated at the Hunter Canyon site, where there are numerous mountain sheep ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS petroglyphs. That today, the transient range of I am particularly indebted to Nancy bighorn gheep encompasses the Saline Range Farrell, who was of immense help during the (Fig. 1) lends further supporting evidence. field work. M. Suzanne Crowley and Janice F. Fisher provided excellent artifact illustrations. This manuscript benefited from the sugges­ CONCLUSION tions of Nancy Evans, Janice F. Fisher and The field data taken in conjunction with Eric W. Ritter, and their comments are appre­ the early historic accounts and the comparative ciated. I thank the wildlife biologists of the data, provide overwhelming support for use of Desert Planning Staff (Bureau of Land Man­ the rock features at the Upper Warm Springs agement) who provided me with a detailed as large game hunting blinds. The empirical map of past and current distributions of data, including the location of the features with mountain sheep (Fig. 1). This map was derived respect to terrain, their distribution with from the work of Richard Weaver of the U.S. respect to one another and with respect to other Fish and Wildlife Service. 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