United Nations Environment Programme

Mediterranean Action Plan

Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas

SPANISH DOCUMENT AIMING AT THE IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ECOSYSTEM PROPERTIES AND ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND PRESSURES TO MEDITERRANEAN MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY

Núria Marbà Bordalba and Carlos M. Duarte Quesada

September 2010

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SPANISH DOCUMENT AIMING AT THE IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ECOSYSTEM PROPERTIES AND ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND PRESSURES TO MEDITERRANEAN MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY

Study required and financed by: Regional Activity Centre for Specially Protected Areas Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat BP 337 1080 Tunis Cedex – Tunisie

Responsible of the study: Núria Marbà Bordalba, Scientific Researcher CSIC, Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (UIB-CSIC) Carlos M. Duarte Quesada, Research Professor CSIC, Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (UIB-CSIC)

In charge of the study: (if different consultants) Names, qualification and institutions of the other consultants

Reference of the study : Contract RAC/SPA, nº 73-2009

With the participation of : Giacomo Tavecchia, Tenured Scientist CSIC, Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (UIB-CSIC)

______This report should be quoted as:

Marbà N., Duarte C.M. 2010. Spanish document aiming at the identification of Important ecosystem properties and assessment of ecological status and pressures to Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity. Contract RAC/SPA, N° 73-2009: 56 of pages.

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SPANISH DOCUMENT AIMING AT THE IDENTIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ECOSYSTEM PROPERTIES AND ASSESSMENT OF ECOLOGICAL STATUS AND PRESSURES TO MEDITERRANEAN MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY

By

Núria Marbà Bordalba and Carlos M. Duarte Quesada

Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB) Carrer Miquel Marquès 21 07190 Esporles (Spain)

September 2010

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Contents

Executive summary...... 5 Introduction note ...... 8 List of Acronyms...... 9 1. Reference documents and information consulted...... 10 1.1. Documents provided by RAC/SPA and its international consultants...... 10 1.2. National documents and publications identified and available ...... 11 1.3. Other documents identified...... 11 2. Marine and coastal ecosystem status ...... 12 2.1. Biological characteristics ...... 12 2.2. Habitat types...... 40 2.3. Conclusions and identification of gaps ...... 42 3. Pressures and impacts...... 44 3.1. Biological disturbance...... 44 3.2. Emerging issues ...... 45 4. Expert opinion on marine and coastal status and pressures and impacts on the marine and coastal biodiversity...... 50 4.1. Marine and coastal status and pressures relevant for national marine and coastal areas ...... 50 4.2. Critical impacts and effects on marine and coastal biodiversity ...... 51 5. Expert opinion on related priority national needs ...... 52 5.1. Needs ...... 52 5.2. Urgent actions proposed ...... 53 6. Funding problems and opportunities...... 54 6.1. Regular national sources, potentially available ...... 54 6.2. Other (private, public, partnership) sources ...... 54 6.3. International funds, projects, programmes ...... 54 7. Conclusions and recommendations ...... 56 Reference list ...... 58

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Executive summary

Availability and problems of actual information and knowledge

Research on ecosystem properties and assessment of ecological status and pressures to Spanish Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity is rapidly growing, and results are published in scientific journals and reports of different organisations. Most available information describes the biodiversity and identifies pressures and impacts, although the knowledge of ecological status of Spanish Mediterranean biodiversity and key habitats is strongly biased towards ecosystems developing shallower than 40 m water depth due to technical and resource constrains to access to deep waters.

Level and quality of national activities

Several activities, including legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes, research, monitoring and training, assessing biodiversity, ecological status and pressures along the Spanish Mediterranean are being conducted. These have increased since implementation of the different European Directives and Strategies . Few of these activities, however, directly address vulnerability and impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity, but they are contributing to increase knowledge on, and to improve, conservation of marine coastal biodiversity. These activities mainly focus on coastal, including terrestrial and marine, areas, whereas very few target the deep and open sea.

The fraction of coastal and marine area protected is insufficient to help marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. Similarly, several vulnerable marine species, ecosystems and habitats to global change are not yet taken into account in conservation plans.

List critical issues and gaps in national marine /coastal areas

The major pressures threatening the Spanish Mediterranean biodiversity are overfishing (including trawling), aquaculture, excessive inputs from land, global warming, biological invasions, coastal sprawl and pressures derived from recreational activities (mechanical damage from anchors, sewage and garbage emissions and sports and recreational fishing, as well as impacts derived from the construction and operation of recreational harbours).

The critical habitats and areas most directly impacted by the pressures indicated above are seagrass meadows, mid-water (> 30 m) coralline habitats, deep-water corals and coastal lagoons and sheltered bays. Among fish stocks, yellow fin tuna populations are threatened by excessive catches, particularly since their use in aquaculture operations, which has added an additional burden to the, already high pressure from fisheries, and that has brought the stock to a state of concern.

List priority needs and actions

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Information about distribution and conservation status of vulnerable marine ecosystems, habitats and species along the Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Efforts to fill this gap of knowledge are being conducted within the Natura 2000 Network. However, Natura 2000 Network only involves some vulnerable marine habitats and species. Information on the distribution and conservation status should be extended to all marine vulnerable habitats and species.

At present, the low fraction of coastal and marine area and the few key and vulnerable marine ecosystems to pressures and impacts protected are insufficient to help marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. The number of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection measures should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and they should be designed and coordinated at basin scale.

Conservation measures should extend towards preserving circalittoral and bathyal key habitats. Marine protected areas in open sea should be defined.

Trawling fisheries are the major threat to conservation of circalittoral and bathyal key ecosystems and species. This activity should be regulated.

Conservation of marine biodiversity helps climate change mitigation. Adaptive management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity should be promoted, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem.

Mitigation of climate change impacts Global Change, including Climate Change and the rest of changes the Earth System experiences as a result of rapid human population growth, threats the future of marine and coastal biodiversity. Reduction and mitigation of direct and diffusive anthropogenic impacts are crucial for conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.

Research towards gaining knowledge on global change impacts on oceanography and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted. Identification of tipping points and conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by global change should be emphasised. Synergies between climate change and other global change impacts to marine and coastal biodiversity should be considered.

Dissemination and training activities on impacts of global change to marine and coastal biodiversity are very few, particularly when compared with those involving terrestrial biodiversity.

Comment funding problems

European, national, and autonomic community governments, as well as private foundations fund research programmes with climate change and biodiversity priorities. However, the fraction of funding allocated to research on marine biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research across EU and non-EU countries, activities to promote collaborative research across north and southern Mediterranean countries should increase. Current programmes fund research projects of a maximum of 5 year duration, which is insufficient to support long-term monitoring programmes.

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Add key recommendations

· Mapping of deep benthic habitats. · Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species aiming to assess their conservation status. · Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. · Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the coastal peninsular Spanish Mediterranean and in open sea (including the seafloor). · Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. · Increase dissemination and training actions on global change impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. · Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems · Set the legal frame to regulate trawling fisheries activity on key deep marine ecosystems. · Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan and an Adaptation Plan from vulnerable coastal ecosystems · Introduce best practices for sustainable aquaculture

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Introduction note

The overview has been prepared as one of the Ecosystem Approach (ECAP) activities. It has been prepared by Mrs/Mr Núria Marbà Bordalba and Carlos M. Duarte Quesada as National consultants, guided by Mrs/Mr……. National SAP BIO Correspondent, supervised by Mrs/Mr……. NFP for SPAs, and guided and assisted by Mr………….RAC/SPA international consultant responsible for cluster A (B, C or D). In addition, the following national/local authorities, institutions, correspondents and experts were informed/consulted on the present action: Tavecchia Giacomo, IMEDEA (UIB-CSIC, Spain).

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List of Acronyms

CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity COP : Conference of the Parties CSIC: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas EU: European Union FAO: Food Organisation FP: Framework Programme IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change RAC/SPA: Regional Activity Centre For Specially Protected Areas SAP-BIO: Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Region UNEP: United Nation Environmental Program UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VVAA: several authors WWF: World Wildlife Fund

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1. Reference documents and information consulted

1.1. Documents provided by RAC/SPA and its international consultants

Pérez T. 2008. Impact of climate change on biodiversity in the Mediterranean Sea. UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA, Tunis IPCC Synthesis reports 2007. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/climate-changes-2007- ar4-sp.htm United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. http://unfccc.int/2860.php The ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 9). http://www.cbd.int/cop9/ Integrating Biodiversity into Climate Change Adaptation Planning. http://adaptation.cbd.int/ CBD – Climate Change Adaptation Database. http://adaptation.cbd.int/threats.shtml#sec1 Bern. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Conventions/Bern/Seville_2008_en.asp Bonn Convention. http://www.cms.int/ FAO & Climate Change. http://www.fao.org/clim/docs/CD-ROM/frameset.htm WWF : WWF Report on Climate change impacts in the Mediterranean Laubier L., T. Perez, C. Lejeusne, J. Garrabou, P. Chevaldonné, J. Vacelet, N. Boury-Esnault, JG Harmelin. 2003. La Méditerranée se réchauffe-t-elle? Mar. Life 13: 71-81 UNEP/CBD/EMB D-CC. Report of the Roundtable on the interlinkages between biodiversity and climate change. Convention on Biological Diversity. Montreal. 19-20 March 2007 UNFCC. 2007. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth session, held in Bali, from 3 to 15 December 2007. Addendum. Part Two: Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its thirteenth session STRATEGIC ACTION PLAN FOR THE CONSERVATION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION (SAP BIO). Spanish National Repport. RAC/SPA. 2003. Effects of fishing practices on the Mediterranean sea : Impact on marine sensitive habitats and species, technical solution and recommendations. Project for the preparation of a Strategic Action Plan for the conservation of biological Diversity in the Mediterranean Region (SAP BIO) RAC/SPA. 2003. IMPACT OF TOURISM ON MEDITERRANEAN MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY. Project for the preparation of a Strategic Action Plan for the conservation of biological Diversity in the Mediterranean Region (SAP BIO) RAC/SPA. 2003. The coralligenous in the Mediterranean Sea. Project for the preparation of a Strategic Action Plan for the conservation of biological Diversity in the Mediterranean Region (SAP BIO) RAC/SPA. 2003. The "white coral community", canyon and seamount faunas of the deep Mediterranean Sea. Project for the preparation of a Strategic Action Plan for the conservation of biological Diversity in the Mediterranean Region (SAP BIO) UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA: Strategic Action Programme For The Conservation Of Biological Diversity (SAP BIO) In The Mediterranean Region, Tunis, 2003

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1.2. National documents and publications identified and available

INFORME DE ESPAÑA: DEMOSTRACIÓN DE PROGRESO EN VIRTUD DEL ARTÍCULO 3.2DEL PROTOCOLO DE KIOTO

CUARTA COMUNICACIÓN NACIONAL DE ESPAÑA: CONVENCIÓN MARCO DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS SOBRE EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO

Informe sobre Observación Sistemática del Clima para el Sistema Mundial de Observación del Clima (SMOC)

Marbà N. 2008. NATIONAL OVERVIEW ON VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY. SPAIN. SAP/BIO report.

1.3. Other documents identified

VV.AA., 2009. Bases ecológicas preliminares para la conservación de los tipos de hábitat de interés comunitario en España. Madrid: Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino. http://www.jolube.es/Habitat_Espana/indice.htm# Arcos, J.M., J. Bécares, B. Rodríguez y A. Ruiz. 2009. Áreas Importantes para la Conservación de las Aves marinas en España. LIFE04NAT/ES/000049-Sociedad Española de Ornitología (SEO/BirdLife). Madrid. http://www.seo.org/avesmarinas/flash.html#/ Regional Activity Centre For Specially Protected Areas (RAC/SPA). Protocol concerning specially protected areas and biological Diversity in the Mediterranean. http://www.rac-spa.org.tn

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2. Marine and coastal ecosystem status

2.1. Biological characteristics

2.1.1 Description of water column biological communities

Phytoplankton communities in the Spanish Mediterranean are very diverse (Table 1). In the Spanish Mediterranean coastal zone they are characterised by a late winter bloom (February-March, Duarte 1996, Duarte et al 1999), that sets the spawning of many benthic species, and a late summer or early fall bloom. These blooms are dominated by diatom species (Scheletonema, Chaetoceros, etc.) and dinoflagelates, respectively. The interval in between these blooms is characterised by an oligotrophic phase, with low chlorophyll and nutrient concentrations, and phytoplankton communities dominated by picoplankton, mostly Synechoccocus species. Chlorophyll a concentrations reaches maximum values in the order of 2-4 µg Chla L-1, and the values during the oligotrophic phase are typically < 0.5 µg Chla L -1 (Duarte 1996, Duarte et al 1999). These values can be exceeded in eutrophied areas, such as harbours and eutrophied coastal lagoons and bays, with chlorophyll a values in excess of 10 µg Chla L -1, in the most eutrophic areas. Toxic dinoflagellates, of the genera Alexandrium and Gymnodinium, have also been reported in eutrophied beaches and coastal lagoons along the Spanish Mediterranean coast.

