9 MONTHERLANT, HENRY DE anarchist who has never believed in anar- ment thinkers as Voltaire and Diderot had chism. ambivalent attitudes toward sexual non- conformity. While opposing barbaric op- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Henry de Montherlant pression, they clung to the notion that the and Roger Peyrefitte, Correspondence, Paris: Robert Laffont, 1983; Pierre church remained the arbiter of "moral- Sipriot, Montherlant sans masque, I: ity," which in practice meant sexual L'Enfant prodigue, 1895-1 932, Paris: morality, and that same-sexrelations, being Robert Laffont, 1982. "unnatural," were destined to disappear in Wayne R. Dynes a truly enlightened polity. During the French Revolution two pamphlets MOTIONPICTURES appeared, Les enfans de Sodome and Les See Film. petits bougres au man8ge, purporting to give information on adherents to a proto- MOVEMENT, liberation movement for homosexuals, but HOMOSEXUAL this anticipation remains shadowy. Modernlife has seen many move- A lonely precursor was Heinrich ments for social change, including those Hoessli (1784-1864), a Swiss milliner from intended to secure the rights of disenfran- the canton of Glarus, who in 183648 chisedgroups. Thehomosexualmovement published in two volumes Eros: Die is a general designation for organized po- Miinnerliebe der Griechen: ihre litical striving to end the legal and social Beziehungen zur Geschichte, Erziehung, intolerance of homosexuality in countries Literatur und Gesetzgebung aller Zeiten where it had been stigmatized as both a (Eros: The Male Love of the Greeks: Its vice and a crime, and where the revelation Relationship to the History, Education, of an individual's homosexuality almost Literature and Legislation of All Ages). inevitably led to social ostracism and Amateur that he was, Hoessli collected economic ruin. Only at the end of the the literary and other material-mainly nineteenth century did such organized from ancient Greeceand medieval Islam- movement endeavors become possible in that illustrated male homosexuality. His continental Europe, in no small measure writings, issued in very small editions, had because of the impact of scientific think- no immediate effect on public opinion or ing on the political discourse of that ep- the law. och. Characteristic of such movements is Second in the prehistory of the their capacity to give the homosexual movement, the German jurist and poly- individual not just a sexual but a political math Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (182.5-1895) identity-as a niember of a minority with began in January 1864to publish a series of agrievance against thelargersociety. These pamphlets under the title Forschungen movements varied in the size of their zur mannmannlichen Liebe. The first of membership and the scope of their activ- these was entitled Vindex, a name meant ity, as well as in the specific goals which to vindicate the homosexual in the eyes of they pursued and the arguments by which public opinion. The second had the name they sought to persuade the decision- Inclusa, taken from Ulrichs' formula an- making elites and the general public of the ima muliebris corpore virili inclusa, "a justice of their cause. female soul trapped in a male body." The Origins. The Enlightenment of pamphlets rambled over the entire field of the eighteenth century, which took up ancient and modern history and sociology, arms against every form of arbitrary op- with comments on contemporary scan- pression, may be regarded as the spiritual dals. Although he even conceived the idea parent of all later homosexual liberation of an organization that would fight for the movements. Yet such leading Enlighten- human rights of Umings, as he called them, MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 0%

Ulrichs' efforts to ameliorate the legal subject over the centuries. Gatheringsome plight of the homosexual in Germany 1500 members from all parts of Germany, failed, since the North German Confed- the Committee never became a mass or eration and then the German Empire "activist" organization; unlike some later adopted the Prussian law penalizing groups, it never even sought this status. "unnatural lewdness" between males. He Outside Germany the Scientific- ended his days in poverty and exile, be- Humanitarian Committee only gradually friended by anItaliannoblemanwhowrote attracted imitators, as in countries that a short tribute to him after his death. had adopted the Code Napoleon where no Emergence. Two years after criminal statute remained in need of re- Ulrichs' death, the world's first homosex- peal. In the Netherlands a branch was ual organization came into being: the founded in 191 1 in the wake of the passage Wissenschaftlich-humanitare Komitee of a law which ominously raised the age of (Scientific-Humanitarian Committee), consent from 14 to 21-discriminating founded in Berlin on May 14, 1897 under against homosexual acts for the first time the leadership of Magnus Hirschfeld in the twentieth century. This Dutch (1868-1935)) a physician who became the branch had been preceded by the participa- world's leading, if controversial, authority tion of several writers-Arnold Aletrino, on homosexuality in the years that fol- L. S. A. M. von Romer, Jongherr Jacob van lowed. The Committee's first action was Schorer-in theinternational aspect of the to draft a petition to the legislative bodies German movement. Aletrino had coura- of the German Empire calling for the re- geously spoken in defense of homosexuals peal of Paragraph 175 of the Penal Code of at the Congress of Criminal Anthropology the Reich. For this petition the Commit- in Amsterdam in 190 1 and been roundly tee solicited the signatures of prominent abused by the other delegates. Another figures in all wallcs of German life, and offshoot of the Committee was founded in ultimately it obtained some 6,000 names, Vienna in 1906 to seek reform of the an impressive cross-section of the intel- Austrian law of 1852which penalized both lectual elite of the Second Reich and the male and female homosexual expression. Weimar Republic. It also began to publish By the second decade of the twen- the world's first homosexual periodical, tieth century the various organizations or thefahrbuch fur sexuelle Zwischenstufen groups of friends such as those around (Yearbook for Sexual Intergrades], whose John Addington Symonds, Edward Car- title embraced not only homosexuality penter, and Havelock Ellis that were con- but also transvestism, pseudohermaphro- cerned with changing the law and public ditism, and other departuresfrom the norm opinion in regard to the legitimacy and of masculinity or femininity. morality of sexual behavior began to coa- The Committee professed the lesce into a larger "sexual reform move- view-which did not go unchallenged even ment." All rejected the traditional ascetic within homosexual circles-that homo- morality of the Christian Church and its sexuals belonged to a "third sex" which more modern variants to a greater or lesser represented aninnate "intermediatestage" degree, though some affected a neutral between male and female. All traits of pose on this issue. The birth control mind and body it assigned to the mascu- movement was joined by the eugenics line or the feminine, while insisting that movement and by an organization that there was acontinuum between the twoin sought to abate