© 2017 American Psychological Association 2017, Vol. 31, No. 8, 981–1002 0894-4105/17/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000395

Neuropsychology’s Social Landscape: Common Ground With Social

Miriam H. Beauchamp University of Montreal and Ste-Justine Hospital Research Center, Montreal, Canada

Looking back 25 years into neuropsychology’s past coincides almost perfectly with the birth of as a discipline. Social neuroscience aims to identify the biological bases of social through multilevel analyses of neural, cognitive, and social processes. Neuropsychology, on the other hand, aspires to understand -behavior relationships more generally. Given that much of behavior comprises social interactions, the goals, theories, methods, and findings derived from social neuroscience are likely to have bearing on the issues and interests of neuropsychologists. This review summarizes some of the main developments that have emerged from social neuroscience and their relevance to neuropsychology. Applications of social neuroscience principles are presented in the context of brain insult, assessment, and intervention. Recommendations are made for improving neuropsycho- logical approaches to the evaluation of social and competence. In closing, a discussion of the challenges and possible future directions for the 2 disciplines is offered.

General Scientific Summary Neuropsychology and social neuroscience share some common goals and methods. In this review, the contributions of social neuroscience to neuropsychological research and practice are considered and applications of social neuroscience findings to the study of brain disorders, assessment, and intervention are discussed, alongside recommendations for the joint evolution of the 2 disciplines.

Keywords: neuropsychology, social neuroscience, , behavior, assessment

Humans are a uniquely social species and as such, an over- in turn led to an appreciation for the cognitive skills it subsumes whelming proportion of our behavioral manifestations have to do and an interest in describing “Social Cognition” in typical devel- with social interaction and navigating social environ- opment, as well as in the context of acquired, developmental, and ments. Neuropsychologists have observed and reported social and degenerative brain insult. This shift toward understanding and emotional disturbance throughout the history of the discipline, quantifying social cognition and leads to a though until relatively recently, neuropsychological theories and number of questions for experimental and clinical neuropsycholo- methods have focused mainly on defining core cognitive functions gists. What and how can social neuroscience contribute to neuro- such as , , and executive skills. In the last 25 ? Do fundamental social neuroscience discoveries have years, the field of neuropsychology has become increasingly fo- practical utility within neuropsychology? What does neuropsy- cused on brain-behavior relationships within the social realm. This chology have to gain from social neuroscience? And what does the recent emphasis has likely stemmed from the emergence of social future hold for the joint evolution of these two disciplines? neuroscience as a discipline, from an interest in furthering our This review seeks to summarize major discoveries in social understanding of the social manifestations of brain disorders such neuroscience and describe their importance for neuropsychology.

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedas publishers. , and from the assertion that social and affective pro- It does not presume to do justice to the rich history of either

This article is intended solely for the personal use ofcesses the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. and can be reliably linked to specialized brain discipline, and detailed accounts of each would be beyond the networks. These discoveries pertaining to the “Social Brain” have scope of a single article. Thus, in many instances, the reader is referred to existing reviews of relevant topics. The present article includes references to both affective and social–cognitive pro- This work was supported by a Fonds de la recherché en santé du Québec cesses insomuch as they relate to social functioning, recognizing career fellowship to Miriam H. Beauchamp. The author is grateful for the that while there is considerable overlap between social and emo- constructive comments provided by Keith Yeates and Lyn Turkstra on a tional functioning and their neural substrates (Adolphs & Ander- preliminary version of the manuscript. Thank you to Cindy Beaudoin, son, 2013; Barrett & Satpute, 2013), the two cannot simply be Anne Seni and Catherine Landry-Roy for their assistance with the content equated and that constitutes its own sub- and preparation of the boxes and figures. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Miriam H. discipline within the (see Davidson & Sutton, 1995; Beauchamp, Department of Psychology, University of Montreal and Ste- Verweij et al., 2015). Similarly, the longstanding tradition of Justine Hospital Research Center, C.P. 6128 Succursale Centre-Ville, Mon- neuropsychological investigation of mood disorders and socio- tréal, Québec, Canada H3C 3J7. E-mail: [email protected] emotional manifestations within developmental, acquired, or de-