Data on pelagic primary production in the Spanish Mediterranean is sparse with estimates, derived from a 7-year time series in the Bay of Blanes (NE Spain) indicating an average gross primary production of 2.56 µmol C L -1 day -1 (Duarte et al. 2004). And the annual gross primary production at Bay of Palma (Mallorca, Balearic Islands, Spain) has been estimated at 3.19 µmol C L -1 day -1 (Navarro et al. 2004). The mean gross primary production for the WMediterranean Basin has been estimated to be 4.5 µmol C L -1 day -1 (Regaudie de Gioux et al 2009).

Zooplankton communities are typically dominated by copepods (Table 2) of the genera Acartia, Ohitona, Penilia and Paracalanus, with important contributions of doliolids, gelatinous organisms, during summer, as these organisms are able to graze on the pico-sized organisms that dominate in summer. These organisms exert an important grazing pressure on phytoplankton. Microzooplankton, dominated by ciliates of the genera Tontonia, Mesodinium, Halteria, Sormbidium and Strobilidium are also an important component of the plankton biomass and are responsible for a sizeable fraction of the losses of pico-sized plankton, both autotrophic and heterotrophic. Microzooplankton are, in turn, predated upon by copepods.

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Table 1. Phytoplankton species identified in the Catalan and Valencian coasts (Margalef 1969).

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Table 1. (cont.)

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Table 1. (cont.)

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Table 1. (cont.)

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Table 1. (Cont.)

Table 2. Annual mean of different zooplankton abundance (individuals m-3) estimated with a 200 µm Juday-Bogorov net (JB), and 53 µm mesh microplankton net (M). For the 53 µm net, the fraction retained by a 200 µm filter (>200) and the total value (fraction 53-200 µm plus fraction > 200 µm) are provided. From Calvet et al 2001.

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2.1.2. Information on invertebrate bottom fauna, macro-algae and angiosperms including species composition, biomass and annual/seasonal variability

Mediterranean Spanish sandy and rocky substrates of coastal and marine areas are colonized by a high diversity of benthic organisms. Light availability constrains the depth distribution of benthic photosynthetic organisms. A substantial fraction of benthic organisms are key habitat structuring species of marine angiosperms, macroalgae and invertebrates.

Marine angiosperms

Four species of seagrasses, i.e. clonal angiosperms that can only complete their life cycles in the sea, colonize the sandy bottoms of the Spanish Mediterranean: Posidonia oceanica, Cymodocea nodosa, Zostera noltti and occasionally Z. marina. In shallow waters, P. oceanica can also grow on rocky bottoms while C. nodosa and Zostera sp. can also colonise muddy sediments. Because the high light requirements (Duarte 1991, Gattuso et al 2006), seagrasses are restricted to the infralitoral zone where light irradiance is at least 11 % of sea surface irradiation. P. oceanica, the only Mediterranean endemic seagrass, extends between 0 and 45 m depth, the deepest meadows being recorded in the clear waters of the Cabrera Archipelago National Park (Marbà et al 2002). C. nodosa grows between 0 and about 30 m depth in areas or patches devoid of P. oceanica but it can grow mixed with Zostera species (Luque and Templado 2004). Zostera noltii colonises shallow bottoms of 0-5 m depth whereas Z marina can reach 18 m depth (Luque and Templado 2004).

Posidonia oceanica is the dominant seagrass and forms lush meadows along the Spanish Mediterranean (including Balearic Islands) down to Cabo de Gata (Almería), the western geographic distribution limit for this species in the European Mediterranean coast. Between Cabo de Gata and Gibraltar Straight P. oceanica is only present at some localities, forming isolated patches in shallow waters (Luque and Templado 2004). The westernmost P. oceanica population of the Spanish Mediterranean has been recorded at Punta Chullera-Cala Sardina (Luque and Templado 2004). Cabo de Gata also sets the eastern geographic limit of Zostera marina penetration from the Atlantic into the European Mediterranean coast (Luque and Templado 2004). While extensive meadows of Z. marina are common on the west of this biogeographical barrier, it rarely grows along the rest of the Spanish Mediterranean. Between eastern Cabo de Gata and the Cap de Creus (NE Spain), two small patches Z. marina were observed at Cala Jonquet in the early 90’s (Costa Brava, Spain, Marbà et al 1996) but they were lost by the end of that decade. C nodosa and Z nolti distribute along the entire Spanish Mediterranean (including Balearic Islands), from Cap de Creus to Gibraltar Straight.

The architectural pattern of seagrasses are very similar, but they exhibit a wide repertoire of sizes and growth rates, already evident among those growing in the Spanish Mediterranean coast. P. oceanica is one of the planet’s biggest and slowest- growing marine angiosperms, with shoots weighing more than 700 mg (Duarte 1991) and rhizome extension rates of 1 – 6 cm yr -1 (Marbà and Duarte 1998). The other seagrass species growing in the Spanish Mediterranean have smaller shoots, ranging from 250 mg shoot-1 (Z. marina) to 6 mg shoot -1 (Z. nolti, Duarte 1991) and their rhizomes spread at faster rates, 20-30 cm yr -1 for Z. marina, 10-127 cm yr -1 for Z noltii and 7-200 cm yr -1 for C nodosa (Marbà and Duarte 1998). Average shoot life span of these seagrass species ranges from less than 100 days (Z. noltii) to more

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than 4300 days (P. oceanica, Marbà et al 2007), although shoots older than 30 yr are present in relatively pristine Spanish Mediterranean meadows (Marbà et al 2002). Similarly, sexual reproductive effort differs across these species. P. oceanica produces hermaphrodite inflorescences that annually emerge from less than 3 % of the shoots (Borum et al 2004), although flowering intensity widely fluctuates between years. Massive flowering events (when more than 10 % of the shoots flower) of P. oceanica have been observed after extremely warm summers (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). On average, about 10 % of shoots of the other seagrass species annually flower, besides flowers are contained in terminal hermaphrodite inflorescences (Zostera sp) or segregated in flowers standing in shoots of male or female clones (C nodosa). The little investment and low success of sexual reproduction, combined with the extremely slow clonal spread of P. oceanica explains the long colonisation (centuries) and recovery time for this species (Duarte 1995). Conversely, the biological characteristics of the other seagrass species present in the Spanish Mediterranean indicate that they would be able to develop, and thus to recover, a meadow in some decades (Duarte 1995) if disturbance triggering losses ceases and seagrass growth conditions are favourable.

On average, the leaf biomass of P. oceanica, C. nodosa, Z. nolti and Z. marina meadows is 390 g dry weight m -2, 113 g dry weight m -2, 64 g dry weight m -2 and 206 g dry weight m-2, respectively (Duarte and Chiscano 1999). The living biomass of rhizomes and roots of P. oceanica, C. nodosa, Z. nolti and Z. marina meadows is 1,700 g dry weight m-2, 52 g dry weight m -2, 125 g dry weight m-2 and 219 g dry weight m -2 (Duarte and Chiscano 1999). The aboveground biomass of seagrass meadows fluctuates seasonally, but seasonality is more acute in C. nodosa and Z. marina than P. oceanica and Z. noltii (Cebrián et al 1997). Seasonal changes in aboveground biomass in P. oceanica meadows reflects the seasonality in shoot mass, whereas that in C. nodosa, Z. noltii and Z. marina meadows reflects seasonal fluctuations in shoot density as well (Cebrián et al 1997).

Posidonia oceanica meadows rank amongst the most threatened ecosystems on Earth (Duarte et al 2008). Since the 1980s, 102 of a total of 176 meadows reported in the Mediterranean basin have suffered a decline in area and/or abundance of shoots, exceeding 50 % in 17 % of the meadows (Marbà 2009). Annual monitoring of shoot density in permanent plots distributed across 40 Spanish Mediterranean P. oceanica meadows revealed that during the current decade 67% of the meadows have suffered net losses of shoot density. Overall studied meadows, the recent net rate of change in shoot density was -5 % year -1, revealing a general trend towards decline (Marbà et al 2005, Marbà 2009). These losses were observed in seagrass meadows situated not only in coastal areas experiencing strong anthropogenic pressure, but also in protected areas like the Cabrera Archipelago National Park (Balearic Islands), where measures to conserve the marine and terrestrial ecosystems have been in force since 1991 (Marbà 2009). The major threats to P. oceanica meadows are eutrophication, mechanical damage, burial and erosion and global warming.

Macroalgae

Macroalgae species account for most flora diversity in benthic marine environments. Most autochtonous benthic macroalgae species growing in the Mediterranean Sea colonise roky bottoms. However, the stoloniferous macroalga Caulerpa prolifera free- living calcareous rodophytes forming maërl beds and free-Peyssonnelia beds grow on soft bottoms. Macroalgae can grow at water depth where light irradiance is at

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least 0.02 % of surface irradiance (Gattuso et al 2006). These low light requirements for growth allow macroalgae species in the Western Mediterranean to distribute from 0 m down to 100 m depth (Barbera et al 2003).

Caulerpa prolifera grows between 0 m and 40 m depth. Caulerpa prolifera forms dense meadows, often on muddy areas with long water residence times, such are coastal lagoons, enclosed bays and harbours. It is common along the entire Spanish Mediterranean coasts in shallow areas but it can grow down to 20 m depth (Luque and Templado 2004). C. prolifera may grow monospecificaly or mixed with seagrasses and other macroalgae species. C. prolifera has stolons of 1-2 mm diameter that extend at rates of about 80 cm yr -1 (Marbà unpublished data). From the dense networks of stolons, fronds between 1 cm and 25 cm long emerge (Luque and Templado 2004). The biomass of C. prolifera meadows exhibits strong seasonality, mostly forced by temperature, and during summer, when it peaks, can be 180 g DW m-2 to 280 g dW m -2 (Luque and Templado 2004).

In Western Mediterranean, maërl and free-Peyssonnelia beds are found in the circalitoral zone, between 40 and 80-100 m depth (Barbera et al 2003, Canals and Ballesteros 1997). Macroalgae diversity in maërl beds is very high, as reflects the 168 macroalgae species reported for one of them located in the area of Alicante (Spanish Mediterranean, Barbera et al 2003). However, Lithothamnon corallioides, L. valens, Phymatolithon calcareum and Peyssonnelia species account for most of macroalgae abundance (Canals and Ballesteros 1997). These are extremely slow- growing species, the tips of the branches elongating less than 1 mm yr -1 (Blake and Maggs 2003). The macroalgae forming these communities in the Balearic Islands contain 2562 g of total carbonate m-2 (Canals and Ballesteros 1997), the largest amount of total carbonate per area standing on marine vegetation.

The characteristic macroalga taxons inhabiting on rocky bottoms of the Spanish Mediterranean are compiled in Table 3. Some of these are habitat structuring species, such those of the genus Cystoseira, large kelps, and the coralligenous algae builders (Templado et al 2009). Most of the species of the genus Cystoseira grow in the Mediterranean sea. Mediterranean Cystoseira spp. form highly prominent canopies and grow in the infralitoral zone, although the densest belts of Cystoseira taxons occupy the shallowest areas of the sublitoral that are exponed to high hydrodynamism. The biomass of Cystoseira populations can be very high. For instance, at sea level a population of Cystoseira mediterranea attained a biomass of 1913 g dry mass m−2 ( NW Spain, Ballesteros, 1988) and one of Cystoseira stricta 1860 gDW m-2 (SE France, Bellan-Santini 1968). In shallow waters the biomass of Cystoseira caespitosa was 1090 g dry mass m−2 (1406 g dry mass m−2 if Cystoseira compressa is included, Ballesteros, 1990a), that of a community of Cystoseira crinita 910 g DW m-2 (SE France, Bellan-Santini 1968). The biomass of Cystoseira species decreases with increasing water depth, but still at 27 m depth the aereal biomass of a Cystoseira spinosa population was 454 g DW m−2 (Ballesteros et al 1998) whereas that of Cystoseira zosteroides reached 112 g DW m−2 at a depth of 18 m (Ballesteros, 1990b). The biomass of Cystoseira stands fluctuates seasonally, and it peaks in summer.