the stigma attaching to every human being. It also issued pam- unwed motherhood-the Deutsche Bund phlets and brochures for the lay public, fur Mutterschutz (German League for the trying to break down the layers of preju- Protection of Motherhood). Also, voices dice and ignorance that had encrusted the were raised against the laws prohibiting 4 MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL voluntary abortion as a method of birth Europe in 1917-18-all created a new set- control and the religiously based laws ting for efforts at homosexual emancipa- which made divorce difficult-if not im- tion. possible, as was the case in most of Catho- Germany, now the Weimar Re- lic Europe. Despite entrenched opposition, public, remained the center of the move- the women's suffrage organizations were ment, which barely existed in most other becoming ever more influential in coun- countries, even where a semi-clandestine tries such as Germany and Great Britain. subculture flourished, as it had in London, Throughout the industrial world, Paris, and the major Italian cities since the the old order in the realm of sexuality-a late Middle Ages. The Deutsche Freund- kind of Old Regime of social control-was schaftsverband [German Friendship Asso- under attack on many fronts. By and large, ciation] was founded in 1920 as an expres- the protagonists of these various reform sion of the displeasure felt by many homo- movements saw one another as natural sexuals at the academic and political ori- allies and clerical and traditionalist par- entation of the Scientific-Humanitarian ties in the national legislatures as natural Committee and the narrow elitism of the enemies. So the homosexual movement Community of the Exceptional. The Asso- was part of a much larger wave of social ciationwas more oriented toward theneeds agitation against nineteenth century sex- of the average homosexuali it opened an ual morality. This positive development activities center in Berlin, held weekly was paradoxical in that its roots lie in part meetings, sponsored dances, and published in the "social purity" campaigns of the aweekly entitledDieFreundschaft [Friend- late Victorian era. In their conviction that ship]. Some 42 delegates from chapters social hygiene required repressive as well throughout Germany attended the second as fostering aspects, the social purity advo- annual conference of the Association. A cates were hardly unambiguous support- period of rivalry with the Committee ers of sexual freedom. Social purity sought ensued that lasted until 1923 when the reform in the context of normative man- Association renounced its involvement in agement and social engineering, not lib- the struggle for legal reform and changed eration. But in the actual situation, which its name to the Liga fir Menschenrechte was one of revolt against the corseted (League for Human Rights), while Die restraints of High Victorianism, reformers Freundschaft changed from a weekly to a of various stripes were swept along in a monthly and took on a more literary and wave of libertarian or quasi-libertarian cultural focus. A third journal Uranos also openness. Yet the contradictions exposed competed with Adolf Brand's Der Eigene in this era were to reemerge in the 1970s in in the artistic sphere. The Iahrbuch itself the feminist campaigns against pornogra- was forced to discontinue publication af- phy and child abuse. ter the inflationary spiral of 1923 had The 1920s. World War I brought destroyed its resources. Its 23 volumes the efforts of the sexual reform movement remain the classic repository of informa- to a temporary halt, but then ushered in tion on all aspects of homosexuality from the far more radical rejection of Victorian the first quarter of the twentieth century. norms of sexuality of the 1920s. The pre- Most of the organizations and occupation of the police with espionage, periodicals that flourished in the 1920s sabotage, and other crimes directly affect- had a more social than political purpose, ing thewar effort, themood that youth had though Hirschfeld and the Committee "so little time" to enjoy the pleasures of continued their struggle against the "para- life when death was always imminent, the graph." In 1922 Gustav Radbruch, the breakdown of authority in the wave of Social Democratic Minister of Justice, revolution that swept Central and Eastern drafted a far more progressive criminal MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 4 code, but it never came before the Reich- impossible to discuss the findings of stag. The indifference of conservative ju- modem psychologists on sexuality in print rists to legal reform led to the formation in because of the English laws on "criminal 1925 of the Kartell fiir Reform des Sexu- obscenity," which the courts had defined alstrafrechts [Coalition for Reform of the as the power to corrupt any individual Law on Sexual Offenses], which under the "into whose hands the publication might direction of the lawyer and litterateur Kurt fall." A British Society for the Study of Sex Miller (1885-19721 set about drafting a Psychology had been established in 1914, comprehensive alternative. Only one of but its real interest focused in the subcom- the seven member-organizations of the mittee on sexual inversion which was Coalition, whose own draft was published surreptitiously a "committee of the as a compact volume of legal texts and whole." Between 19 15 and 1933 the Soci- commentaries in 1927, was a homosexual ety published 17 pamphlets, one of them a group (the Committee). translation of a German tract issued by the The country that had the most Scientific-Humanitarian Committee. sweeping revolution of all was Russia, In the United States, Henry Get- where the codes of the fallen autocracy bet, who had served in the American Army were abolished in one stroke, and when of Occupationin theRhineland, attempted the Soviet regime drafted its penal code in to transplant the ideas and organizational 1922, homosexual offenses were not in- forms of the German movement. In De- cluded. Only crimes involving force or the cember 1924 the (Chicago) Society for corruption of minors were punishable, and Human Rights received a charter from the the definition of minor was a sliding one, state of Illinois; it was officially dedicated to be determined by physical examination to "promote and protect" the interests of of the subject, not by chronological age. those who, because of "mental and physi- The actual degree of freedom that homo- cal abnormalities" were hindered in sexuals enjoyed during what later came to the "pursuit of happiness." It lasted only be seen as the "golden age" of the Soviet long enough to publish a few issues of regime remains moot. No publications on the newspaper Friendship and Freedom, homosexuality for the general reader are modeled on the German periodical known from this decade, and no organiza- Freundschaft und Freiheit. One member tion comparable to the Scientific-Humani- of the ill-fated group was a bisexual tariancommitteeor theLeaguefor Human whose wife complained to a socialworker, Rights was formed. A group of medical with the result that all four members of experts did seek to enlighten the masses the group were arrested without a war- on sexual matters in general, and a rather rant. Gerber lost all his saving and had tolerant attitude of the regime toward only the bitter memory