981 982 BEAUCHAMP

generative conditions should not be overlooked (Anderson, neuroscience” was coined by J. T. Cacioppo and Bernston (1992) Bechara, Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio, 1999; Beblo, Sinnamon, & to define an “interdisciplinary field devoted to understanding how Baune, 2011; Borod, 2000; Eslinger, Flaherty-Craig, & Benton, biological systems implement social processes and behavior” (J. T. 2004; Stuss & Levine, 2002; Suchy, 2011); the focus here is on Cacioppo et al., 2010, p. 5). An in-depth examination of the social and affective topics in the context of the emergence and history, definition, and innovations of social neuroscience as a evolution of social neuroscience. The aim, therefore, is to explore discipline is provided by Matusall and colleagues (2011),inthe the associations between social neuroscience and neuropsychology highly relevant Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience. Al- by describing the major advances of the former, and to reflect on though social neuroscience feeds directly on aspects of interest to their potential for advancing experimental and clinical neuropsy- social , such as intrapersonal processes (e.g., social chology, in particular with respect to the study of brain disorders , social cognition) and interpersonal and group pro- and the development of assessment and intervention methods. cesses (e.g., social interaction and influence), it is distinguishable Challenges are described and future directions are proffered to by its emphasis on biological factors of influence rather than stimulate reflection on the positive influences the two disciplines situational and dispositional factors. The field is characterized by can have on one another. its multilevel, integrative approach, which requires consideration of both social and biological levels of organization to understand Neuropsychology and Social Neuroscience’s Silver social phenomena. Ochsner and Lieberman (2001) subsequently Anniversary: 25 Years of Common Ground coined the term “social ” to define an in- terdisciplinary approach that integrates knowledge across social, Neuropsychology “seeks to understand the relationship between cognitive, and neural levels. Whether social cognitive neurosci- the brain and behavior, that is, it attempts to explain the way in ence constitutes a subspeciality or a distinct research field is which the activity of the brain is expressed in observable behavior” debatable, but regardless of its source and traditions, social cog- (Beaumont, 2008, p. 4). Details of the evolution of the discipline nitive neuroscience is of special importance to neuropsychology are provided elsewhere (e.g., Beaumont, 2008; Puente, 1989), but because of its focus on human social cognition. Despite its short some of its founding principles are worth highlighting because of history, the field has evolved rapidly, with countless position their relevance to social neuroscience and its methods. For in- articles published on its evolution and the challenges and future of stance, localizationist theory emerged in the 1860s from the study the field (e.g., Adolphs, 2003a, 2010; Blakemore, Winston, & of patients with brain lesions and associated psychological deficits, Frith, 2004; J. T. Cacioppo, 2002; Lieberman, 2012; Ochsner, and led to the practice of mapping brain-behavior relationships, a 2004; Singer, 2012). Its exponential growth as a discipline is focus that initially defined neuropsychology and that contributed further reflected in the emergence of subfields, including social to its recognition as a discipline in the 1940s (Ruff, 2003). Nota- cognitive neuroscience, social affective neuroscience, cultural neu- bly, the practice of inferring brain-behavior relations was in place roscience, computational social neuroscience, social developmen- well before the era of and created ties between tal neuroscience, and comparative social neuroscience. neuropsychology and behavioral because of their sim- Looking back 25 years into neuropsychology’s past coincides ilar goals. From this followed the development of batteries of tests almost perfectly with the birth of social neurosciences in the early designed to assess a broad range of cognitive and behavioral 1990s. At the time, neuropsychologists may not have appreciated functions and that remain today one of the main tools that clinical the full potential of social neuroscience for their own research or neuropsychology relies on to provide comprehensive descriptions practice, as many were primarily focused on core cognitive sys- of functioning across a variety of brain insults. The notion that the tems such as memory processes and reading. Yet, in the 1980s, brain is reliably organized has also spurred the emergence of conceptual frameworks from were already experimental neuropsychology as a subdiscipline concerned with being applied to neuropsychology and transferred to neuroscience more fundamental descriptions of human performance and its (Cooper & Shallice, 2010). In a position article on the future of associated structural and functional underpinnings in the brain. neuropsychology, Costa (1983) had the foresight to present a Traditionally, neuropsychology has harvested theories and discov- heuristic conception of the field of neuropsychology and related eries via cross-fertilization with a range of other disciplines, in- disciplines, in which the neurosciences and their biological influ- cluding , , neurology, cognitive psychology, ences appear, suggesting that the interface between the two should This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. speech-language , and more recently, neuroscience, with be permeable. And indeed, by the 1990s, neuropsychology was This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. a particular focus on understanding cognitive performance and already closely linked with behavioral and cognitive neuroscience. behavior in core functional domains such as attention, memory, The former similarly focused on brain-behavior relations, albeit executive functioning, sensory perception, and language. How- from a more experimental standpoint, while the latter, formed of ever, as current conceptions of brain organization and function and the union of , systems neurosciences, and their associated behavioral manifestations continue to evolve, neu- cognitive neuropsychology, was gaining momentum with the ad- ropsychology must increasingly rely on the contributions of an vent of the first functional positron tomography studies even broader range of disciplines, within which social neurosci- (e.g., Fox & Raichle, 1984; Roland, Meyer, Shibasaki, Yamamoto, ence figures prominently. & Thompson, 1982) measuring functional activations during cog- Social neuroscience seeks to “specify the neural, hormonal, nitive processing (Cooper & Shallice, 2010). Clearly, when social cellular, and genetic mechanisms underlying , and neuroscience emerged in the early 1990s, its association with in so doing to understand the reciprocal associations and influ- neuropsychology reflected diverse influences, which together ences between social and biological levels of organization” (J. T. wove a complex tapestry of disciplinary perspectives. Figure 1 Cacioppo, Berntson, & Decety, 2010, p. 3). The term “social proposes a visual representation of the rich and varied influences NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 983