In the Spanish Mediterranean, kelp forests are represented by few species (Table 1) growing in the circalittoral zone. L. ochroleuca is restricted the Alboran Sea where it grows down to 60 m depth, and Laminaria rodriguezi, a Mediterranean endemic, is present at 50-70 m water depths in areas with very clear waters of Columbretes

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Islands, Balearic Islands and occasionally in the Murcia region (Templado et al 2009).

Coralligenous concretions of the Mediterranean host more than 300 macroalgae species, that 33-48 % of them are them Mediterranean endemics (Ballesteros 2003). Coralline algae are the main builders of the coralligenous (Ballesteros 2003) and they encompass several rodophytes as Lithophyllum lichenoides, L. byssoides, L. frondosum, L. cabiochae, Mesophyllum alternans, Neogoniolithon brassica-florida, or Neogoniolithon mamillosum, among others (Templado et al 2009). They form sciaphilic communities, growing in dim light conditions that range between 0.05 % and 3 % of surface irradiance (Ballesteros 2003). Hence, they grow on almost vertical walls and deep channels between 20 m and 60 m depth in the North Spanish Mediterranean and between 50 m and 100 m depth in the clear waters of the Balearic Islands (Ballesteros 2003). Relative growth rates of two important coralligenous alga builders growing between 15 and 30 m depth at Medes Islands (N Spanish Mediterranean) ranged between 0.16 month-1 (M. alternans) and 0.09 month-1 (L. frondosum) and shrinkage rates from 0.09 month-1 (M. alternans) and 0.04 month-1 (L. frondosum, Garrabou and Ballesteros 2000). These growth rates did not vary seasonally. Coraligenous algal dominated communities are the Mediterranean communities that produce the largest amount of total carbonate per unit of area (464 g total carbonate m-2 yr-1, Canals and Ballesteros 1997). Coralligenous algal dominated communities contain large amounts of total carbonate, that in the Balearic Islands it has been estimated to be 1585 g of total carbonate m-2 (Canals and Ballesteros 1997), In addition to the coralline algae, the clorophyte Halimeda tuna can also contribute significantly to the calcium carbonate production of shallow coralligenous concretions (Ballesteros 2003). Annual organic matter and calcium carbonate production by H. tuna growing at 18 m depth in the North Western Mediterranean has been estimated to be 680 g DW m-2 yr-1, equivalent to 114 g organic carbon m-2 yr-1 and 314 g Ca C03 m-2 yr-1 (Ballesteros 2003), which is similar to the calcium carbonate production of coralline algae (Ballesteros 2003). Growth of H. tuna exhibits strong seasonality and it mainly occurs in summer (Ballesteros 2003).

Sharp reduction of macroalgae species structuring habitats in the Western Mediterranean have been reported for some Fucales. Five species of Cystoseira (Cystoseira crinita, Cystoseira barbata, Cystoseira foeniculacea f. tenuiramosa, Cystoseira spinosa, Cystoseira spinosa var. compressa) and two Sargassum species (Sargassum hornschuchii and Sargassum vulgare), that at the end of the 19th century grew at Albères Coast (France, NW Mediterranean), have become extinct at that region (Thibaut et al 2005). Also, C. mediterranea, a species that at the end of 19th century formed a continuous belt along the shores of the Albères coast, is currently restricted to few sites along that coast (Thibaut et al 2005). Along the Spanish Mediterranean, Cystoseira mediterranea is only found in relatively undisturbed sites, and its presence is used as an indicator of good coastal quality of water masses for the European Water Frame Directive (Pinedo et al 2007). Overgrazing by sea urchins, out-competition by mussels, habitat destruction, and pollution have been identified as the major threats to these populations of Fucales living in shallow waters, while the increase in water turbidity, and, probably, pollution and net fishing are the main causes of Cystoseira declines in deep-water (Thibaut et al 2005).

Maërl beds have been also reported to be strongly threatened by human activity. Recent studies on the fishing intensity and area swept by fishing gear, indicate that

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most sedimentary benthic systems on the continental shelf of Europe have been modified by fishing activities in the last 100 years (Barbera et al 2003). Otter trawling can cause physical and biological degradation of benthic habitats (Sánchez-Lizaso et al., 1990) and in the Spanish Mediterranean is carried out illegally in some inshore waters, including maerl beds off Alicante (Bordehore et al., 2000) and Mallorca (Massutí et al., 1996). However, the degree to which maerl beds are fished is unknown in most areas (Barbera et al 2003) preventing estimations of the magnitude of losses of key species.

Amongst the macroalgae that live in the coraligenous, Boudouresque et al (1980) identifies 8 that can be considered endangered: Chondrymenia lobata, Halarachnion ligulatum, Halymenia trigona, Platoma cyclocolpa, Nemastoma dichotomum, Ptilophora mediterranea, Schizymenia dubyi and Laminaria rodriguezii. In addition, Ballesteros (2003) adds the following ones to the list: Aeodes marginata, Sphaerococcus rhizophylloides, Schmitzia naepolitana, Ptilocladiopsis horrida, Microcladia glandulosa, Rodriguezella bornetii, R. pinnata and Lomentaria subdichotoma. Pollution and increased sedimentation rates are the main threats to these species. L. rodriguezii it is now mainly restricted to the coralligenous since it has almost disappeared from maërl beds, the best habitat for its development, due to trawling activities (Ballesteros 2003).

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Table 3. Characteristic macroalgae taxons growing on rocky bottoms and reefs along the Spanish Mediterranean. Compiled from Templado et al 2009.

Taxon From CapFrom From San Balearic Alborán de Creus toCambrils to Antonio Cape Islands Sea Cambrils San Antonio to Gata Cape Cape Acetabularia acetabulum x x x x x Acrosymphyton purpuriferum x x x x x Aglaothamnion tripinnatum x x x x x Aphanocladia stichidiosa x x x x x Arthrocladia villosa x x x x x Asparagopsis armata x Asparagopsis taxiformis x Bangia atropurpurea x x x x x Boergeseniella fruticulosa x x x x x Ceramium rubrum x x x x x Chaetomorpha aerea x x x x x Cladophora rupestris x x x x x Cladostephus hirsutus x x x x x Codium vermilara x x x x x Codium bursa x x x x x Corallina elongata x x x x x Cystoseira balearica x x Cystoseira caespitosa x Cystoseira crinita x x x x x Cystoseira mediterranea x Cystoseira spinosa x x x x x Cystoseira stricta x x x Cystoseira tamariscifolia x Cystoseira zosteroides x x x x x Dasycladus vermicularis x x x x x Dictyopteris polypodioides (=x x x x x D. membranacea) Dictyota dichotoma x x x x x Dilophus spiralis x x x x x Fabelia petiolata (= Udoteax x x x x petiolata) Feldmannia caespitula x x x x x Halimeda tuna x x x x x Halopitys incurvus x x x x x Halopteris filicina x x x x x Halopteris scoparia x x x x x Hildenbrandia rubra x x x x x Jania rubens x x x x x Laminaria ochroleuca x Laminaria rodriguezi x x Laurencia obtusa x x x x x Lithophyllum byssoides (=x x x x x Lithophyllum lichenoides) Lithophyllum frondosum x x x x x Lithophyllum incrustans x x x x x Mesophyllum alternans x x x x x

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Nemalion helminthoides x x x x x Nemoderma tingitanum x x x x x Neogoniolithon brassica-x x x x x florida (= Spongites notarisii) Neogoniolithon mamillosum x x x x x Osmundea truncata x x x x x Padina pavonica x x x x x Petalonia fascia x x x x x Peyssonnelia bornetii x x x x x Peyssonnelia rosa-marina x x x x x Peyssonnelia rubra x x x x x Peyssonnelia squamaria x x x x x Phyllariopsis brevipes x x x Phyllariopsis purpurascens x x x Phymatolithon lenormandii x x x x x Plocamium cartilagineum x x x x x Polysiphonia sertularioides x x x x x Polysiphonia subulifera x x x x x Porphyra leucosticta x x x x x Ralfsia verrucosa x x x x x Rissoella verruculosa x x x x x Rodriguezella strafforellii x x x x x Saccorhiza polyschides x x x x Sargasum vulgare x x x x x Schottera nicaeensis x x x x x Scytosiphon lomentaria x x x x x Sphaerococcus x x x x x coronopifolius Sporochnus pedunculatus x x x x x Stypocaulon scoparium x x x x x Taonia atomaria x x x x x Ulva rigida x x x x x Valonia utricularis x x x x x Vickersia baccata x x x x x

Invertebrates

The fauna living on soft bottoms is dominated by polychaeta and echinodermata (Pérès and Picard 1962). In seagrass meadows, polychaeta dominate in biomass and species richness the associated invertebrate community (Luque and Templado 2004). However, amongst the large number of invertebrates inhabiting seagrass meadows, it is worth to mention the mollusc Pinna nobilis, typically growing in Posidonia oceanica and, occasionally, Cymodocea nodosa meadows. This mollusc is the largest bivalve growing in the Mediterranean, whith shells up to 100 cm long. One third of the shell is buried in the sediment and seagrass rhizomes. The abundance of P. nobilis ranges from 1 to 10 individuals m-2, and some individuals can become older than 35 years (Garcia-March and Márquez-Aliaga 2007). Maërl beds also host a highly diverse invertebrate community. In a maërl bed at the Alicante coast (Spain), about 200 species of invertebrates, mostly belonging to crustacea, mollusca and annelida, have been recorded (Barbera et al 2003).

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The list of characteristic invertebrates growing on rocky substrates and forming reefs along the Spanish Mediterranean is extensive (Table 4). Amongst them, there are the animal builders of the coralligenous and bioeroders. At the region of Marseilles (France), Hong (1980) identified 124 species of coralligenous animal builders, being most of them bryozoans (62 %) and serpulid polychaetes (23 %), while cnidarians, molluscs, sponges and crustaceans only accounted for 4 %, 4%, 4 % and 1.6 % of the species. The sponge Clionia viridis, the bivalve Lithophaga litophaga and several annelids, amongst others, erode the calcareous concretions. The composition of animal assemblages in the coralligenous is diverse and it varies among plant associations, sites and geographical areas. The biomass of invertebrate assemblages of the coralligenous has only been quantified at the region of Marseilles (True 1970). At Marseilles, the biomass of the entire invertebrate assemblage dominated by Eunicella cavolini, that included 146 invertebrate species, was 1563 g DW m-2. E. cavolini biomass in this assemblage accounted for 304 g DW m-2 (True 1970). At the same region, the assemblage dominated by Paramuricea clavata contained 111 invertebrate species, its total weight was 3175 g DW m-2, and biomass of P. clavata was 746 gDW m-2 and that of other cnidaria (Caryophyllia smithii, Hoplangia durotrix and Corallium rubrum) 462 g DW m-2 (True 1970). At Medes Islands (Spain), the total cnidarian biomass in coralligenous concretions dominated by P. clavata was 430 g DW m-2 (Gili and Ballesteros 1991). The biomass of the invertebrate assemblage of red coral at Marseilles, dominated by Corallium rubrum, was 3817 g DW m-2 and encompassed 63 species (True 1970). Coralligenous community as a whole exhibits very low or nil seasonality (Ballesteros 2003). However, the dynamics of most dominant benthic animal species of the coralligenous (e.g hydrozoans, anthozoans) varies seasonally (Ballesteros2003). Relative growth rates of some coralligenous invertebrates at Medes Islands (Spain) have been estimated. Sponges grow at relative growth rates of 0.15 month-1 (Oscarella lobularis) and 0.022 month-1 (Chondrosia reniformis, Garrabou and Zabala 2001). The basal diameter and colony height of Corallium rubrum at Marseilles grow at rates of 0.24 mm yr-1 and 1.78 mm yr-1, respectively (Garrabou and Harmelin 2002). P. clavata increases its height at rates ranging between 1.8 and 2.7 cm yr-1, similar to those of E. singularis (2.2 cm yr-1) and slightly faster than those of E cavolinii (0.85-1.14 cm yr-1, Ballesteros 2003).

The number of individuals in Pinna nobilis populations has been severely reduced, and at present its abundance is low in most P. oceanica meadows of the Spanish Mediterranean. P. nobilis populations in best conservation status can be found along Almería, Alicante and Balearic Islands coasts. On rocky bottoms and the coralligenous, the mollusc Lithophaga lithophaga is also considered an endangered species (Boudouresque et al 1991) although it still abounds (Ballesteros 2003). Harvesting of these species and, for P. nobilis, changes in coastline are identified the main threats.

Boudouresque et al (1991) also list the sea urchin Centrostephanus longispinus as endangered species. The abundance of Scyllarides latus (slipper lobster) has sharply declined in many Mediterranean regions due to high fishing pressure on this priced resource. In the Spanish Mediterranean it is more common in the Balearic Islands, where the seawater is the warmest.