that no one came heterosexual promiscuity, divorce, birth to the aid of the organization. control, and abortion facilitated some In France Inversions published a public discussion of homosexuality. But few issues in 1925 but was halted by a no direct benefits for homosexuals en- prosecution inspired by Catholic mem- sued, and a number of individuals suffered bers of the National Assembly. The prose- repression or persecution. cution appealed to anti-German senti- The English-speaking world ments (themovement drew its inspiration lagged sadly behind Europe, as the tradi- "from across the Rhine") quite as much as tional "Anglo-Saxon attitudes" toward to the traditional intolerance promoted by sexuality changed but slightly in spite of the church; the defendants lost. Still, in protests after the condemnation of Oscar the absence of any penal law comparable Wilde. At the end of the 1920s Bertrand to Paragraph 175, French homosexuals had Russell wrote that it would be virtually little reason to organize. The frightful loss 9 MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL of life in the trenches during World War I had to dissolve, and on May 6 theInstitute coupled with the declining French birth for Sexual Science was invaded by Nazis rate even led in 1920 to anti-birth control who seized the library and files and burned legislation. them publicly four days later. Many of the On the international front, a homosexual and lesbian cafes and bars in World League for Sexual Reform on a Sci- Berlin were closed; all publishing activity entific Basis was founded in Berlin in 1921 of the organizations ceased fortwelve years at the recently created Institut fiir Sexu- of National Socialist rule. The World alwissenschaft (Institute for Sexual Sci- League for Sexual Reform lasted until 1935, enbe) headed by Magnus Hirschfeld. The when the death of Magnus Hirschfeld in founders included world leaders in law, Nice led to its collapse, because the lead- sex education, contraception, endocrinol- ership was split over the issue of whether ogy, eugenics, and sexual research in gen- to remain a centrist movement or to form eral. At its peak, the League united groups an open alliance with the Communist with a total membership of 130,000, and Party-which, as it happened, would have had members in countries from the Soviet been a dead end. Union to Australia. All were devoted to The Soviet Union amended its the task of replacing the ascetic morality penal codes to make homosexual acts of the churchwith anew standard of rights between males-though not females- and obligations shaped by the findings of criminal. The "Law of March 7, 1934" biology and medicine as well as by a modem patently alluded to the day of National conception of society's interests and of the Socialist assumption of power in Germany individual's claim to happiness. Further the previous year. Repudiatingmost of the congresses of the League were convened in other reforms of the 1920s, the Stalin re- Copenhagen (1928))London (19291, and gime prohibited abortion, suppressed the Vienna (19301. The London conference, sale of birth control devices, and returned attended by many prominent figures in to a puritanical "petty bourgeois" code of British intellectual and public life, may sexual morality. Communist parties un- have had the greatest influence. In the der Soviet domination lost all interest in following year, 1930, theLambeth Confer- sexual reform and became-and mostly ence of the Church of England approved remain-foes of homosexual emancipa- the use of birth control by married couples. tion. Breaching the long tradition of intolerance Towards the Present. In Switzer- on this subject, Anglicans began to aban- land, just as the movement in Germany don the old ascetic norms of morality, was coming to an end, a new homosexual thereby opening the way to ultimate ac- organization began. In 1933 a monthly ceptance of sexual pleasure as legitimate journal called Schweizerisches Freund- in its own right. schaftsblatt (Swiss Friendship Bulletin) Setbacks. The 1930s-theDepres- came under the editorship of Karl Meier sion era-saw the sexual reform move- ("Ralf"), a former contributor to Der Eigene ment, as a whole, retreat. While it fostered and Die Freundschaft, publishing articles, radical movements throughout the world, short stories and photographs of interest to the economic crisis made sexual problems the general gay reader. Subsequently the seem secondary if not irrelevant. Worst of name was changed to Der KreislLe Cercle, all, the rise of National Socialism and its and French (1943)and English (1952)sec- seizure of power spelled the end of the tions were added, so that the publication homosexual movement in Germany. As took on an international character. The early as 1929 Nazi harassment had forced headquarters of the publication in Zurich Hirschfeld to leave the country. In 1933 became a social center for the subscribers; the Scientific-Humanitarian Committee foreigners were admitted upon presenta- MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL *:* tion of a passport. From their observation media to open its channels to the homo- post in neutral Switzerland the contribu- sexual cause left the leaders and support- tors recorded the death of the older move- ers of these publications with a painful ment as the Nazis occupied one European sense of their outsider status. country after another, but after the war The Early American Movement. they watched the rebirth of the move- The United States had no tradition of ment, in due course, with an ideological homosexual movement activity, though and social base in the Anglo-American many Americans had lived in Central world. Europe and Hitler's persecution brought The movement revived only exile and CmigrC homosexuals to such slowly after the liberation of Europe from centers of the American gay underworld as Nazi rule. The first country to have a New York and Los Angeles. "Vice squads" postwar movement was the Netherlands, of the metropolitan police forces regularly where the "Amsterdam ShakespeareClub" entrapped homosexual men, raided bars, held its first meetings on December 8-9, and generally intimidated public manifes- 1946. This group and its journal Levens- tations of same-sex proclivities. As early recht (Right to Life] formed the nucleus as 1948 in Southern California "Bachelors of the Cultuur- en Ontspanningscentrum for Wallace" had appeared as a cover for [Culture and Recreation Center] with the the gathering of homosexuals, but Wis- publication Vriendschap (Friendship],both consin Senator Joseph McCarthyls cam- of which began early in 1949. Despite the paign against "sex perverts ingovernment" Catholic Center Party's efforts at repres- put the gay community on the defensive: sion in the Parliament, the organization its response was the founding of the Mat- grew in size from 1000 members in 1949 to tachiie Society in Los Angeles by Henry 3000 in 1960. In preference to the term (Harry]Hay in December 1950. With lead- "homosexual," the Dutch group preferred ership modeled on the organizational forms the coinages homofiel, "homophile," and and practices of the American Commu- homofilie, l'homophilia,l' which gained a nist Party and of freemasonry, it designed certain currency in other languages and a five-tiered structure that would preserve served to designate the first phase of the the