from a wide range of disciplines on the common “social ground” Major Developments in Social Neuroscience and Their between neuropsychology and social neuroscience. Relevance to Neuropsychology Though social neuroscience has the shorter history of the two The field of social neuroscience is rife with pivotal findings and disciplines, major developments over its 25-year span have signif- advances during its relatively short history. The following albeit icant relevance for neuropsychology across the life span, both modest summary of social neuroscience discoveries highlights fundamentally and practically, and have led to new directions in milestones that are especially relevant to neuropsychology. experimental and . While recent articles have highlighted the implications of social neuroscience for vari- ous disciplines, such as cognitive neuroscience (Ochsner & Lieber- The Social Brain man, 2001), (J. T. Cacioppo et al., 2010; At the heart of social neuroscience is the notion that Ochsner & Lieberman, 2001; Todorov, Harris, & Fiske, 2006), have a “Social Brain,” that is, an identifiable network of neural (J. T. Cacioppo, Cacioppo, Dulawa, & Palmer, 2014), structures involved in the processing of social stimuli, signals, and (Levallois, Clithero, Wouters, Smidts, & Huettel, skills (Adolphs, 2009). The Social Brain Hypothesis was initially 2012), social work (Matto & Strolin-Goltzman, 2010), and anthro- put forward to explain the fact that primates have extraordinary pology (Northoff, 2010), surprisingly little has been said about its large and complex compared with other vertebrates, and that implications for neuropsychology, despite their similar goals of their brain structure and size is likely to be the result of their explaining brain-behavior connections. The following sections evolution within unusually complex social systems (Adolphs, therefore aim to highlight major developments in social neurosci- 2009; Dunbar, 2009). In 1990, Brothers and colleagues suggested ence that have direct relevance to neuropsychology, as well as to that there was a circumscribed network of brain regions dedicated describe the application of social neuroscience findings to the to social processing in primates. Initial evidence for the social study of brain disorders and to assessment and intervention ap- brain came mainly from the study of monkeys and pointed to the proaches within neuropsychology. and orbital frontal cortex as key candidates responsible for social behavior (Brothers et al., 1990; Kling & Brothers, 1992; Raleigh & Steklis, 1981). With the arrival of increasingly sophisticated neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), at the dawn of social neuroscience in the 1990s, these initial ideas grounded in comparative neuroscience then morphed into an overwhelming number of studies outlining the structures that underlie various aspects of social information pro- cessing. These studies have sought to answer the question of whether particular brain regions are specialized for social- cognitive and affective skills in humans. Gradually, research has identified a variety of additional areas in the social brain, including the , temporo-parietal junction, temporal poles, medial , anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and insula, culminating in a consistent neural network broadly associated with social and affective processes (Adolphs, 2003b, 2009; Frith, 2007). Kennedy and Adolphs (2012) provide a particularly detailed rendering of the social brain, based not only on the ubiquitous neuroimaging studies pertaining to the neural substrates of social processing, but also on neuropsychological methods and lesion studies (see Figures 2 and 3). Figure 1. Common disciplinary ground between neuropsychology and Some representations of the social brain network also include This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedsocial publishers. neuroscience. The shared goal of understanding social processes is reference to the “mirror neuron system” (MNS). The MNS was

This article is intended solely for the personal use ofrepresented the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. by the overlapping circles with the intersection of the two suggesting their joint evolution in the last 25 years. The direct influence of first discovered through studies of monkey motor action, which parent disciplines (Psychology, Neuroscience) and their subdisciplines on found that neurons in the premotor cortex of one monkey reacted Neuropsychology and Social neuroscience is represented in the vertical when they observed another monkey performing an action (di axis and by the broad gray boxes and arrows. Other proximal influences Pellegrino, Fadiga, Fogassi, Gallese, & Rizzolatti, 1992; Gallese, from Medicine and Biology are represented on the left (more clinical) and Fadiga, Fogassi, & Rizzolatti, 1996). This work was extended to right (more fundamental) and by their continuous connections with Psy- humans, in whom brain regions with properties similar to the chology and Neuroscience. More distal influences from social sciences and monkey MNS have been identified (Fadiga, Fogassi, Pavesi, & humanities (Philosophy, Anthropology, and Sociology) intersect the area Rizzolatti, 1995; Gangitano, Mottaghy, & Pascual-Leone, 2004 between Psychology and Biology. Potential clinical collaborations with applied health disciplines intersect the area between the two more applied 2004; Hamilton & Grafton, 2006; Iacoboni et al., 1999; Rizzolatti domains of Medicine and Psychology. Clinical psyc ϭ ; & Craighero, 2004). Interest in the MNS then grew beyond motor DVPTL ϭ developmental; EXPTL ϭ experimental; OT ϭ occupational research, with the premise that mirror neurons might play a role in ; SLP ϭ speech-language pathology. See the online article for the social cognition because of their potential to provide information color version of this figure. on others’ goals and intentions (Kaplan & Iacoboni, 2006; Rizzo- 984 BEAUCHAMP