Colonies of suspension feeders (sponges and gorgonians) in the Northwestern Mediterranean growing above 40 m depth have experienced mass mortality events following heat waves (Garrabou et al 2009). In addition to temperature stress, low

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food abundance and pathogenic infections during those periods contributed to mass mortality (Coma et al 2009, Bally and Garrabou 2007). Excess of sediment deposition is also an important threat to the filter-feeders of the coralligenous (Templado et al 2009).

Species of large sponges and cnidaria dominate the circalittoral community developing from 80 m down to the upper bathyal region (250 m- 300 m) of the Spanish Mediterranean (Templado et al 2009). On detritic seabeds at 90-250 m depth the bivalve Neopycnodonte cochlear often dominates. Bathyal rocky bottoms of 200 m to 400 m depth, and elevations of the bathyal region, can be colonised by the Dendrophyllia cornigera community, which in additon to this coral species it contains several species of sponges, hydrozoa and briozoa (Templado et al 2009). Bathyal rocky floors can also be colonised by bathyal octocoral communities and bathyal communities of sponges (Templado et al 2009). The Spanish Mediterranean rocky seafloor deeper than about 300 m can be occupied by relict communities of white corals (Templado et al 2009), mostly of the colonial corals Lophelia petrusa and Madrepora oculata. However, the presence of white coral communities in the Mediterranean seaflor is poorly documented (ZibroWius 2003).

The extension and conservation status of circalittoral and bathyial communities are little known. Trawling represents the main threat to these communities.

Table 4. Characteristic invertebrate taxons growing on rocky bottoms and reefs along the Spanish Mediterranean. Compiled from Templado et al 2009.

Taxon From From From Balearic Alborán Cap deCambrils San Islands Sea Creus toto San Antonio Cambrils Antonio Cape to Cape Gata Cape Porifera Clatrina coriacea x x x x x Spirastrella cunctatrix x x x x x Cnidaria Acantogorgia hirsuta x Aglaophenia acacia x x x x x Astroides calycularis x Alcyonium acaule x x x x x Calliogorgia verticillata x x x x x Caryophyllia cyathus x x x x x Cladocora caespitosa x x x x x Corallium rubrum x x x x x Dendrophyllia cornigera x x x x x Desmophyllum dianthus (= D. cristagalli) x

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Ellisella paraplexauroides x Eudendrium racemosum x x x x Eunicella cavolini x x x Eunicella singularis x x x x x Gerardia savaglia x x x x Leptogorgia sarmentosa x x x x x Lophelia pertusa x Madrepora oculata x Oculina patagonica x x Paralcyonum spinulosum x x x x x Paramuricea clavata x x x x x Pennaria distycha x x x x x Swiftia dubia (= S. pallida) x Viminella flagellum x Annelida Sabellaria alveolata x x Mollusca Acesta excavata x Barleeia unifasciata x x x x x Caecum armoricum x x x x x Coralliophila brevis x x x x x Botryphalus epidauricus x x x x x Dendropoma petraeum x x x x Fissurella nubecula x x x x x Gibbula divaricada x x x x x Gibbula railineata x x x x x Elysia timida x x x x Lepidochitona corrugada x x x x x Lithophaga lithophaga x x x x x Melarhaphe neritoides x x x x x Musculus costulatus x x x x x Mytilus galloprovincialis x x x x x Neopycnodonte cochlear x x x x x Neosimnia spelta x x x x x Nodilittorina punctata x x x Manionnia blainvillea x x x x x Onchidiella celtica x x x x x Orania fusulus x x Osilinus articulatus x x x x x Osilinus lineatus x Osilinus turbinatus x x x x x Paludinella littorina x x x x x

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Patella ferruginea x Patella intermedia x Patella rustica x x x x x Patella ulyssiponensis x x x x x Phorcus richardi x x x x x Pseudomelampus exiguus x x x x x Pseudosimnia carnea x x x x x Serpulorbis arenarius x x x x x Siphonaria pectinata x x Spondylus gaederopus x x x x x Spondylus gusonii x Thuridilla hopei x x x x x Tritonia nilssohneri x x x x x Crustacea Acanthonyx lunulatus x x x x x Chthamalus montagui x x x x x Chthamalus stellatus x x x x x Eriphia verrucosa x x x x x Ligia italica x x x x x Pachygrapsus marmoratus x x x x x Pilumnus hirtellus x x x x x Pollicipes cornucopiae x Scyllarides latus x x x x x Tigriopus brevicornis x x x x x Brachyopoda Megathiris detruncata x x x x x Megerlia truncata x x x x x Novocrania anomala x x x x x Platidia anomioides x x x x x Terebratulina retusa x x x x x Bryozoa Hornera frondiculata x x x x Margaretta cereoides x x x x x Membranipora membranacea x Myriapora truncata x x x x x Pentapora fascialis (= P. foliacea) x x x x x Schizotheca serratimargo x Echinodermata Arbacia lixula x x x x x Centrostephanus longispinus x x x x Chaetaster longipes x x x Echinus acutus x x x Ascidiacea Clavellina dellavallei x x Halocynthia papillosa x x x x x

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2.1.3 Information on vertebrates other than fish

Marine mammals

The conservation status of marine mammals observed in Spanish Mediterranean régions is described below.

Balaenoptera physalus. Oceanic species relatively abundant in the Mediterranean sea, that concentrates in upwelling areas such are the Gulf of Lions and the Ligurian Sea. There are no robust estimates of population size of this species in the Mediterranean but it could range between 1000 and 3000 individuals. The main threat is hunting for commercial explotation and collision with ships in areas with intense maritime trafic. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Delphinus delphis. This species used to be present along the entire Spanish Mediterraean (including the Balearic Islands) coast but its distribution range along this coast has been reduced and currently it is only found south of the Nao Cape. This distribution change is not restricted to the Spanish Mediterranean since at present it is very rare in the French Mediterranean and North Italian coasts. The population size around Spain is unknown. In Spanish waters, this species is captured for fish bite. This species rank amongst the most affected by not selective fishing guear, and in the Alboran Sea there is accidental mortality due to ship collision. Pollution of coastal waters, probably, contributes to the observed decline of this species in the north western Mediterranean. Tissue concentrations of chemical pollutants in individuals inhabiting the Spanish coasts exceed by far healthy concentration values, and some of these pollutants impact reproduction and growth of marine mammals. The decline of this dolfin species may be enhanced by overfhishing of marine stocks that also provided food to the population. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Globicephala melas. In the Spanish Mediterranean, this species is relatively common along the coast of Almería, Granada, and Murcia region. Its abundance decreases along Valencia region,Catalunya and the Balearic Islands. Genetic studies revealed that Atlantic and Mediterranean populations are different, and lower genetic variability in the Mediterranean one. In the Spanish Mediterranean, the highest encounter rate occus in the Alboran Sea. Above Vera Gulf, the number of individual observations decreases. The encounter rates of groups and individuals of this species in these regions are stable, althoys with some fluctuations between 1992 and 2006 and an increase during 2007 and 2008. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Grampus griseus. Rare species in the Spanish Mediterranean. The regions in the Spanish Mediterranean where the species is more frequently observed are the north of Mallorca dn Menorca (Balearic Islands), south of Gulf of Lions and from Alboran Sea to Gata Cape and Vera Gulf (Almería). Abundance estimates are lacking.

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Megaptera novaengliae. Rare species in the Mediterranean, and when observed probably they are wandering individuals from Atlantic population (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Monachus monachus. The global distribution of this species encompasses the coasts of Italy, Spain, Argelia, Morocco, Croatia, Albany, Turkey and Greece in the Mediterranean and in the Atlantic the coast of north Africa and Portugal. In 1991 there was only one individual living at Chafarinas Islands. Until 1960-65 there was one small group living at Gata Cape and others in the Balearica Islands. Since then, it has been observed occasionally in the Balearic Islands (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es). The main threats to this species are the hunting by humans to prevent competition with fisheries, accidental capture by fishing nets, coastal habitat destruction, pollution, population fragmentation and size (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Orcinus orca. It lives in coastal and open waters. In the Mediterranean it does not abound, probably because food is limiting. It has been observed several times near the Balearic Islands. Its abundance in Spanish waters is unknown. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Phocoena phocoena. Coastal species, at present it is absent from the Mediterranean, but it is believed that it was still common there during the last century. It can be considered extinct from the Mediterranean sea. It was comercially exploited until 1970. As main threats rank captures (including accidental ones), coastal deterioration, overfishing of stocks included in P. phocoena diet and pollution. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Physeter macrocephalus. Species relatively frequent in the Spanish Mediterranean, particularly in productive waters although it can colonize any water mass where food availability suffices. Animals with large home ranges and common in deep and productive waters, such fronts or oceanic regions with abrupt sea bottoms. Commercial exploitation has impacted intensively the large global stocks of this species. Several individuals have been accidentally catched by fishing nets in the Mediterranean, but it is unknown how much it enhances mortality at population level. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Stenella coeruleoalba. It is the most abundant marine mammal in Spanish waters, both in the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts. It is a pelagic species that inhabits waters with sea temperature ranging between 18 and 25 ºC, although in the Mediterranean it is abundant in the continental shelf deeper than 100-200 m or at about 10 nautical miles away from the coastline (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es). In 1990, an important but undefined part of the population died as a consequence of an epizootia. It has been suggested that the population of this species in the Western Mediterranean has been expanding for the last decades, but this trend has not been quantified. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Tursiops truncatus. Species present along the entire Spanish Mediterranean, but the distribution of the population is fragmented along the region. In the Mediterranean only lives one of the two Tursiops truncatus ecotypes, the one called « neritic » that lives on seabottoms deeper than 100-200 m. The population size along the Spanish

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Mediterranean is unknown, but during the last decades it has experienced strong declines, particularly in the areas of Catalunya and Comunidad Valencia, probably due to accidental fishing, pollution and degradation of coastal ecosystems. The population in the Balearic Islands, with 400-800 individuals, ranks amongst the most abundant in the Spanish Mediterranean. (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, www.marm.es).

Sea turtles

The species of sea turtles present in Mediterranean Spanish waters are Caretta caretta, Chelonia mydas, Dermochelys coriacea and occasionally Lepidochelys kempii (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, Atlas y Libro Rojo de los Anfibios y Reptiles de España). Their distribution and conservation status is described below.

Caretta caretta. It is the most common sea turtle in the Spanish waters. In Spain, it is more common in the Mediterranean, particularly in the regions of the Balearic Island and Alboran Sea, than in the Atlantic. Individuals are often observed in open waters of the Mediterranean mostly in spring and beginning of autumn. The Mediterranean population shows higher stability in terms of annual nests and hatching than the Atlantic one but it is highly threatened on beaches (because tourism and pollution) and open sea (fisheries, pollution, maritime traffic). In 1992 it was considered extinct in the Spanish Mediterranean (Blanco and González 1992), but later some individuals have been recorded (Delta del Ebro, Almería), probably as a result of implementation of conservation polices.

Chelonia mydas. The Mediterranean population is confined in its Eastern basin. Despite it is a rare species in the Spanish Mediterranean, individuals have been observed in the Chafarinas Islands, Valencia and Murcia regions, Balearic Islands and the north of Alboran Sea. The main threat for this species is the human consumption of its meat, eggs and fat. The explotaition of this species between 1930 y 1982 caused major decline of the Mediterranean reproductive stocks. Moreover, the loss of seagrass meadows, feeding grounds for adult individuals, may have contributed to the decline of this sea turtle species in the Mediterranean. The occupancy of Mediterranean beaches by humans is threatening the reproduction of this species. The small size of the population, pollution and accidental fishing are also identified as threats to this species in the Mediterranean.

Dermochelys coriacea. Species present in both Mediterranean basins the entire year. It has never been recorded that the species reproduces in the Mediterranea. It mostly lives in open water, and feeds on planktonic invertebrates and jelly-fish. It is present in the entire Spanish Mediterranean but it is more frequent observed South Balearic Islands, Alboran Sea, Ceuta and Melilla.

Lepidochelys kempii. Very rare species in the Spanish Mediterranean, where it has been cited only once in Valencia (october 2001, J. TOMÁS, com. pers.).