anonymity of members while allow- movement in the United States. ing the highest tier to control the entire For a time the Netherlands be- group. The founders conceived homosexu- came the refuge of the reviving homosex- als in a separatist manner as a minority ual movement. Supported by such world- deprived of identity and rights, and need- renowned figures as Alfred C. Kinsey, ing a new consciousness of its history and whose pathbreakingstudies (1948-53) had place in society. Initial successes of the begun toreorient public opinion, theInter- group led to growth in Southern California national Committee for Sexual Equality and spread to the San Francisco Bay Area, (ICSE)held its first conference in Amster- with chapters elsewhere in the country dam in 1951 and for a number of years (thesebecame independent in 1961).Mat- issued an ICSE-Newsletter.In France AndrC tachine also had a nationally circulated Baudry founded the monthly Arcadie in monthly, ONE, which for the first time 1953 as a forum for the discussion of provided American homosexuals with a homosexual issues; like Der Kreis, it had a forum for discussion of their problems and membership of Arcadiens who gathered at aspirations. In the course of time ONE intervals for political and social purposes. emerged as a separate organization, while Although France and Switzerland had no the original group's San Francisco branch laws against homosexuality between con- issued Mattachine Review. senting adults, the pressure of public opin- The anti-Communist campaigns ion and the refusal of the establishment + MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL of the cold war could not leave the Mat- chagrin of the psychiatricestablishment- tachine Society untouched, and in 1953an compatible with full mental and physical open struggle developed between the found- health. ers and a new set of leaders who challenged In a country where the whole their "separatist" ideology, instead stress- subject had been taboo since time imme- ing the normality of homosexuals as dif- morial, and where German homophile fering from other Americans only in sex- literature had remained largely unknown, ual identity. With this assimilationist the public discussion of the Wolfenden program went a rejection of activism, so Report put the issue on the agenda and set that the group could only by proxy appeal the precedent, though ten years were to fortoleration and understanding-through pass before a Labour government enacted psychiatrists, jurists, sociologists, and the the recommendations. The Homosexual like who would come forward as seem- Law Reform Society (later known as the ingly disinterested authorities. Albany Trust) was founded to press for In San Francisco in 1955 Del repeal of the criminal laws; it issued bro- Martin and Phyllis Lyon founded the les- chures and a magazine, the first special- bian counterpart toMattachine, theDaugh- ized periodical in Great Britain. ters of Bilitis. Its monthly publication, the The United States followed in Ladder, provided an English-language fo- 1961with the American Bar Association's rum for homosexual women analogous to drafting of a model penal code that omit- the Mattachine Review and ONE. The ted homosexual offenses from the roster of three organizations worked together in punishable acts. Illinois, in 1961, became the face of the indifference and hostility of the first state to enact this recommenda- the Eisenhower years, in which "devia- tion. Furthermore, professors of criminal tion" and nonconformity wererelentlessly law at themajor schools began to teach the decried. coming generation of lawyers that "vic- Law Reform. In 1953 a series of timless crimes" had no place on the stat- sensational trials in England brought the ute books because they violated the free- subject of homosexuality to the attentior dom and privacy of the individual, and in of Parliament. Urged by the Church of time half of the states of the Union struck England and a number of prominent intel- the archaic laws from the books either by lectuals, the Conservative government legislative act or by an appellate court appointed a Committee on Homosexual decision holding them unconstitutional. Offenses and Prostitution headed by John Warren Iohansson Wolfenden. After hearing the testimony of witnesses from the British establishment, America in the 1960s. The period the Committee voted 12-1 in favor of from 1961 to 1969 saw theevolution of the repeal of the existing laws punishing male American homophile movement from a homosexual acts between consenting defensive, self-doubting handful of small, adults in private. Its Report, published in struggling groups in California and the September 1957, proved a major landmark Boston-Washington corridor to an asser- in the evolution of public opinion in the tive, self-confident, nationally organized English-speaking world. It held that sex- (if ideologicallydivided] collection of some ual acts belonged to the realm of private three score organizations with substantial life which was not the law's business, allies and a string of major gains for which rejecting the theological arguments that it could take credit. these were "crimes against nature," Acharacteustic figure in theideo- "contrary to the will of God," and the like, logical change was Franklin E. Karneny, a just as it dismissed the notion of homo- Harvard-trained astronomer, who became sexuality as a disease, finding it-to the president of the Mattachine Society of MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 4

Washington after unsuccessfully fighting The National Committee for Sexual Civil his dismissal from agovemment job. Where Liberties, headed by Warner, orchestrated the previous leaders of the movement a subtle and resourceful campaign of emphasized "helpingthe individual homo- sodomy decriminalization, which pro- sexual adjust to societyI1' Kameny and ceeded methodically on a state-by-state such associates as Barbara Gittings, Randy basis through the 1960s and 1970s. Wicker, and Dick Leitsch urged a program Throughout the decade, mass of militant action designed to transform media coverage of homosexuality snow- society on behalf of a homosexual commu- balled, starting with Randy Wicker's pub- nity which was perfectly capable of speak- licity barrage of 1962 in New York and ingfor itself. Not thepsychiatrists, not the extending through articles on homosexual theologians, not the heterosexual "authori- lifestyles in national magazines, until the ties," but homosexuals themselves were once-forbidden topic had become a com- the experts on homosexuality, they in- mon subject for television and newspa- sisted. Progress wouldcomenot by accom- pers. In the process, previously isolated modation to the powers-that-be but by homosexuals became aware of the gay publicly applied pressure, legal action, subculture and the homophile movement demonstrations, and aggressive publicity. in large numbers and the ground was laid Operating from his base in Wash- for substantial shifts in public, as well as ington, Kameny targeted the federal professional, opinion on issues of concern government's discriminatory practices in to the movement. Notable also was the employment, military service, security favorable publicity and financial support clearances (a key to employment in large extended to the hard-pressed movement sectors of private industry], and