Figure 2. Representation of the social brain structures, as proposed by Kennedy and Adolphs (2012). From “The Social Brain in Psychiatric and Neurological Disorders,” by D. P. Kennedy and R. Adolphs, 2012, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, p. 561. Copyright 2012 by Elsevier. Reprinted with permission. See the online article for the color version of this figure.

latti & Fabbri-Destro, 2008). While this conjecture has met with social–cognitive skills (Kennedy & Adolphs, 2012). Each struc- criticism on the part of cautious not to attribute ture within the network has since been studied separately to functions to a mirror-like system whose existence had not yet been elucidate its role and association with specific aspects of social proven (see e.g., Dinstein, 2008; Heyes, 2010; Hickok, 2009; cognition (Saxe, 2006). The results of these investigations point to Rizzolatti & Sinigaglia, 2010), there is some support for the notion networks within networks. For example, there is remarkable con- that this mirroring system could play a role in high-level social– sistency across a range of modalities and methodologies evoking cognitive functions and that it develops progressively in the human activity in the medial prefrontal cortex, superior temporal sulcus, brain (Bonini, 2016; Bonini & Ferrari, 2011; Keysers & Gazzola, temporoparietal junction, and temporal poles in association with a 2009; Marshall & Meltzoff, 2011; Shaw & Czekoova, 2013; wide variety of theory of tasks (Bellerose, Beauchamp, & Woodward & Gerson, 2014). Lassonde, 2011; Blakemore, 2008; Frith & Frith, 2006; Gallagher Individually, the roles of brain regions implicated in the social & Frith, 2003). Similarly, ample evidence exists for a network of brain are not limited to social cognition; however, a reliable brain regions underlying , including the anterior cingulate literature demonstrates their joint activation and association with cortex, parts of the somatosensory cortex, anterior insula, and the This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Figure 3. Representation of the social brain networks, as proposed by Kennedy and Adolphs (2012). From “The Social Brain in Psychiatric and Neurological Disorders,” by D. P. Kennedy and R. Adolphs, 2012, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, p. 561. Copyright 2012 by Elsevier. Reprinted with permission. See the online article for the color version of this figure. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 985