Seabirds

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The Spanish Mediterranean hosts probably the most diverse community of breeding and migratory seabirds in Europe (Arcos et al 2009). Ten species of gulls and terns place their main colonies along the Spanish coasts, and 4 species of procellariformes breed in the Balearic Islands and small islands near the Spanish mainland (Arcos et al 2009). Among these species, the Balearic shearwater Puffinus muritanicus, the Yelkouan shearwater Puffinus yelkouan and the Audouin’s gull Larus audouinii are endemic of the Mediterranean basin. With a population of c. 2000 breeding pairs, the Balearic shearwater is the most threatened seabird of the Mediterranean region and it breeds exclusively along the coasts of the Balearic archipelago. The distribution of the closely related Yelkouan shearwater ranges from the island of Menorca, the only site known in Spain, to the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Its populations are not considered as vulnerable, but the number of breeding pairs had recently declined. The Spanish coast hosts c. 90 % of reproductive population of Audouin’s gull. The largest colony is located at the estuary of the river Ebro along the eastern coast of the country, but other breeding sites have been found along Valencia region, the island of Majorca, Alborán and the archipelago of Chafarinas. Also, the Cory’s shearwater Calonectris diomedea breeds in large numbers in the Balearic and Chafarinas islands. The 40 % of the mediterranean reproductive population of Store petrel Hydrobates pelagycus is distributed along the Spanish Mediterranean, mostly in the islands of Ibiza and Formentera and on the small islands off the coast of Alicante and Murcia. The Common shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis also has important populations along the south coast of Spain (Girona, Alicante y Murcia areas) and in the islands of the Balearic archipelago. Terns, such as the Little tern Sterna albifrons, the Common tern Sterna hirundo, The Sándwich tern Thalasseus sandviensis and the Gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica are mainly concentrated on the wetlands of the Ebro Delta, on the region of Valencia and along the southern coast of Spain (Murcia and Alicante). Their populations are currently declining due to a rapad loss of wetlands along the Mediterannean coast (Martí & Del Moral, 2003). On the contrary, the Spanish population of the Yellow Legged gull Larus cachinnans is probable the largest World population of this species (Martí & Del Moral, 2003). The species is breeding along all the coast of Spain and present in all islands.

Large populations of wintering species are also present along the Mediterranean coast. Some of them, such as the Mediterranean gull Larus melanocephalus, may have the main global sites for wintering located in eastern mediterrranean coast of Spain (Arcos et al 2009).

With the exception of few species, such as the Yellow legged gull, almost all breeding seabirds of the Spanish Mediterranean are threatened or its populations considered vulnerable. Most species of these seabirds are listed in the Anex I of the EU Bird Directive due to their small population size and/or sharp declines in abundance.

Spain as a whole hosts a very diverse community of seabirds and it is at present the only country in which breed all the three seabirds endemic of the Mediterranean region.

2.1.4 Inventory of the temporal occurrence, abundance and spatial distribution of exotic, non-indigenous and invasive species

The Mediterranean is the European sea that hosts the largest number of exotic species (Streftaris et al 2005). Despite exotics are being introduced to the

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Mediterranean for centuries, the records of arrivals of new species in the Mediterranean Sea are accelerating since the second half of 20th Century (Gollasch 2006). On average, the rate of species introduction between years 1999- 2004 was of one exotic species every 6 weeks (Streftaris et al 2005). At present, macroalgae is the marine group that is providing exotics at the fastest rates in the Mediterranean Sea when compared with those of other groups (Gollasch 2006).

In the Mediterranean, nowadays, there are 433 exotic taxons encompassing macrophytes (110 taxons), molluscs (137 taxons), crustaceans (70 taxons) and fishes (116 taxons; CIESM, http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm). In addition, other few tens of exotic taxons of zooplankton and phytoplankton are living in the Mediterranean (Streftaris et al 2005). In the Spanish Mediterranean, there are 38 exotic taxons of macroalgae, 22 of fishes, 8 of crustaceans and 4 of molluscs (Table 3), indicating that this region contains 35 % of Mediterranean macrophyte exotics, 19 % of Mediterranean fish exotics, 11 % of Mediterranean crustacean exotics and 3 % of Mediterranean mollusc exotics (Fig. 1). Among the marine exotic taxons present in the Spanish Mediterranean, most of them (53%) are macroalgae and the least represented are mollusc taxons (Fig. 2). In addition, exotic macroalgae taxons are much more spread across the Spanish Mediterranean than those of other marine groups (Table 5; CIESM, http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm). In the Western Mediterranean there are 9 macroalgae species that have invasive behaviour, and all of them are present in the Spanish Mediterranean: Caulerpa taxifolia (Balearic Islands, Pou et al. 1993), Acrothamnion preissii (Balearic Islands, Ballesteros 2008), Asparagopsis taxiformis (Balearic Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, Ballesteros 2008), Asparagopsis armata (Andalusia, Catalunya, Ballesteros 2008), Womersleyella setacea (Balearic Islands, Catalunya, Ballesteros 2008), Lophocladia lallemandii (Balearic Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Ballesteros 2008), Caulerpa racemosa var cylindracea (Balearic Islands, Valencia, Murcia, Catalunya, Ballesteros 2008), Codium fragile ssp tomentosoides (the entire Spanish littoral, Ballesteros 2008) and Colpomenia peregrina (Catalunya, Ballesteros 2008).

Fig. 1. Percentage of exotic taxons of macrophytes, fishes, crustaceans and molluscs introduced in the Mediterranean Sea that are present in the Spanish Mediterranean. Source of data CIESM, Atlas of exotic species in the Mediterranean (http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm).

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Fig. 2. Contribution of each group (i.e. macrophytes, fishes, crustaceans and molluscs) to the total number of exotic taxons in the Spanish Mediterranean. Source of data CIESM, Atlas of exotic species in the Mediterranean (http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm).

Table 5. Exotic macrophyte, mollusc, crustacean and fish species present in the Spanish Mediterranean. Origin codes are: A = Atlantic; IP = Indo-Pacific; SH = Southern Hemisphere; AA = American Atlantic ; AS = Arabian Sea ; CIRT = Circumtropical ; IO = Indian Ocean ; IP = Indo-Pacific ; NEP = North Eastern Pacific Ocean ; PG = Persian Gulf ; PO = Pacific Ocean ; RS = Red Sea ; SC = Suez Canal ; TP = Tropical Pacific Ocean ; WP = Western Pacific Ocean; BA = Boreal Atlantic ; TA = Tropical Atlantic ; EP = Eastern Pacific. Compiled from CIESM Atlas of exotic species in the Mediterranean (http://www.ciesm.org/online/atlas/intro.htm).

Taxon

distribution in the Spanish frequent/unfr origin Mediterranean equent MACROPHYTES STRAMENOPILES, CHROMOBIONTA Acinetosporaceae Pylaiella littoralis (Linnaeus) from Gibraltar straight to Kjellman A, IP Nao Cape unfrequent Alariaceae Undaria pinnatifida (Harvey) Suringar IP north Creus Cape unfrequent Sargassaceae north Creus Cape, Delta Sargassum muticum (Yendo) Ebro region, suspected in Fensholt IP the Balearic Islands unfrequent Scytosiphonaceae

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Colpomenia peregrina from Ebro Delta to north (Sauvageau) Hamel IP Creus Cape unfrequent PLANTAE, RHODOBIONTA Acrochaetiaceae From Nao Cape to north Acrochaetium codicola Creus Cape, Balearic Børgesen IP Islands frequent Areschougiaceae Agardhiella subulata (C. Agardh) Kraft & M.J. Wynne A, IP creus cape local record Sarconema filiforme (Sonder) Kylin IP creus cape local record Bonnemaisoniaceae from Gibraltar straight to north Creus Cape, Asparagopsis armata Harvey IP Melilla, Balearic Islands frequent Asparagopsis taxiformis Alborán Sea, Balearic (Delile) Trevisan de Saint-Léon IP Islands frequent from Gibraltar straight to north Creus Cape, Melilla, Bonnemaisonia hamifera Hariot IP Balearic Islands unfrequent Caulacanthaceae Feldmannophycus okamurae from Cartagena to north (Yamada) Mineur, Maggs & Creus Cape, Balearic Verlaque IP islands frequent Ceramiaceae Acrothamnion preissii (Sonder) E.M.Wollaston IP Balearic Islands unfrequent from Gibraltar straight to Anotrichium okamurae Baldock IP north Creus Cape, Melilla frequent Antithamnion amphigeneum A.J.K. Millar IP Melilla unfrequent Antithamnionella boergesenii (Cormaci & G. Furnari) Athanasiadis South Valencia province local record Antithamnionella elegans (Berthold) J.H. Price & D.M. from Gibraltar Straight to John IP Nao Cape frequent Antithamnionella from Gibraltar straight to spirographidis (Schiffner) E.M. north Creus Cape, Melilla, Wollaston IP Balearic Islands frequent Pleonosporium caribaeum (Børgesen) R.E. Norris A Almeria coast local record Delesseriaceae from Ebro Delta to north Apoglossum gregarium (E.Y. Creus Cape, local record Dawson) M.J. Wynne IP in the Balearic Islands unfrequent Goniotrichaceae Goniotrichiopsis sublittoralis G.M. Smith IP Balearic Islands local record

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Hypneaceae from Gata Cape to Ebro Hypnea spinella (C. Agardh) Delta, Balearic Islands Kützing A, IP (Mallorca) frequent Hypnea valentiae (Turner) Montagne IP Creus Cape local record Liagoraceae Ganonema farinosum (J.V. Lamouroux) K.C. Fan & Y.C. Wang IP Gata Cape local record Lomentariaceae Lomentaria hakodatensis Yendo IP North Creus Cape local record Phyllophoraceae Ahnfeltiopsis flabelliformis (Harvey) Masuda IP North Creus Cape local record Plocamiaceae Plocamium secundatum Creus Cape, Baleraric (Kützing) Kützing SH Islands local records Rhodomelaceae from Gibraltar Staight to Chondria coerulescens (J. Ebro Delta, Melilla, Agardh) Falkenberg A Balearic Islands unfrequent Lophocladia lallemandii from Gata Cape to Nao (Montagne) F. Schmitz IP Cape, Balearic Islands frequent Neosiphonia harveyi (J. Bailey) M.S. Kim, H.G. Choi, Guiry & G.W. Saunders IP Nao Cape local record From Barcelona to North Polysiphonia atlantica Kapraun Creus Cape, Melilla, & J.N. Norris A Balearic Islands frequent Polysiphonia fucoides (Hudson) from Gibraltar Straight to Greville A Nao Cape, Melilla unfrequent Womersleyella setacea (Hollenberg) IP Baleraric Islands frequent Rhodymeniaceae Chrysymenia wrightii (Harvey) Yamada IP Creus Cape local record Solieriaceae Solieria filiformis (Kützing) Gabrielson A Creus Cape local record PLANTAE, CHLOROBIONTA Caulerpaceae From Gata Cape to Ebro Caulerpa racemosa var. delta, Balearic Islands, cylindracea (Sonder) Verlaque, local record in the Catalan Huisman & Boudouresque IP coast frequent Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl) C. Agardh IP Balearic Islands local record Codiaceae

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frequent along the Catalan coast; from Gibraltar Straight to Gata Codium fragile (Suringar) Cape, Melilla, Balearic Hariot subsp. fragile IP Islands unfrequent Ulvaceae from Gata Cape to Nao Ulva fasciata Delile IP Cape, Melilla unfrequent MOLLUSCS GASTROPODA - PROSOBRANCHIA Calyptraeidae (slipper shells) local record Crepidula aculeata AA Alicante but persistent BIVALVIA - PTEROMORPHIA Ostreidae (oysters) from Gata Cape to Crassostrea gigas NWP Castellón frequent Pectinidae (scallops) Chlamys lischkei AA Alborán Sea local record BIVALVIA - HETERODONTA Cardiidae (cockles) Fulvia fragilis IP, RS Alicante, Valencia unfrequent CRUSTACEANS DECAPODA, DECAPOD CRUSTACEANS Penaeidae (penaeid prawns) Marsupenaeus japonicus IP Mar Menor local record Hippolytidae (sea grass shrimps) Merhippolyte ancistrota TA Alboran Sea local record Processidae (processid shrimps) Processa macrodactyla TA Alboran Sea local record Scyllaridae (slipper lobsters) Scyllarus posteli TA Malaga local record Calappidae (box crabs) Calappa pelii TA Chafarinas Islands local record Cryptosoma cristatum TA Alboran Sea local record Portunidae (swimming crabs) Charybdis feriata IP Barcelona local record Plagusiidae AA,TA, Percnon gibbesi EP Balearic Islnads frequent FISHES CARCHARHINIDAE (requiem sharks) Carcharhinus altimus TA Alboran Sea frequent Carcharhinus falciformis TA Alboran Sea unfrequent Galeocerdo cuvier TA Malaga local record OPHICHTHIDAE (snake eels & worm eels) Pisodonophis semicinctus TA Northern Catalunya unfrequent