other ar- from the Playboy empire. eas. Finding that government officials were The movement's involvement relying on the doctrines current in psycho- with the social life of homosexuals was analytic and other psychiatric circles to another major development of the sixties, the effect that homosexuality was a debili- originating in San Francisco. First came tating mental illness, Kameny launched a the organizing of gay bars there in the systematic and rigorously formulated at- Tavern Guild (1962),then the founding of tack on the medical model in July 1964. the Society for Individual Rights (S. I. R.) in While this effort would make considerable September 1964, combining a militant progress during the 19609, gaining support stance with social activities. This led to fromaNationalInstitutes of MentalHealth the first gay community center in April task force under Dr. EvelynHooker (19691, 1966, and made S. I. R., with nearly a it was not to reach its triumphant conclu- thousand members, the largest homophile sion until a 1973 vote by the American organization in the country. Psychiatric Association. More importantly, Other milestones in San Francisco the campaign transformed the self-image saw the involvement of liberal clergymen of the American homosexual from one and then whole religious groups (Council which internalized many of the most on Religion and the Homosexual, founded negative characteristics attributed to by the Rev. Ted McIlvenna in December homosexuals by homophobic "authorities" 1964, and spreading to a number of other to one which embraced his slogan "Gay is cities later in the decade); and the begin- good." nings of productive political involvement Other activists, such as Laud with candidates for office and city officials Humphrey and Arthur Warner, preferred (August 1966).Theseinnovations heralded to work more quietly, though their efforts SanFranciscols laterreputation as the "gay too reflected the new mood of urgency. capital" of the United States. 4 MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL

Southern California contributed gave it much-needed support on a wide the first nationally distributed large-circu- range of legal and legislative issues. lation homophile news magazine, The Ad- On a local rather than a national vocate (1967onward). Dick Michaels, the scale, homophile organizations were often magazine's editor, represented a new type involved in contesting police practices, that became influential: the journalist- and were successful in haltingraids on gay activist. In October 1968, Los Angeles bars and entrapment of homosexuals in witnessed the founding by the Rev. Troy New York, San Francisco, and other cities. Perry of the first gay church, the Metro- This effort probably had the greatest im- politan Community Church; from the start pact on the life of the average homosexual the MCC and its leaders were heavily in the cities concerned. involved in the homophile movement and A major transformation in the provided major financial and personnel movement of the 1960s led from the clos- support. eted, fearful members of the early 1960s) Another organizational break- operating under pseudonyms and avoiding through of lasting importance was the involvement with the public, to the highly establishment of the homophile move- visible and equally vocal activist of the ment in academia, beginning with the latter part of thedecade. Landmarks in this founding of the Student HomophileLeague evolution were the first public demonstra- at New York's Columbia University by tions organized by the movement in the Stephen Donaldson (Robert Martin) in spring of 1965 at the United Nations in October 1966. Granted a charter by the New York in April and at the WhiteHouse university in April 1967, and making on May 29. The latter picket, with seven front-pageheadlines around the world, the men and three womenparticipating, gained student movement spread quickly and nationwide television coverage, thus ex- contributed a major impetus first to the posing the new gay militancy to a nation- spread of militancy and later to the radi- wide audience for the first time. calization of the homophile movement. These changes in philosophy, An important victory on the is- strategy, and tactics did not come easily, sue of employment discrimination came but were accompanied by bitter struggles with the Bruce Scott case, in which the within the movement between the new U.S. Court of Appeals reversed Scott's militants and the old-guard "accommoda- disqualification for federal employment in tionists"; the New York Mattachine Soci- a June 1965 decision. This set the ground ety, which was captured by militants in a for the Civil Service Commission's accep- crucial election in May 1965, and the tance of homosexuals in the 1970s. Piece- Daughters of Bilitis in particular were meal progress was made on the issue of wracked by internal struggles and eventu- security clearances, while efforts to gain ally foundered. New groups took their admission to the armed forces remained place; a tendency by the movement to stymied. devour its leaders generated continual Another result of the new mili- organizational instability. Despite these tancy was the recognition by the Ameri- problems, the period witnessed a growth can Civil Liberties Union of the move- in the total membership of its groups from ment as a legitimate civil rights activity. under a thousand in 1961 to an estimated The national ACLU reversed its policy in eight to ten thousand by the spring of 1969. 1967underpressure from the Washington, While there is a popular tendency D.C., area affiliate, which began backing to believe that nothing of importance homophile causes in 1964, supported by happened in the homophile movement the two California affiliates; this decision until it expanded to the dimensions of a did much to legitimize the movement and mass movement in the summer of 1969, MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 5* such a view proves on examination to be Though wracked by infighting highly superficial. The explosion of the among the groups, NACHO provided a 1970s was made possible only by the labo- largely informal but no less important boost rious efforts of the pioneers of the 1960s, to a sense of common purpose and identity and in particular by the victory of the amongthe leaderswho attended its annual militants. As John D'Emilio points out, meetings and more frequent regional con- "their decisive break with the accommo- ferences, and to a certain extent among the dationist spirit of the 1950s opened impor- rank-and-file members who read of its tant options for the homophile cause. The activities. It facilitated the spread of a militants' rejection of the medical model, militant approach on a nationwide basis, their assertion of equality, their uncom- and presented thenational media and other promising insistence that gays deserved nationally-organized groups with a more recognition as a persecuted minority, and formidable-looking movement. their defense of homosexuality as a viable Much credit for holdingNACH0 way of living loosened the grip of prevail- together was due to its secretary and coor- ing norms on the self-conception of lesbi- dinator, Foster Gunnison. Among its more ans and homosexuals and suggested the tangible accomplishments, it established contours of a new, positive gay identity." a national legal