MNS (Bufalari, Aprile, Avenanti, Di Russo, & Aglioti, 2007; terization can be further compared with the social neuroscience Cheng, Yang, Lin, Lee, & Decety, 2008; Hein & Singer, 2008; view of social cognition, which places it somewhere between Iacoboni, 2009; Jackson, Meltzoff, & Decety, 2006). Other aspects and social behavior and sees it as “the ability to of higher order social cognition, such as moral reasoning and recognize, manipulate and behave with respect to socially relevant decision making, elicit a further subset of social brain regions, information (. . . and) requires neural systems that process percep- including the anterior cingulate, orbital, frontopolar and ventrome- tion of social signals and that connect such perception to motiva- dial cortices, temporoparietal junction, amygdala, and posterior tion, emotion, and adaptive behavior.” (Adolphs, 2001, p. 231). In cingulate, a system itself designated as the “Moral Brain” (Case- this view, social cognition is seen as directing automatic and beer, 2003; Garrigan, Adlam, & Langdon, 2016; Greene, Sommer- volitional behavior and participating in broader cognitive functions ville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001; Moll, Zahn, de Oliveira- necessary for adapted social functioning, such as memory, Souza, Krueger, & Grafman, 2005). decision-making, and attention. This notion that social cognition The relevance of the social brain to neuropsychology lies in the and behavior may occur both explicitly and implicitly has fueled rich history of the discipline in localizing function and describing many conceptual and empirical works in social neuroscience (see brain-behavior associations. While neuropsychology should not be Frith & Frith, 2008, for a review). Finally, Happé, Cook, and Bird reduced to the science of localization (Ruff, 2003), knowing that (2017, p. 247) propose an even broader stance, highlighting that social–cognitive processes can be traced back to reliable neural ultimately “any cognitive process may be called into the service of networks provides assurance that (a) disruptions to the brain, understanding social agents and social interactions,” an idea that whether acquired, developmental, or degenerative, can bring about reflects Beauchamp and Anderson’s (2010) position that even core observable changes in social–cognitive skills and social behavior; cognitive processes, such as attention and memory, may contribute and that (b) these changes can potentially be detected and de- to the perception and production of appropriate social behavior. scribed using neuropsychological assessments and conceivably be Regardless of one’s preferred definition, ultimately, the linking improved through intervention. Efforts to document the social of social function to brain function has allowed us to bring together brain have also contributed a conceptual perspective, by providing a range of basic and complex skills related to the perception, neuropsychologists with a way to articulate differences between recognition, processing of, and reacting to, social stimuli under the or general aspects of cognition and social actions. umbrella term of social cognition. Seen through the lens of neu- ropsychology, the proposed definitions all resonate with an interest Social Cognition in depicting brain-behavior connections, because each speaks to the puzzle pieces necessary for understanding social manifesta- Social cognition is certainly not a new , nor one that has tions and their underlying cultural, cognitive, and neural origins. arisen in the last 25 years; it has a longer history than social More importantly, however, social cognition must be differenti- neuroscience, stemming from social psychology. One could even ated from more general cognition. As highlighted by Fiske and argue that because social psychology has always relied on cogni- Taylor (2013), people, as compared with objects, are much more tive , social cognition is as old as social psychology itself. difficult to perceive, reflect on, and draw conclusions about. For Formal research on social cognition began in the early 1970s and neuropsychologists, this distinction carries significant weight in focused mainly on attribution theories, or how people explain their orienting experimental investigations, as well as in and own and others’ behavior (Fiske & Taylor, 2013). However, social interpreting formal assessments of social cognition. Social stimuli cognition has taken on a new image and purpose since the advent require more inferential processes, are often abstract, dynamic, of social neuroscience, possibly because of the association be- complex, and more subject to experiential, environmental, and tween social–cognitive processes and reliable patterns of brain cultural influences. Compare, for example, the act of evaluating activity. The connection between the social brain and social cog- selective visual attention using a straightforward test of visual nition has brought about new definitions of the term and propelled cancellation to assessing moral reasoning and decision-making by social cognition into prominence within neuropsychology. presenting a social scene composed of multiple individuals, each Definitions of social cognition are typically shaped by the with distinct affective and mental states, interacting in a situation disciplines from which they have evolved. For example, a descrip- that poses a challenge to beliefs about the way to behave in society. tion born out of social psychology places emphasis on the percep- Further issues in the assessment of social cognition are taken up in This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tion and understanding of other people, defining social cognition more detail in the Assessment section below. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. within the realm of mental state representations and : “Social cognition is the study of how people make of Developmental Social Neuroscience other people and themselves. It focuses on how ordinary people think and feel about people—and on how they think they think and A number of subspecialities have arisen from advancements in feel about people” (Fiske & Taylor, 2013, p. 1). This description social neuroscience in the past 25 years. Among these, develop- can be contrasted with the broader and more cognitive definition mental social neuroscience is arguably an important focus for proposed by Scourfield, Martin, Lewis, and McGuffin (1999,p. neuropsychology because of its contribution to our understanding 559), which refers to the mental processes that are used to perceive of normative social–cognitive development across the life cycle. and process social cues, stimuli, and environments, a definition Developmental social neuroscience aims to closer to that of “social ” (Crick & Dodge, . . . measure neurobehavioral functioning at multiple times during the 1994): “Those aspects of higher cognitive function which underlie life span, in order to understand the origins and history of this smooth social interactions by understanding and processing inter- functioning as it unfolds in the context of complex, adaptive interac- personal cues and planning appropriate responses.” This charac- tions involving genes and environment, individual differences and 986 BEAUCHAMP