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FISTULARIDAE (cornetfishes) Granada, Almería, Fistularia commersonii IP Murcia, Alicante frequent Fistularia petimba TA Alboran Sea local record SYNGNATHIDAE (pipefishes & seahorses) Syngnathus rostellatus BA Malaga unfrequent SCORPAENIDAE (scorpionfishes) Scorpaena stephanica TA Barcelona local record Alboran Sea (frequent); from Gata Cape to Nao Trachyscorpia cristulata Cape and Balearic Islands frequent/unfr echinata TA (unfrequent) equent CARANGIDAE (jacks, scads & runners) from Nao Cape to North Creus Cape; Balearic Seriola fasciata TA Islands unfrequent MULLIDAE (goatfishes or red mullets) Pseudupeneus prayensis TA Malaga local record LABRIDAE (wrasses) Centrolabrus exoletus BA Málaga local record AMMODYTIDAE (sand lances) Gymnammodytes from Nao Cape to North semisquamatus BA Creus Cape frequent NOMEIDAE (drift fishes) from Alboran Sea to North Creus Cape, Balearic Psenes pellucidus TA Islands, Melilla unfrequent ACANTHURIDAE (surgeonfishes) Acanthurus monroviae TA Almeria local record SOLEIDAE (soles) from Alboran Sea to Nao Microchirus boscanion TA Cape unfrequent Microchirus (Zevaia) from Alboran Sea to Nao hexophthalmus TA Cape unfrequent from Alboran Sea to Nao Cape and Melilla (frequent); from Nao Cape to North Creus Cape frequent/unfr Solea senegalensis TA (unfrequent) equent from Alboran Sea to north Synaptura lusitanica TA Creus Cape unfrequent MONACANTHIDAE (filefishes) Aluterus monocerus Chafarinas Islands local record TETRAODONTIDAE (pufferfishes) from Alboran Sea to Nao Sphoeroides marmoratus Cape unfrequent the entire Spanish Sphoeroides pachygaster TA Mediterranean frequent

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2.1.5 Information on fish (including mollusc and shellfish species of commercial interest): Structure of fish populations, its abundance, spatial distribution and age/size structure

The Mediterranean fish community is dominated by small pelagic fishes, where sardine and anchovy prevailed in terms of fish biomasses and catches (Coll et al. 2006). Detritivores are also important components, particularly in the demersal region. Pelagic landings have been declining since 1994 coupled with a decrease of pelagic biomass (Coll et al. 2006). Analyses for the causes of variation in landings in the waters surrounding the Ebre (Ebro) River continental shelf (north-western Mediterranean) provided evidence for a strong effect of riverine inputs and wind mixing on the productivity of small pelagic fish, dominated by anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and sardine (Sardina pilchardus)(Lloret et al. 2004). Morover, there has been a significant decline in the mean trophic level of Mediterranean landings (by ~0.15 Trophic Levels over 26 years, Pinnegar et al. 2003). However, this decline is suggested to be almost entirely a result of increased landings of bivalve molluscs from mariculture and not due to changes in landings from capture fisheries, which has not changed significantly since 1973 (Pinnegar et al. 2003). Since 1981, cage culture of high trophic level species such as sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and seabream (Sparus aurata) has become increasingly important.

In the western Mediterranean basin (1950–2003), a significant positive relationship was found between round sardinella landings and temperature anomalies (Sabatés et al. 2006). The abundance of round sardinella in the two warmest and southernmost areas was positively and significantly correlated with sea surface temperature registered during the start of gonad maturation the previous year (Sabatés et al. 2006). There has been a marked increase in larval abundance during the last decades and the present appearance of larvae in the northernmost study areas, where they did not occur 20 years ago. This indicates the successful reproduction of round sardinella in the northern part of the Mediterranean, where the species has expanded, confirming its establishment in the area with seawater warming (Sabatés et al. 2006)

The red shrimp (Aristeus antennatus) is one of the most important resources of bottom trawling in the Spanish Mediterranean. It is captured on the slope between depths of 400 to 800 m and despite a relatively small catch, it contributes importantly, up to 30%, to the total earnings of the fishery. The catches increased greatly from 1948 to 1997, but the catches have been declining in the last five years along with a decline in mean size (Carbonell et al. 1999), providing evidence of overexploitation of this fish species.

Overexploitation is not only a consequence of pressure from commercial fishing, but also from the growing pressure from - poorly regulated - recreational fisheries. A study in the Island of Majorca showed that 5.14% of the population are engaged in recreational fishing, with a sizeable impact on the coastal fauna (Morales-Nin et al. 2005). Annual catches by recreational fisheries represent 31% of production at

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trophic level 4, which raises concern about sustainable exploitation in the recreational fishery (Morales-Nin et al. 2005).

Whereas many protected areas have been established in the Mediterranean, most are small, with only 0.01 % of the area in the Spanish Mediterranean economic exclusive zone protected. Moreover, the role of marine protected areas in the Mediterranean in enhancing recruitment in neighboring fish population suffers from a lack of data (Planes et al. 2000), so that the role of these protecting areas in the conservation of the stocks is unclear. There is a need for studies based on sound sampling designs, which (1) generate long-term data sets, and would ideally (2) be based on a Mediterranean-wide comparison of a number of protected and unprotected localities, (3) be designed from a multi-scaled perspective, and (4) control for factors other than protection, in order to avoid their confounding effects (García-Charton et al. 2000).

2.1.6. To the extent not described above, description of coastal biodiversity regarding species composition and abundance not applicable

2.2. Habitat types

The habitats listed in the “Handbook for interpreting types of marine habitat for the selection of sites to be included in the national inventories of natural sites of conservation interest“ (Bellan-Santini et al, 2002) are included in habitats 1110 (Sandbanks which are slightly covered by sea water all the time), 1120 (Posidonia beds (Posidonion oceanicae)), 1150 (Coastal lagoons), 1160 (Large shallow inlets and bays) and 1170 (Reefs) of Natura 2000.

Posidonia oceanica beds are the dominant habitat developing on sandy bottoms from 0 to 45 m depth along the Spanish Mediterranean. The extension of this habitat in the Sapanish Mediterranean has been estimated to range between 2800 km2 (Mas et al. 1993) and 9648 km2 (Atlas de los Hábitat de España, Fig. 3). These estimates, however, have to be considered with caution, since detailed cartography of P. oceanica is only available for a limited number of meadows.

Some Posidonia oceanica beds have been estimated to be thousands of years old. Analyses of remaining carbon 14 in the deepest strata of the matte of meadows located at N Spanish (Culip, Port Lligat, Medes Islands) and S Spanish Mediterranean (Campello, Tabarca) revealed that the age ranged between 600 years and 3600 years (Mateo et al 1997). Because the slow clonal growth of P. oceanica, the finding of similar genotypes in P. oceanica shoots located some kilometres apart (Díaz-Almela et al 2007) also supports that this habitat can reach millenary ages.

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Fig. 3. Distribution of Posidonia oceanica habitat along the Spanish Mediterranean regions. Dots do not correspond to meadow extension. Source: Díaz-Almela and Marbà 2009.

P. oceanica meadows are key ecosystems in the Mediterranean as they provide important services to coastal areas, such are carbon sequestration, increased biodiversity, water transparency, stabilisation the sediments and prevention of coastal erosion. As mentioned in section 2.1.2 of this report, they are highly vulnerable to anthropogenic pressures. Their extension along the Spanish Mediterranean has declined for several decades, and shoot density is currently thinning. The major threats for P. oceanica beds have been described in section 2.1.2. Biological invasions, in particular those of Caulerpa racemosa and Lophocladia lallemandii, are also emerging threats to P. oceanica beds.

Maërl beds in the Western Mediterranean can be found from about 30 m water depth down to 90-100 m water depth. Hence, they can spread over extensive sea bottoms. They are structurally complex habitats formed by living unattached non-geniculate calcareous rhodophytes that support high biodiversity (Barbera et al 2003. Maërl beds rank amongst the Mediterranean communities with the highest amounts and production rates of carbonates (Canals and Ballesteros 1997), and they provide nursery grounds for commercial fish and shelfish species. Trawling fisheries are the major threat identified for this habitat. However, the extension of healthy and impacted maërl is unknown for most areas (Barbera et al 2003), preventing estimations of the magnitude of losses of key species.

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The extension of the different biocenoses colonising hard beds and rocks in the infralittoral, circalittoral and bathyal zones, corresponding to habitat 1170 (Reefs) of Natura 2000 classification, in the Spanish Mediterranean is unknown (Templado et al 2009). A detailed description of these biocenoses for the Spanish Mediterranean is provided in Templado et al. (2009). We briefly provide information about the biocenosis of infralittoral algae, the Coraligenous and deep corals.

The biocenoses of infralittoral algae is composed by phytophilous and sciaphilous algae on exposed and calm rocky shores of all Spanish Mediterranean. Some of these communities are highly diverse. The distribution of these communities along the infralittoral rocky shores depends on algal requirements for light, hydrodynamism, nutrients and sedimentation rates they can support (Templado et al 2009). The major threats of this biocenosis are coastal works (particularly to shallowest communities), eutrophication, pollution and to some communities grazing by sea urchins.

The Coralligenous extends on rocky and poorly illuminated substrate of all regions of the Spanish Mediterranean. The light requirements for Coraligenous communities ranges from 5 % to 0.05 % surface irradiance (Templado et al 2009). In clear waters the Coralligenous starts at 40 m water depth (e.g. Balearic Islands) while in turbid ones it is present already below 15 m (e.g. N Spanish Mediterranean, Templado et al 2009). For instance, the depth range of the Coralligenous in Medes Islands and Tossa de Mar (N Spanish Mediterranean) is 20-55 m and 20-60 m, respectively, and in Cabrera (Balearic Islands) it is present from 50 to 100 m depth (Ballesteros 2003). These communities develop in areas with low sedimentation rates (Templado et al 2009). The Coralligenous ranks amongst the most diverse and complex Mediterranean communities. Radiocarbon dating of Coralligenous structures in the NW Mediterranean revealed that these concretions develop extremely slowly ( 0.006- 0.83 mm yr-1) and can reach ages ranking from 640 ± 120 year BP and 7760 ± 80 year BP (Sartoretto et al 1996). The coraligenous rank amongst the Mediterranean communities with the highest production of Ca CO3 (Canals and Ballesteros 1997). The major threats to the Coralligenous are pollution, eutrophication, coastal works, sedimentation due both to coastal works and river discharges where rivers are nearby and diving.

In the Mediterranean, deep corals are considered relict communities and they are rapidly declining because water temperature (13 ºC) exceeds their optimal temperature range (between 4 ºC and 12 ºC, Templado et al 2009). They use to live in areas with high hydrodynamism such are submarine cannons and bathyal promontories and can become some meters high (Templado et al 2009). They form complex structures and can support high biodiversity. As all bathyal communities, the major threat to deep corals is fish trawling.

2.3. Conclusions and identification of gaps

Information about extension of the different key habitats along the Spanish Mediterranean waters is limited, in particular those occupying hard substrata and

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colonising bottoms at water depths not accessible with SCUBA diving. Similarly, conservation status of marine benthic biodiversity in the deepest range of the infralittoral, as well as that in the circalittoral and bathyal zones in the Spanish Mediterranean is largely unknown.

Despite climate change is emerging as an important threat to marine biodiversity, very little information about the effect of warming and increasing CO2 concentrations on Spanish Mediterranean marine biodiversity and the services it provides is available.

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3. Pressures and impacts

3.1. Biological disturbance

The major vector of exotic arrivals in the Mediterranean, particularly in the Eastern basin, is the Suez Canal and, in coastal lagoons, mariculture. However, ballast waters and maritime traffic are also important vectors of introcuction of exotic species in the Mediterranean. In the Spanish Mediterranean, ballast waters have been the vector of introduction of at least 17 red macroalgae species, 4 of which have invasive behaviour (Asparagopsis armata, Asparagopsis taxiformis, Lophocladia lallemandii y Womersleyella setacea, Ballesteros 2008). The oyster Crassostrea gigas has been introduced to the Spanish coasts through mariculture. Fishkeeping is another vector of introduction of exotics and invasives such is the macroalgae Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranen. Most exotic species in the Mediterranean grow above 40 m water depth (Rilov and Galil 2009).

Some invasive species may cause major disturbance to native ecosystems, particularly when invasives affect habitat structuring native species. In the Mediterranean habitat structuring species are seagrasses, macroalgae, gorgonians, corals and sponges. In the Spanish Mediterranean the invasive species that cause marine habitat loss are macroalgae (Ballesteros 2008), and major losses are recorded in the infralittoral zone.