fund, coordinated public North American Conference of demonstrations on a nationwide basis, Homophile Organizations (NACHO).One undertook a number of regional projects, of the characteristic developments of the and officially adopted and publicized the homophilemovement in the 1960swas its "Gay Is Good" slogan (adopted in Chicago attempt to forge a semblance of first re- in 1968). Furthermore, NACHO and its gional, then national, and finally conti- regional affiliates were instrumental in nental unity under the umbrella of a spreading the movement from its bicoast- common organization. Frank Kameny a1 base by colonizing the major cities of the initiated this effort, stimulating the for- North American heartland. And from 1968 mation in January 1963, inPhiladelphia, of until its demise in 1970 it provided a major the East Coast Homophile Organizations forum for the growing radical wing of the (ECHO).It was this loose confederation of movement. four groups which sponsored the series of The Stonewall Uprising and Af- public demonstrations launched in May of ter. The slow pace of the American move- 1965 at the White House, and it played a ment in the 1950s was accelerated in the major role in gaining control of the move- early and mid-1960s in part under the ment on the East Coast by the militants. influence of the black civil rights move- The next step was the formation ment ("Gay Is Good" derives from "Black of a national grouping, established at a Is Beautiful"], then injected with the tre- Kansas City conference of fifteen groups in mendous energies that accompanied the February, 1966, as the National Planning opposition to the war in Vietnam. With Conference of Homophile Organizations. American involvement in Vietnam at its Meeting in San Francisco in August of peak, student uprisings shook the cam- 1966, this loose assembly reconvened in puses of Columbia and Harvard Universi- Washington a year later, where it changed ties in 1968 and 1969, and by the late its name to the North American Confer- spring of 1969 the country was in a mood ence of Homophile Organizations of unprecedented mass agitation. It was (NACHO), developed an organizational against this background that the Stone- structurewith officers, by-laws, and estab- wallRebellionof June2730,1969, marked lished three regional subsidiaries (ECHO the start of a new, radical, and even more became ERCHO). militant phase of the homosexual move- ment in the United States. *:* *:* MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL

Beginning as violent resistance to ity" to be "part of a general attempt to a police raid on the StonewallInn, a bar in oppress all minorities and keep them New York's Greenwich Village, the popu- powerless." lar movement found a new expression in The committee report was voted the Gay Liberation Front (GLF).The GLF down, but the battle had just begun. The was conceived as uniting homosexuals next confrontation came at the November (without guidance or even participation 1969 meeting of ERCHO in Philadelphia, from sympathetic heterosexuals] around when GLF and SHL delegates pushed their own identity and grievances against through a resolution declaring "freedom an oppressive American society and as Cram society's attempts to define and limit organizing them to force their own libera- human sexuality," a step beyond the tion from the persecution and powerless- movement's previous insistence on equal- ness that was their lot even in the "land of ity into the realm of social autonomy. the free." The radicals saw themselves as Chaos ensued and themeeting broke up in part of a broad alliance of oppressed groups disorder. developing autonomously but in an at- The handwritingwas on thewall: mosphere of mutual support. when NACHO reconvened in San Fran- Superficial as was the New Left cisco in August, 1970, gay liberation was rhetoric of the Gay Liberation Front, since over a year old and had no use for complex its analysis of the whole problem began continental organizations with their by- virtually "from scratch," it had the merit laws, officers, and parliamentary proce- of givingits followers a sense of identity as dures. Deeply divided between reformers a group inevitably oppressed by the estab- and revolutionaries, itself the object of lished social structure. The black and disruption by feminists on its first day and feminist movements as well as their by radicals on its last, NACHO broke up in homophile predecessors supplied the ideo- disorder as the more conservative dele- logical resources that the growing organi- gates fled before an invasion by non-dele- zation needed to legitimate itself in its gate radicals. Thus the five-year effort to own eyes, if not those of the larger society. bring all of North America's movement The new Gay Liberation activists groups under a single roof collapsed in a quickly collided with the pre-Stonewall tidal wave of gay activists. movement leaders, whom they saw as part In New York, those who called of an established structure too rigid for the for a return to the "single issue" approach kind of gay guerrilla warfare unleashed by seceded to found the Gay Activists Alli- Stonewall. Only twomonths after theriot, ance, which retained radical tactics of at the August 1969 NACHO convention confrontation but focused on the specific in Kansas City, the Youth Committee problems of homosexuals in American under Donaldson issued a 12-point "radi- society. "Zaps," sit-ins, blockades, seizures cal manifesto" which stated, "We regard of lecterns and microphones, and disrup- established heterosexual standards of tive tactics of all kinds were featured in morality as immoral and refuse to con- highly publicized scenes which astonished done them by demanding an equality which the Americanpublic, longused toan image is merely the common yoke of sexual of homosexuals as passive and weak. And repression." The youth leaders further now it was not just repeal of the sodomy demanded the removal of strictures against laws that the movement demanded, but prostitution, public sex, and sex by the the enactment of positive legislation pro- young; urged the development of inde- tecting the rights of homosexual men and pendent "homosexual ethics and esthet- women in all spheres of life. None of this ics," denounced the Vietnam War and would have been possible without the declared "the persecution of homosexual- ability of the new groups to call out hun- MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 0:. dreds and then thousands of supporters, founded the National Gay Task Force drawing on the post-Stonewall mass base (NGTF),a membership organization rather which the homophilemovement hadnever than a federation. The NGTF lobbied on been able to mobilize. nationwide issues and in the next decade This new wave of mass "coming moved to Washington, but it never devel- out" led to the formation of hundreds of oped a mass following. gay associations with particular identi- Much of themovement was turn- ties: political clubs, student groups, reli- ing its attention in the seventies to the gious organizations, professional caucuses, adoption of gay civil rights laws, ordi- social clubs, and discussion groups in towns nances, and executive orders, and to the and neighborhoods from one end of the blocking of numerous attempts to repeal country to the other. Far from the margin their scattered successes. In the absence