social conventions, and conscious and unconscious processes (. . .) cognition. The findings of developmental social neuroscience may (Zelazo & Paus, 2010, p. 417). plausibly have a similar impact on neuropsychology, in that they provide clinicians with a basis for establishing normative expec- The emergence of this subdiscipline is remarkable in that it has tations for assessment of social cognition. They also indicate that, provided a powerful combination of approaches and methods from as with more general aspects of cognition, we are faced with a developmental and social psychology, as well as from compara- changing landscape of social functioning over time and, therefore, tive, cognitive, and social neuroscience, to enhance our under- need to keep expectations in line with both biological (hormonal standing of how the social brain and social cognition develop development, brain development) and environmental (changing during sensitive periods of social change, such as infancy and peer groups and influences, increasingly complex social responsi- adolescence. A special issue of Social Neuroscience (2010, vol- bilities) aspects of social development. Steinberg’s (2008) work in ume 5, issue 5–6) highlights a number of key findings and features this area has pioneered efforts to better understand risky and multiple methods (animal studies, EEG/ERP, and fMRI) to de- reckless social behavior in adolescence by showing that risk-taking scribe the evolution of social processes from infancy through increases between childhood and adolescence because of puberty- adulthood and normal aging (e.g., social , object- related changes in the brain’s social-emotional system. These directed action, peer acceptance and rejection, prosocial behavior, changes include alterations to the brain’s dopaminergic system, as empathy, emotion regulation, and facial expressions). well as structural and functional changes in the prefrontal cortex, One of the main focuses of developmental social neuroscience which lead to increased reward-seeking (Steinberg, 2008). These has been on the adolescent social brain. Work in this area has findings also have bearing on clinical practice because the estab- shown that the social brain and its associated cognitive skills lishment of appropriate is associated with and continue to mature through adolescence and well into adulthood academic performance (Blakemore, 2012; Blakemore, Burnett, & (Blakemore, 2008; Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006; Kilford, Gar- Dahl, 2010), functional domains of relevance to neuropsycholo- rett, & Blakemore, 2016). The study of the development of theory gists hoping to make impactful recommendations for youth. of mind, for example, has a rich history indicating stepwise pro- Finally, developmental social neuroscience is not limited to gression from infancy through early childhood (Wellman, Cross, work in emotion processing and theory of mind, nor is it con- & Watson, 2001). More recently, however, compelling evidence strained to the period of adolescence. A great deal of ongoing work has emerged showing that theory of mind continues to evolve aims to better understand the ontogenetic development of other during adolescence (Blakemore, 2012). In fact, regardless of the social–cognitive skills (e.g., morality see Cowell & Decety, 2015; type of task used, studies show that activity in the medial prefron- empathy see Tousignant, Eugene, & Jackson, 2016) and is likely to tal cortex decreases between adolescence and adulthood, suggest- influence the work of neuropsychologists wishing to understand ing that theory of mind continues to evolve during this critical time and assess social cognition and behavior. In this sense, “develop- in development by way of changes in cognitive strategy or as a ment” is not limited to childhood and adolescence, but encom- result of neuroanatomical maturation (Blakemore, 2008, 2012). passes adulthood and aging more generally (see Kensinger & A second major finding in the area of developmental social Gutchess, 2017). neuroscience involves data from fMRI studies of emotion process- ing (see special issue of SCAN, 2012, volume 7, as well as reviews by Ahmed, Bittencourt-Hewitt, & Sebastian, 2015; Guyer, Silk, & Social Theories and Models Nelson, 2016). These studies have established that the amygdala is The rapid progression of work in social neuroscience over the particularly reactive to facial expressions and during past 25 years has already stimulated the creation of a variety of adolescence compared with childhood and adulthood (Pfeifer & theoretical and empirical models of social cognition and social Blakemore, 2012). Longitudinal neuroimaging studies have ex- development. These models are useful to both neuroscientists and panded on these findings by showing that, unlike many cortical neuropsychologists in that they provide conceptual frameworks areas involved in social cognition, subcortical areas (such as the that can organize information on the social brain and its processes. amygdala) show more variable activation (Crone & Elzinga, They also offer a basis for testing predictions about the associa- 2015). These areas are, therefore, to be more susceptible to tions between social functions and their determinants in both individual differences, such as hormonal influences associated experimental and clinical settings. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. with pubertal development (see Crone & Elzinga, 2015, for a Predating the dawn of social neuroscience, Crick and Dodge This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. review). The relevance of these findings for neuropsychology lies (1994) elaborated the Social Information Processing Model (for a in their ability to inform us about the social brain’s sensitivity to review of other earlier models see Erdley, Rivera, Shepherd, & environmental influences, highlighting the need to adapt our prac- Holleb, 2010). While not grounded directly in neuroscientific tice to the individual needs of patients based on important factors evidence, the model is immediately relevant in that it provided of influence on social functioning. hypotheses on how social information is managed in sequential The impact of findings concerning the linear and nonlinear cognitive stages (encoding, representation, response search, re- effects of social brain maturation can be likened to seminal studies sponse decision, and enactment), culminating in a behavioral re- showing the protracted development of the frontal lobes and as- sponse to a social situation. Subsequent iterations (Arsenio & sociated (Casey, Galvan, & Hare, 2005; Lemerise, 2004; Lemerise & Arsenio, 2000) incorporate emotion Giedd, 2008; Mills, Lalonde, Clasen, Giedd, & Blakemore, 2014; processing into the model, emphasizing the importance of affective Romine & Reynolds, 2005), a discovery that has had a lasting dimensions in social decision-making. Somewhat later, two social impact on our understanding of adolescent behavior and has dras- models derived from fMRI studies emerged directly from the tically changed our and expectations of adolescent social neuroscience literature. The first, proposed by Adolphs NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 987