In the Spanish Mediterranean, the invasive Lophocladia lallemandii is abundant between August and November in Posidonia oceanica meadows and infralittoral rocky shores of Formentera, Ibiza and south of Mallorca (Balearic Islands). This invasive grows epiphytically on seagrass leaves and rhizomes forming thick turfs that enhance P. oceanica mortality and decreases standing crop and shoot size underneath (Ballesteros et al 2007).

Acrothamnion preissii has invaded several Posidonia oceanica meadows of the Balearic Islands, particularly in Menorca. This invasive grows on P. oceanica rhizomes and outcompete with algae and invertebrates inhabiting the rhizomes. It is also found growing on marine rocks and caves with low light irradiance at 10-30 m water depth where it outcompetes with red algae (Ballesteros 2008).

Asparagopsis armata abounds in the region of Gibraltar Straight up to the coast of Granada down to 20 m depth and it is also present in Catalunya (Ballesteros 2008). When present, this species is the dominant one. Asparagopsis taxiformis it is present in Menorca (Balearic Islands) and Granada (Andalucia), but only occasionally exhibits an invasive behaviour (Ballesteros 2008).

Caulepra racemosa var cylindracea ranks amongst the most recent introductions in the Spanish Mediterranean. It arrived at the Balearic Islands late in the 90’s and since then it has rapidly spread. It invades all kind of benthic communities, dead P. oceanica rhizomes and the edges of P. oceanica meadows. On soft bottoms, proliferation of C. racemosa, as well as that of other Caulerpa species growing in the

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Mediterranean, enhances sulfate reduction rates and acumulation of hydrogen sulfide in the sediments (Holmer et al 2009), creating detrimental conditions for P. oceanica (Garcias-Bonet et al 2008).

Caulerpa taxifolia arrived in the Spanish Mediterranean in 1992 at Mallorca. It was present at three sites of Eastern Mallorca coast, but currently it only remains at one location and it is very sparce, growing on sand patches in between a P. oceanica meadow. It has not invaded other Spanish Mediterranean coastal area. The C taxifolia present in the Mallorca is much less invasive than that growing in France and Monaco (Ballesteros 2008).

Little is known about the little invasive Womerseleyella setacea, which grows below 20-30 m water depth on rocky shores. It first arrived at the Balearic islands in the 80’s and nowadays is also present in Catalan coasts. When present, it fully covers the substrate enhancing the mortality of many native macroalgae and suppressing growth of incrusting ones, which are key species of the habitat.

Disease outbreaks have been reported in marine ecosystems wordwide, particularly since few decades ago in tropical regions. Global warming could trigger the recent increase in disease outbreaks (Harvell et al 2002). In the North Western Mediterranean pathogenic bacteria could have been involved in the mass mortalities of the gorgonian Paramuricea clavata observed in late summers of 1999 and 2003, after seawater reached anomalous high temperatures (Bally and Garrabou 2007). Bally and Garrabou (2007) experimentally tested the pathogenic activity of Vibrio coralliilyticus strain isolated from damaged colonies of P. clavata during the 2003 mass mortality event in healthy P. clavata. The identification of V. coralliilyticus as an infectious agent for P. clavata and that it has been described as a thermodependent pathogen of tropical coral species reinforce its role in mass mortality events of P. clavata under seawater warming conditions.

3.2. Emerging issues

The increasing antropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere during the XX century are changing the Earth climate, reflected by an increase of global atmospheric temperatures of 0.6 ºC (IPCC 2007). The magnitude of atmospheric temperature rise in Spain during the XX century has been larger than that recorded globally (de Castro et al. 2005). For instance, since 1976 the atmospheric temperature in the Balearic Islands has increased by 1.5 ºC (S. Alonso, personal communication), and the maximum and minimum annual temperatures have tended to increase overall Spain (de Castro et al. 2005). The increase in atmospheric temperature is also warming the Mediterranean Sea. Seawater temperature time series available for the Spanish Mediterranean (e.g. Estartit) show a sustained increase of mean annual surface waters of 0.06 ºC yr-1 (Díaz-Almela et al 2007) and a warming rate of 0.025 ºC yr-1 of water at 80 m depth (Salat and Pascual 2002). Similarly, the number of years per decade when maximum seawater temperature exceeded the average maximum annual temperature over the last 40 years is increasing. Maximum annual seawater temperature at 5 m depth in L’Estartit

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revealed positive anomalies for 3 years during the 70s, 6 years during the 80s, 9 years during the 90s, and 3 years between 2000 and 2004. Sea level along the Spanish Mediterranean is stable or rising at an average rate of 2 ± 1 mm yr-1 during the last decades (Marbà and Duarte 1997), a trend similar to that reported for other North Mediterranean areas (Perez 2008). Sea level rise is mostly attributable to thermal expansion but in some areas also to local subsidence processes, as it occurs at the Ebro Delta (Cendero et al 2005). Rainfall in some areas of the Spanish Mediterranean, as the Balearic Islands, has tended to decrease by 16 % during the last 50 years (S. Alonso, personal communication). However, a no clear decreasing pattern in rainfall overall the Spanish Mediterranean has been demonstrated (de Castro et al. 2005).

Under the scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions A2 and B2 (CO2 global concentrations in 2100 850 ppm and 760 ppm, 120 % and about 50 % larger than that at present, respectively, IPCC 2007), global climate models forecast a relative uniform increase of temperature in Spain of, on average, 0.4 ºC decade-1 in winter and 0.7 ºC decade-1 in summer under the scenario A2, and of 0.4 ºC decade-1 in winter and 0.6 ºC decade-1 under scenario B2 (de Castro et al. 2005). Global greenhouse gas emissions and temperature, however, are increasing faster than that forecasted by the most unfavourable scenario. Since 1999, when future climate trends were projected, the observed global temperature during 4 out of 5 years exceeded those modelled. Despite discrepancies among the different global rainfall models available, all of them forecast a decrease of total annual rainfall, slightly larger under scenario A2 than B2 for 2100 (de Castro et al. 2005). The decline in precipitation is expected to be the largest during spring, and somewhat lower during summer. The frequency of extreme climatic events (heat waves, medicanes, drought/floods) during XXI century is projected to increase. Sea level along the Spanish Mediterranean coast by the end of XXI century is expected to rise about 50 cm above present one, although a rise of 1m is less probable but still possible (Cendredo et al 2005).

Changes in freshwater availability in Spanish watersheds linked to climate change also might have a significant impact to the coastal areas and transitional waters. The impact of climate change to water resources is one of the working themes of the 1st PNACC Working Programme.

Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the Spanish Mediterranean are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and an increase of exotic species arrivals. Climate change, therefore, compromises the biodiversity of Spanish marine and coastal areas, which are already threatened by the direct impacts of human pressure in the coastal and marine areas.

Impacts on low land coastal areas

The critical impacts of climate change on low land areas are related with increased frequency and/or intensity of storms, sea-level rise and, to some extend, changes in river (sediment and water) flow.

Deltas rank amongst the most vulnerable coastal areas to sea level rise. Under a scenario of 50 cm sea level rise and no increase in sedimentary river transport, 50 % of the Ebro Delta and Llobregat Delta may disappear. Similarly, other coastal low

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land areas along the Spanish Mediterranean might be impacted: about 20 km along the Manga del Mar Menor, coastal lagoons 5 km long at Cabo de Gata (Cendredo et al 2005). Some of these vulnerable low land areas are urbanised (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor, Llobregat Delta) and thus may be lost, but others that support agriculture or belong to protected areas may allow formation of new low land areas as sea front progressed inland that might compensate for losses.

It must be mentioned that most of these coastal units are already deteriorated as a consequence of urbanisation and pollution from agriculture (e.g. Albufera de Valencia), industry or human population (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor, Cendredo et al 2005). Similarly, during the last 50 years, river sedimentary inputs to deltas (e.g. Ebro Delta) have largely decreased (by 90 %, Benoit and Comeau 2005) due to dam construction, regulation and watershed reforestation, enhancing the vulnerability of these coastal structures to climate change.

Impacts on important beaches

Sea level rise is the major climate change threat for beaches. Sea level rise would involve beach erosion, resulting into a decrease of beach surface or a progressive inland movement of the beach (Fig. 3; Cendredo et al 2005). The rate of beach retreat would depend on beach characteristics. Confined and cemented beaches would be the most vulnerable ones to sea level rise (Cendredo et al 2005). Beach surface loss would increase with decreasing beach slope. Beach losses due to sea level rise would be smaller if sedimentary inputs, from rivers and sand dune systems, to the beaches would increase. However, very few Mediterranean Spanish beaches preserve the associated dune systems intact, mostly because they have been destroyed and urbanised. In some areas (Almería), the sand from dune systems has been extracted. The loss of sand dunes, together with the construction of harbours and marinas along the coast, are the main cause of present instability, and erosion, of Mediterranean beaches, as the sedimentary dune-beach transport is broken or littoral drift modified (Cendredo 2005). An acceleration of beach erosion due to human pressure is evident along the entire Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula (Mazarrón,Murcia; Carboneras, Almería; Puçol and Massalfasar, Castellón; Albufera de Valencia, Valencia; Santa Pola, Alicante). The losses of Posidonia oceanica meadows along the Spanish Mediterranean mostly occurred during the last 3 decades as a consequence of antropogenic impacts, contributed to accelerate coastal erosion. P. oceanica meadows act as marine forests, stabilising the sediments where they grow and preventing erosion. Moreover, P. oceanica meadows contribute to produce carbonate sand for adjacent beaches, since the calcareous organisms living on leaves and rhizomes, together with carbonate particles deposited on P. oceanica leaves, arrive to the beaches together with P. oceanica litter after storms.

Impacts on ecosystems, habitats, populations/biota

The impacts of climate change on marine and coastal ecosystems will be different for up-welling ecosystems or stratified areas, as well as coastal and open ocean, and it will depend on the mobility of the species.

The ecophysiological (photosynthetic capacity, growth rate) response of marine phytoplankton to increasing CO2 concentration and warming of seawater is not yet fully known. The interactions between changes in the marine environment derived

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from climate change and other factors, as nutrient availability, may constrain the phytoplankton responses. The expected increase of the stratification period, together with changes in macroscale processes (upwelling, fronts, currents) might decrease marine productivity. The increase in CO2 partial pressure could enhance productivity of benthic vegetation (seagrasses and macroalgae), as CO2 limits productivity of these populations (Anadón et al 2005). Changes in marine primary production would change consumer production and then the rest of the marine food web.

Simultaneous impacts derived from climate change threat marine and coastal species, populations and ecosystems. Coastal or shallow ecosystems are the most vulnerable ones to impacts of climate change. Sea level rise threats seagrass ecosystems, which are rooted into sediments between 0.5 m and 45 m depth, as it enhances submarine erosion and then habitat loss (Anadón et al 2005). Similarly, wetlands are also highly vulnerable to increased coastal erosion and flooding derived from sea level rise. However, if impacted coastal ecosystems were able to colonise new habitat at similar rates as the sea progressed into land, sea level rise would also provide new habitat for coastal ecosystems to expand (Duarte 2002).

The increase of seawater temperature may compromise organism survival and change species life cycle. Mass mortality events of sessile (e.g. gorgonians, scleractinians, sponges) and benthic mobile (e.g. crustaceans) species have already been observed during anomalous warm and calm periods (Pérez 2008). Similarly, the mortality rate of the seagrass Posidonia oceanica along the Balearic Islands (Spain) significantly increased after summers 2003 and 2006, the warmest summers during the period 2000 and 2007 (Marbà and Duarte 2010). High summer temperatures also enhance sexual reproduction of P. oceanica (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). A massive, never before recorded, flowering event of P. oceanica meadows across the entire Western Mediterranean Basin occurred in fall 2003 (Díaz-Almela et al 2007), the time of the year when P. oceanica flowers. The large production of sexual recruits by P. oceanica after summer 2003, however, did not compensate for the plant losses due to plant mortality (Díaz Almela et al 2009). The massive flowering of P. oceanica has been interpreted as a plant response to thermal stress (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). There is also evidence that marine diseases triggering host mortality increase during warm events (Bally and Garrabou 2007, Perez 2008).

Many benthic and pelagic marine species are expected to modify their geographic distribution as a consequence of sea thermohaline changes. The increase in seawater temperature will result in displacements of biogeographic borders of many species. The distribution of most groups of organisms will be affected, expanding the distribution ranges of southern species and retreating those of northern ones. Changes in distribution ranges of marine species in the Northern Western Mediterranean are already being observed (Laubier et al 2003). Moreover, interactions, not directly due to climate change, between new and old species are expected. The rate of changes in distribution ranges of marine populations driven by climate change may be faster or slower depending on the effect of atmosphere on marine currents and stratification.