of to which it had beenconfined until the end major progress towards a federal civil rights of the 1960s, the movement became an law, this was a local effort, though the institutionalized part of American life. In campaigns pro and con often drew consid- the two decades that followed the Stone- erable nationwide publicity. Portland, wall uprising, the movement grew to a Oregon, and St. Paul, Minnesota adopted network of interest groups as diverse in its rights ordinances in 1974, SanFrancisco in origins, as multi-faceted in its identities 1978, Los Angeles andDetroit in 1979, and and aspirations as America itself. National New YorkCity in 1986; Wisconsin adopted marches held in Washington in 1979 and the only statewide gay rights law in 1981. again in 1987 brought tens of thousands of Two Christian fundamentalists, the singer participants from all sections of the coun- AnitaBryant and the Rev. Jerry Falwell led try, rallying behind the banners of hun- extensive homophobic campaigns which dreds of different groups all demanding produced repeal of rights measures in their place in the sun. Miami (1977),St. Paul, and Wichita, Kan- The proliferation of gay groups in sas. Their efforts, however, suffered a major the 1970s led to a fragmentation of con- setback with the defeat in a California cerns and a lessening of a sense of focus for statewide vote of the Briggs Initiative, the homophile movement as a whole. which would have banned gay teachers, in Victories were attained on the psychiatric 1978. front (the American Psychiatric Gay men and lesbians became Association's vote in 1974 and subsequent visible in party politics and sent openly defeat of a campaign to reverse that vote] homosexual delegates to Democratic na- and in a number of nationwide profes- tional conventions, forcing battles over sional associations, but the struggle for "gay rights" planks (a weak one was decriminalization continued to be fought adopted in 1980))and making homosexu- on a state-by-state basis, and with the ality a presidential campaign issue; under demise of NACHO there was no longer a the Carter administration a gay delegation clearly legitimized national leadership. The was received by aide Midge Costanza in Rev. Troy Perry was the most visible the White House and military discharge homophile spokesman as his Universal policies were changed to provide for fully Fellowship of Metropolitain Community Honorable Discharges, though the exclu- Churches expanded to nearly two hundred sion of known homosexuals from thearmed congregations and Perry engaged in highly forces remained intact. Notable here was publicized hunger strikes, led marches, the effort to avoid discharge by Air Force and addressed protest meetings, even as Sgt. Leonard Matlovich, whose fight arson destroyed a number of his church brought him a Time cover in 1975. In San buildings. In 1974, Dr. Bruce Voeller, for- Francisco, the movement rallied behind merly president of GAA in New York, supervisor (councilman)Harvey Milk, who 9. MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL was first elected and then assassinated in organizations, often short-lived, appeared 1978; elsewhere the movement welcomed in Mexico (FHAR, 1978, followed by street the emergence [usually but not always demonstrations in 1979), Colombia, and involuntary) of gay legislators and con- Peru (Movimento Homosexual de Lima, gressmen from their closets. 1982).InBrazil a major journal, 0 Lampido, Reinforcing this movement ac- began in 1976, and stable organizations tivity was a thriving gay subculture, with appeared in Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and SPo its bars, baths, bookstores, guest houses, Paulo. and services of all kinds, and above all a In Japan economic prosperity press that discussed the issues that con- contributed to the expansion of the gay fronted the gay community as a segment subculture, but traditional reticence im- of American society. peded the formation of gay associations. World Perspectives. Given the Elsewhere in Asia, gay conferences were extent of America's influence on popular held in both India and Indonesia in 1982. culture throughout the world, this subcul- In 1988 Israel discarded the sodomy law ture became a model for gay life every- that it had inherited from the British where, from Norway to Taiwan-though mandate. the Islamic world still resisted this aspect The Movement in Europe and of Westernization. The American example Australasia. The watershed year of 1969 inspired countless imitators of the "life saw law reform in West Germany, while style" of the affluent and hedonistic the next year witnessed the establishment America of the 1970s. In Europe bars of a gay Italian journal, Fuori, in Turin. By adopted incongruous American names, 1971 there was a proliferation of gay lib- such as TheBronx andBadlands, while gay eration groups in Britain and West Ger- rights organizations, retreating from their many, while the Front Homosexuel earlier radical stance, adopted American dlAction Rkvolutionnaire was getting es- terminology and tactics. tablished in France. London's sole wide- Canada, being most intimately circulation gay newspaper, Gay News, was related to the United States, developed a established in 1972 and soonran intomajor homophile movement early on with the problems with the government, including establishment in Vancouver of the Asso- an obscenity conviction which was up- ciation for Social Knowledge (ASK)in 1964. held by the House of Lords. In Milan, 1973 Decriminalization passed in Canada in saw the establishment of the Italian May of 1969, followed by emergence of the Association for the Recognition of main Canadian group, the Community Homosexual Rights. Homophile Association of Toronto By the mid-70s, the gay church in [CHAT)in February, 1971. The influential the form of theUFMCC was puttingdown gay newsmagazine, The Body Politic, aIso roots in Britain, France, Denmark, Bel- began publishing in 1971, surviving gov- gium; it even found a predominantly ernment harassment until 1986. The heterosexual congregation in Nigeria. Canadian province of Quebec adopted an Northern Ireland got a Gay Rights Asso- antidiscrimination law in 1977, followed a ciation in 1975. In Spain, the Front decade later by the provinces of Ontario dlAlliberament Gai de Catalunya [FAGCJ and the Yukon, while the city of Vancou- was launched with marches in Barcelona ver passed a rights law in 1982. in 1977. Catalonia remained the most In Latin America the first organi- important focus of activity, though other zation seems to have been Argentina's groups appeared in Madrid, the Basque Nuevo Mundo (1969))but this promising country, and Andalusia. development was cut short by the imposi- Coventry, England, was the site tion of a cruelmilitary dictatorship. Other of the formation in 1978 of the Interna- MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL 4 tional Gay Association, like the defunct The stigma that linked homosexuality with NACHO, a coalition of independent a contagious and fatal condition was ex- groups. The same year saw gay marches in ploited by sensation-mongering media Sydney, Australia. In the following year eager to profit from public curiosity and Austrians organized the Homosexuelle fear. The columns of thegay press began to Initiative (HOSI]in Vienna. print, week after week, the obituaries of The 1980s saw major