(2009), shows that the processes and brain regions related to genetic aspects of social behavior by explaining social phenotypes emotion and empathic simulation are distinct from, yet comple- through proximate (e.g., brain development, gene expression) and mentary, to those associated with , biological mo- ultimate (e.g., genetic drift, natural selection) processes (Blumstein tion, and theory of mind. The second, by Ochsner (2008),isa et al., 2010). Koscik and Tranel (2012) contribute to this interdis- diagrammatic illustration of the relationship between five core ciplinary dialogue between comparative neuroscience and neuro- abilities underlying social and emotional behavior (acquisition of psychology by introducing the Inferential Brain Hypothesis, a social-affective values and responses, recognizing and responding theoretical proposal regarding human brain evolution that they to social affective stimuli, embodied simulation/low-level mental hypothesize may relate to human social behavior: “social process- state inference, high-level mental state inference, and context- ing has shifted from a process of perceptual evaluation, whereby sensitive regulation). The aim of this framework is not only to evaluations were dependent on intrinsic properties of stimuli, to organize fundamental research on the neural bases of social- inferential computation, where information is extracted or inferred cognitive and affective behavior, but also to provide a translational from stimuli independent of the intrinsic properties of the stimuli” medium for applying social neuroscience principles to clinical (p. 395). The authors suggest that this model may explain the populations (Ochsner, 2008), a goal akin to that of neuropsycholo- development of larger, more powerful brains in humans (cf. social gists wishing to understand social dysfunction in their clients and brain hypothesis; Byrne, 1996; Dunbar, 1998) and provide some patients. comparative data in support of their proposal, though they ac- Three further models of social cognition and development are knowledge that testing this hypothesis would benefit from further relevant to neuropsychology because they draw on both social collaborative expertise and empirical work. While not as immedi- neuroscience and psychology and attempt to explain the factors ately relevant to human neuropsychology, such integrative models that influence social competence by reference to neural, cognitive, have the potential to be translated to research findings in human and environmental substrates. The heuristic model developed by social cognition by providing biological models of social behavior Yeates et al. (2007) is directly applicable to children with brain to test treatment strategies for psychopathologies or brain insult. disorders and builds on principles of social information processing Each of these models accounts for social cognition and social research to show how cognitive skills determine social interaction development in unique ways and has value for neuropsychologists. styles (e.g., affiliative, aggressive, and withdrawn) and social The strength of more fundamental models (e.g., Adolphs, 2009; adjustment (self perceptions, perceptions of others), while also Ochsner, 2008) is that they provide information on the hierarchical being subject to insult-related risk and resilience factors (e.g., type relation between more basic social and affective processing (e.g., of insult, injury severity), and noninsult factors (e.g., reward learning) and high-level mental inferences (e.g., theory of style, family functioning, socioeconomic status [SES]). mind). These models may also be useful for stimulating the cre- Beauchamp and Anderson (2010) similarly propose a biopsy- ation of new standardized measurement tools to capture constructs chosocial model that describes the biological underpinnings (e.g., for which clinical resources are currently absent or limited (e.g., brain development and integrity) and social–cognitive skills that standardized tests of ). Biopsychosocial models underlie social competence, as well as the internal (e.g., tempera- (e.g., M. H. Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010; Cassel, McDonald, ment, , and physical attributes) and external (e.g., cul- Kelly, & Togher, 2016) may have more immediate value for ture, SES, and family) factors that mediate social functioning in clinical neuropsychologists in that they outline processes for which both healthy and clinical populations (SOCIAL: Socio-Cognitive there exist some validated social assessment tools (e.g., emotion Integration of Aptitudes Model). In their conception, three cogni- perception, theory of mind, and social communication), and serve tive domains are critical for adequate social functioning. The first as a reminder of what individual and environmental factors should refers to general cognitive processes related to attention and ex- be documented during background clinical interviews or using ecutive function, the second relates to social communication, and global measures of social competence. the third encompasses specific sociocognitive and affective skills such as , intent attribution, theory of mind, Applying Social Neuroscience Principles to the empathy, and moral reasoning. The components are believed to Practice of Neuropsychology interact dynamically to determine a person’s social competence, and changes at any level of the model are liable to result in The major developments in social neuroscience described pre- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. alterations to social cognition and social functioning more gener- viously are fundamentally interesting in and of themselves, and This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ally (e.g., brain disorders, lower SES, poor cognitive skills, etc.). have value for neuropsychologists who wish to understand the Cassel and colleagues (2016) present a further biopsychosocial origins of social cognition and behavior. However, these discov- framework of the factors plausibly involved in social cognition. eries become of even greater relevance for the field because they The model details the broad range of processes that may be provide a rationale for establishing normative models of social involved, from the initial perceptual and attentional stages of competence, which can then be used to explain how social behav- orienting to social cues to the generation of a response to a social ior breaks down in various brain disorders. situation (social behavior). Their model also stresses the multitude of parallel factors that my impact these processes including bio- Disorders of Social Cognition logical and neuropsychological factors (e.g., injury/illness, other cognitive, and motor skills), as well as psychological and environ- The realization that a widespread network of brain areas sub- mental factors (e.g., sociocultural context, mood). sumes social skills suggests that social competence may be dis- Biological and comparative models have also emerged since the rupted, whether in systematic or nonsystematic ways, in practically advent of social neuroscience, and highlight evolutionary and any brain disorder. Social disturbance has been reported after an 988 BEAUCHAMP