Increasing seawater temperature may favour the settlement and spread of exotic and invasive species.

Seawater warming also would enhance respiration of marine organisms and ecosystems, increasing O2 consumption and CO2 production. The lower O2 solubility

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with increasing temperature would, in addition, decrease O2 availability in the water column. Hence, seawater warming increases the risk of hypoxic events in coastal marine systems, particularly during calm periods.

The increase of CO2 partial pressure in seawater resulting from increased atmospheric CO2 is acidifying seawater (Anadón et al 2005). The decrease in pH of seawater might lower carbonate deposition in organisms with carbonate structures such are, for instance, bivalves or corals. The forecasted CO2 concentrations for the end of XXI century (IPCC 2001) might be able to decrease enough seawater pH as to initiate carbonate dissolution in coastal waters triggering ocean CO2 absorption (Anadón et al 2005).

The most vulnerable ecosystems, therefore, are those where all mentioned impacts derived from climate (and global) change occur and those composed with long-living and slow-growing organisms. Hence, wetlands and ecosystems dominated by sessile organisms (e.g. red coral, gorgonians, sponges, Posidonia oceanica) rank among the most vulnerable ones to climate change impacts. In turn, the loss of marine and coastal vegetation may contribute to accelerate global warming, since coastal vegetation is an important ocean carbon sink (Duarte et al 2005).

Impacts on fisheries and mariculture

Climatic variability directly affects fish recruitment, a key process for fisheries. Changes in marine currents, derived from atmospheric climatic variability, may modify transport and survival of larvae and juveniles. If climate change modifies primary and secondary production, food supply for fish larvae may be limited, constraining fish recruitment and thus fish population size. Changes in seawater temperature and salinity may also impact the physiology of diadromous species. Changes in the distribution ranges due to climate changes of diadromous species have been suggested. Fish migration routes may change due to changes in prey abundance and distribution, which are related with seawater temperature. Changes in seasonal isotherm distribution might constrain fish migratory routes, and then fisheries. Marine circulation shifts may change both pelagic and benthic populations even in deep water (Anadón et al 2005).

The impacts of climate change on mariculture are not clear. Cultures that require external food supply might not be much affected by a change in productivity in the area. However, these cultures would be highly impacted by climate change if ambient temperature exceeds, or pH or O2 concentration are below, the physiological limits for the species. In addition, climate change may impact extensive mariculture activities, such are bivalve farms at the Ebro Delta, relaying on local productivity. Mariculture may be particularly vulnerable during extreme climatic events. The increase of seawater temperature could also favour the arrival and spread of mariculture parasites (Anadón et al 2005).

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4. Expert opinion on marine and coastal status and pressures and impacts on the marine and coastal biodiversity

4.1. Marine and coastal status and pressures relevant for national marine and coastal areas

Whereas the health status of the Spanish Mediterranean marine and coastal areas is, in general, good, there are multiple areas and activities of concern. Monitoring activities to establish the good ecological status of the entire Spanish Mediterranean coastline are underway under the provisions of the Water Framework Directive of the EU, however, the results are not yet available. This will be a valuable resource once the data be available, as the directive also calls for member states to report on the pressures responsible for loss of ecological quality status.

In any case, the pressures relevant for the Spanish Mediterranean marine ecosystem:

Overfishing, affecting most of the Spanish Mediterranean coast, and resulting in a loss of biomass at all trophic levels, compromising the integrity of the pelagic and benthic food webs. Trawl fisheries also has been identified as causing significant impacts to sensitive benthic habitats, including deep-water corals and seagrass meadows. Aquaculture, fish farming has been identified as a source of excess organic inputs in some regions, where the density of cages is high, resulting in damages to sensitive benthic ecosystems. Tuna aquaculture has been identified as particularly impacting as it causes acute impacts on benthic ecosystems and contributes strongly to the depletion of the already compromised tuna stock. Bivalve aquaculture produces limited impacts on the benthic ecosystem and generates some benefits due to the filtration capacity of the organisms, that may increase water clarity. Excessive inputs from land. Inputs of organic material, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and pollutants from land are causing loss of water quality, including blooms of toxic algae, loss of vulnerable benthic habitats, and - where coupled with limited water exchange - acute eutrophication and hypoxia in coastal bays. Warming of the Mediterranean sea at rates much faster than global warming rates are already affecting vulnerable species and favouring the spread of invasive species, particularly those from subtropical and tropical regions. Invasive species. Intensification of maritime transport, international trade of aquarium species, and climate change are all favouring the arrival to the Mediterranean of exotic species. Whereas most do not cause problems and some even generate benefits (e.g. by supporting commercial fisheries), some species are causing significant problems, particularly benthic species that overgrow slow-growing native species. Coastal sprawl. Coastal sprawl, intensified over the past decade along the spanish mediterranean coastline has lead to physical loss of sensitive coastal habitats in the coastline as well as alterations of sediment transport, leading to a widespread erosion of the sublittoral zone. Recreational activities. The spread of recreational boating activities has lead to a

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number of pressures, including those derived from anchors, sewage and garbage emissions and sports and recreational fishing, as well as impacts derived from the construction and operation of recreational harbours. The pressures derived from recreational activities are considerable in relation to the pressures indicated above.

4.2. Critical impacts and effects on marine and coastal biodiversity

The critical habitats and areas most directly impacted by the pressures indicated above are:

Seagrass meadows: Posidonia oceanica meadows are extremelly vulnerable to all of the pressures indicated above and are, as a consequence, on decline across the spanish mediterranean, with evidence of an accelerating loss derived from the collision of the trajectories of the multiple loss factors indicated above. These ecosystems are threatened and their future conservation is at risk.

Mid-water (> 30 m) coralline habitats: Mid-water coralline habitats are hotspots of biodiversity in the Mediterranean that are threatened by mechanical impacts derive from trawl fisheries, but also from warming of the Mediterranean waters and acidification, as many of these species are calcifying and are compromised by ocean acidification as well.

Deep-water corals: Deep-water coral ecosystems are prevalent along the spanish mediterranean coasts but have been found to be severely impacted by deep-water trawling at the time they are being explored.

Coastal lagoons and sheltered bays: coastal lagoons and sheltered bays are particularly vulnerable, because of their restricted exchange with the open coastal waters, that render these habitats particularly vulnerable to eutrophication, hypoxia and warming, resulting in, among other consequences, noxious algal blooms.

Yellow-fin tuna: Yellow fin tuna populations are threatened by excessive catches, particularly their use in aquaculture operations, which has added an additional burden to the, already high pressure from fisheries, and that has brought the stock to a state of concern.

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5. Expert opinion on related priority national needs

5.1. Needs

Information about distribution and conservation status of vulnerable marine ecosystems, habitats and species along the Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Efforts to fill this gap of knowledge are being conducted within the Natura 2000 Network. However, Natura 2000 Network only involves some vulnerable marine habitats and species. Information on the distribution and conservation status should be extended to all marine vulnerable habitats and species.

At present, the low fraction of coastal and marine area and the few key and vulnerable marine ecosystems to pressures and impacts protected are insufficient to help marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. The number of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection measures should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and they should be designed and coordinated at basin scale.

Conservation measures should extend towards preserving circalittoral and bathyal key habitats. Marine protected areas in open sea should be defined.

Trawling fisheries are the major threat to conservation of circalittoral and bathyal key ecosystems and species. This activity should be regulated.

Conservation of marine biodiversity helps climate change mitigation. Adaptive management of coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity should be promoted, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem.

Mitigation of climate change impacts Global Change, including Climate Change and the rest of changes the Earth System experiences as a result of rapid human population growth, threats the future of marine and coastal biodiversity. Reduction and mitigation of direct and diffusive anthropogenic impacts are crucial for conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.

Research towards gaining knowledge on global change impacts on oceanography and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted. Identification of tipping points and conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by global change should be emphasised. Synergies between climate change and other global change impacts to marine and coastal biodiversity should be considered.

Dissemination and training activities on impacts of global change to marine and coastal biodiversity are very few, particularly when compared with those involving terrestrial biodiversity.

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5.2. Urgent actions proposed

· Mapping of deep benthic habitats. · Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species aiming to assess their conservation status. · Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. · Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the coastal peninsular Spanish Mediterranean and in open sea (including the seafloor). · Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. · Increase dissemination and training actions on impacts (including climate change) and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. · Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems · Set the legal frame to regulate trawling fisheries activity on key deep marine ecosystems. · Introduce best practices for sustainable aquaculture

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6. Funding problems and opportunities

6.1. Regular national sources, potentially available

The regular national funding sources for research projects in Spain are:

Ministry of Science and Innovation. Since 1988, it lunches a National Plan for Research of 4 years duration where priority research areas (http://www.plannacionalidi.es/plan-idi-public/), strategies and types of calls (fundamental research, applied research, transfer of knowledge to enterprises, etc) are defined. Regular research projects usually extend for 3 years. It also funds large projects (Consolider) of 5-6 years duration within the program Ingenio 2010 (http://www.ingenio2010.es/). Calls are open annually. The National Research, Development and Innovation Programme contains an Strategic Action entitled “Energy and Climate Change”, with a subprogram focussing on climate change mitigation – not energy-, climate observation and adaptation to climate change, which objectives may include climate change and marine biodiversity. Ministry of Environment, and Rural and Marine Affairs. It funds research projects aiming at Contamination prevention, Management and Sustainable use of natural resources and National Parks research (http://www.mapa.es/es/ministerio/pags/ayudas_subvenciones/ayudas_subvencione s.htm). The duration of the projects is 3 years and calls are open annually. Governments of Mediterranean Autonomies (Generalitat de Catalunya, Govern de les Illes Balears, Generalitat Valenciana, Autonomic Community of Murcia Region, Junta de Andalucía). All governments have research plans funding research projects of duration ranging between 1 and 3 years. In addition the Environment Department of these governments are responsible to implement the European Water Frame directive and, thus, they fund surveys to assess continental and marine water quality.

6.2. Other (private, public, partnership) sources

Biodiversity Foundation (http://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es). Since 2005. Calls open annually. AXA Foundation (http://researchfund.axa.com/en/). International projects.

6.3. International funds, projects, programmes

European Commission. It funds several programs (FP7 programme, LIFE, INTERREG, INCO, ERA-net, COST) containing several calls to conduct collaborative research between institutions of different EU (and non EU) countries (http://cordis.europa.eu/). Funded projects extend for 3 to 4 years.

All listed institutions and foundations have research programmes funding research on climate change and biodiversity. However, the fraction of funding allocated to research on marine biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research across EU and

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non-EU countries, activities to promote collaborative research across north and southern Mediterranean countries should increase. Current programmes fund research projects of a maximum of 5 year duration, which is insufficient to support long-term monitoring programmes.

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7. Conclusions and recommendations

The Spanish Mediterranean hosts a high number of species, some of them endangered, and of key marine habitats. Information about extension of the different key habitats along the Spanish Mediterranean waters is limited, in particular those occupying hard substrata and colonising bottoms at water depths not accessible with SCUBA diving. Similarly, conservation status of marine benthic biodiversity in the deepest range of the infralittoral, as well as that in the circalittoral and bathyal zones in the Spanish Mediterranean is largely unknown. Efforts to fill this gap of knowledge are being conducted within the Natura 2000 Network and the Water Frame Directive. However, Natura 2000 Network only involves some vulnerable marine habitats and species and the assessment of ecological status of marine waters by the Water Frame Directive is restricted to coastal waters. The Marine Strategy would help to get information on the distribution and conservation status of all marine vulnerable habitats and species.

The major pressures threatening the Spanish Mediterranean biodiversity are overfishing (including trawling), aquaculture, excessive inputs from land, global warming, biological invasions, coastal sprawl and pressures derived from recreational activities (mechanical damage from anchors, sewage and garbage emissions and sports and recreational fishing, as well as impacts derived from the construction and operation of recreational harbours).

The critical habitats and areas most directly impacted by the pressures indicated above are seagrass meadows, mid-water (> 30 m) coralline habitats, deep-water corals and coastal lagoons and sheltered bays. Among fish stocks, yellow fin tuna populations are threatened by excessive catches, particularly since their use in aquaculture operations, which has added an additional burden to the, already high pressure from fisheries, and that has brought the stock to a state of concern.

Hence the following actions are recommended:

· Mapping of deep benthic habitats. · Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species aiming to assess their conservation status. · Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species. · Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the coastal peninsular Spanish Mediterranean and in open sea (including the seafloor). · Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change. · Increase dissemination and training actions on global change impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.

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· Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems · Set the legal frame to regulate trawling fisheries activity on key deep marine ecosystems. · Introduce best practices for sustainable aquaculture

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