advances in those who had died of the consequences of the European and Australian movements, AIDS, and new organizations such as New with British decriminalization extended York's Gay Men's Health Crisis and ACT to Scotland in 1980. In 198 1 the Assembly UP (AIDS Coalition To Unleash Power) of the Council of Europe voted in favor of were formed to deal specifically with this gay rights, the European Court of Justicein new challenge. In October 1988 AIDS Strasbourg struck down a homophobic activists from across the country staged a statute in Northern Ireland, and Norway blockade of the Food and Drug Admini- adopted antidiscrimination legislation. In stration in Rockville, Maryland, charging the same year Greece organized the group that it was dilatory in making newly de- AKOE and Finland began the Sexuaalinen veloped drugs available to the public. The Tasavertaisuus (SETA]. The Australian AIDS Memorial Quilt was displayed first state of New South Wales adopted gay in Washington in 1987 and then in other rights legislation in 1982, while New major cities, providing a public symbol of Zealand not merely repealed its criminal grief. The new activism showed some laws, but enacted a gay rights measure in similarities with that of the sixties, but it 1986. was accompanied by a battle-scarred real- The European Parliament went ism regarding means and ends. on record in favor of gay rights in 1984, Homosexuals may take no small with France becoming the largest jurisdic- comfort from the ability of the movement tion to adopt such protections in 1985. to adapt to this crisis in creative and pub- Progress, however, has not been uniform. licly effective ways, sustaining a sense of In Great Britain in 1988Parliament adopted community and gaining a strong voice in Clause 28, which prohibited the use of government efforts to deal with the dis- public money for any activity deemed to ease. Efforts to protect the rights of AIDS "promote" homosexual behavior. Con- victims, recently being pressed as a medi- versely, in the Netherlands gay studies cal necessity, may end in opening the door programs became established in all major to long-denied measures on behalf of Dutch universities. The officially sup- homosexuals in general. ported international conferences in Am- The movement everywhere still sterdam in 1983 and 1986 set new stan- faces the task of articulating the concerns dards for gay and lesbian scholarship. of a minority in a society that continues to The Challenge of the 1980s. The harbor hostility toward homosexuals. 1980s, with their conservative trend in Fearing this hostility, the majority of male most major industrial countries, con- homosexuals and lesbians tend to remain fronted the movement with new obsta- in the closet, and the claims of the gay cles and challenges. The spread of Ac- movement to represent them rest at best quired Immune Deficiency Syndrome on silent consent. Movement leaders seek (AIDS] in the United States and Western to become players in a political process Europe meant that ever larger resources of still largely geared toward responding to time and money had to go into lobbying economic interest groups mobilized to around the issues of research on the causes influence officeholders and alter pyblic and cure of AIDS and the financing of opinion, and toward accommodating eth- health care for victims of the syndrome. nic minorities that have achieved voting 4 MOVEMENT, HOMOSEXUAL cohesion. In the closing years of the cen- With its obscenity, slander, and blasphemy, tury, the movement still aspires to achieve it meant to shock society. It stood for for its followers the same degree of politi- enjoyment of pleasure, drinking of wine, cal rights and social acceptance that the and spending the night with wide-but- democratic countries have gradually ac- tocked beardless youths or licentious corded to other minorities in their midst. women-not secretively as Islamic mor- Stephen Donaldson als required, but openly, ignoring blame which would arise from behaving in such BIBLIOGRAPHY. Barry D. Adam, The a sinful and shameful way. In principle it Rise of a Gay and Lesbian Movement, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 198 7; John ought not togo beyond words, but of course D'Emilio, Sexual Politics, Sexual it did. Nonetheless, mujun texts undoubt- ~ommunities:The Making of a Homo- edly went far beyond practice and there- sexual Minority in the United States, fore have to be used very carefully when 1940-1 970, Chicago: Chicago University drawing conclusions aboutreality. But fan- Press, 1983; Hans Hafkamp and Maurice van Lieshout, eds., Pijlen van naamloze tasies, especially when they are popular, liefde: pioniers van de homo-emancipa- give us insight into a social reality which tie, Amsterdam: Uitgeverii SUA, 1988; exists next to official Islamic morals. Laud Humphreys, Out of the Closets: For the most part, sexual and The Sociology of Homosexual Libera- tion, Englewood Cliffs, Nl: Prentice-Hall, scatological humor of this kind would be 1972; John Lauritsen and David covered only in the language of the people, Thorstad, The Early Homosexual Rights and not in literature. Only in periods of Movement (1864-1935), New York: cultural bloom and a high level of social Times Change Press, 1974;Jim Levin, tolerance did it acquire a place in litera- Reflections on the American Homosex- ual Rights Movement, New York: Cay ture. Academic Union, 1983; Toby Marotta, In the ninth and tenth centuries The Politics of Homosexuality, Boston: mujun was highly popular with the ruling Houghton Mifflin, 1981;James Steakley, elite of the Abbasid caliphate in Baghdad. The Homosexual Emancipation Learned and religious people became fasci- Movement in Germany, New York: dmo Press, 1975; Donn Teal, The Gay nated by it, as for example the vizier Ibn Militants, New York: Stein and Day, 'Abbad (ca. 936-95). The most popular 1971; Rob Tielman, Homoseksualiteit in mujunwriter of that time was Ibn al-Hajjaj Nederland, Amsterdam: Boom Meppel, (ca. 941-1001), whose work consisted of 1982. obscenity and scatology in its purest form. He compared his poetry with a sewer and MUJUN with an involuntary emission from the This Arabic word denotes frivo- anus: "When I speak the stench of the lous and humorous descriptions of inde- privy rises up towards you." Ironically, he cent and obscene matters in stories and himself served for some time in Baghdad poems, what is sometimes called pornog- as the official in charge of public morals! raphy. It is an important theme in Arabic Mujun was also used in an educa- literature, appearing often in combination tional sense, rationalized by the idea that with sukhf, scurrilousness and shameless- humor would stimulate and refresh the ness. The most famous example of mujun mind. Highly learned and respectable is the stories of the Thousand and One theologians and lawyers suddenly diverted Nights, in which the story-teller saves their readers by digressions of mujun. herself through the power of her imagina- Shaykh Salah ad-din as-Safadi for example tion. Mujun can be considered as a verbal wrote an essay about the size of the body- liberation from the shackles of decency, a openings of women and boys in the middle kind of literary protest against social, and of a very serious juridical work. Probably therefore also Islamic, norms and values. the best mujun, written with style and