array of acquired brain injuries, such as (Gomes, Rinehart, Shah, & Bird, 2013; Happé et al., 2017). Theory of mind difficul- Greenham, & Anderson, 2014) and (Mc- ties can now be differentiated from problems in other social– Donald, 2013; Rosema, Crowe, & Anderson, 2012), as well as in cognitive domains, such as perception of biological motion (e.g., the context of neurodevelopmental insults such as fetal alcohol Annaz, Campbell, Coleman, Milne, & Swettenham, 2012), imita- syndrome (Lindinger et al., 2016) and prematurity (Telford et al., tion (e.g., Vivanti, Trembath, & Dissanayake, 2014), empathy 2016). Reviews have been published regarding the social conse- (e.g., Mazza et al., 2014), and (e.g., Lozier, quences of genetic, developmental, and psychiatric disorders such Vanmeter, & Marsh, 2014). This research has led to improvements as autism (Leekam, 2016), attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder in the neuropsychological assessment of individuals with sus- (ADHD; Bora & Pantelis, 2016), (Bora & Meletti, 2016), pected ASD and more accurate portrayal of their abilities across neurofibromatosis (Payne, Porter, Pride, & North, 2016), fragile X social–cognitive domains. Social neuroscience research is also syndrome (Turkstra, Abbeduto, & Meulenbroek, 2014), providing groundbreaking information on the early identification (Gill et al., 2016), (Green, 2016), of ASD (e.g., Elsabbagh & Johnson, 2016; Zwaigenbaum, Bryson, (Baez, Garcia, & Ibanez, 2016), and Tourette’s syndrome (Eddy & & Garon, 2013). While a relatively new area of research, the Cavanna, 2013). The relevant literature also extends into - ensuing knowledge gained will be relevant to pediatric neuropsy- hood and aging, with studies describing social impairments asso- chologists and developmental psychologists by providing guide- ciated with degenerative diseases such as (Cotter lines and targets for early detection of ASD. et al., 2016), (Levenson, Sturm, & Haase, 2014), and Other disorders with social repercussions have similarly bene- Huntingdon’s disease (Eddy, Parkinson, & Rickards, 2016). Al- fitted from the upsurge in research on social cognition brought on though a detailed discussion of each of these conditions is beyond by social neuroscience. Unlike ASD, schizophrenia is not diag- the scope of this review, some brain disorders deserve particular nosed on the basis of social impairment; however, deficits in social attention because impairments in social cognition and behavior are cognition feature in its symptomatology and are related to func- pathognomonic or central features. These disorders provide per- tional disability (Fett et al., 2011). The methods of social neuro- haps the best illustrations of how concepts and findings from have allowed researchers to identify a variety of social– neuroscience can be extended to neuropsychology. cognitive processes that are affected by the condition (e.g., By far, disorder (ASD) has garnered the most biological motion discrimination, perception, theory of attention because its diagnosis requires the presence of persistent mind, emotion processing, and empathy) (Bonfils, Lysaker, Minor, impairment in social communication and social interaction. Social & Salyers, 2016, 2017; Bora & Pantelis, 2013; Corrigan, 1997; neuroscience has played an immeasurable role in enhancing our Das, Lagopoulos, Coulston, Henderson, & Malhi, 2012; Green, understanding of this prototypical social disorder in the last 25 Horan, & Lee, 2015; Healey, Bartholomeusz, & Penn, 2016; years (for reviews see Happé & Frith, 2014; Pelphrey, Adolphs, & Martin, Dzafic, Robinson, Reutens, & Mowry, 2016; Nikolaides et Morris, 2004; Pinkham, Hopfinger, Pelphrey, Piven, & Penn, al., 2016; Okruszek & Pilecka, 2017). Studies have shown how the 2008). Social neuroscience techniques have been instrumental in patterns of social impairment and developmental course of schizo- uncovering neural and behavioral aspects of the disorder that were phrenia differ from other predominantly social disorders (see not possible to elucidate previously, or were only studied in older Green et al., 2015; Ochsner, 2008, for a review). Notably, the individuals. For example, can be used in young substantive progress of researchers investigating the social neuro- children and can provide valuable information on potential bio- science of schizophrenia has resulted in translational efforts in the markers of ASD (e.g., Jeste, Frohlich, & Loo, 2015; Port, Gandal, identification and selection of appropriate assessment paradigms Roberts, Siegel, & Carlson, 2014). Eye tracking methods allow for use in clinical trials (see Green, Lee, & Ochsner, 2013) and the investigation of components of early visual processing related to creation of novel treatment approaches for social–cognitive im- social attention (see meta-analysis by Chita-Tegmark, 2016), and pairments (discussed below, and see Kurtz, Gagen, Rocha, may point to precursors of social difficulties in infants at risk for Machado, & Penn, 2016; Tan, Lee, & Lee, 2016). ASD (Bedford et al., 2012). Combining neuroimaging and behav- At the far end of the developmental spectrum, fronto-temporal ioral paradigms in innovative ways allows researchers to differen- dementia (FTD) has also been used as a clinical model for studying tiate between activity in distinct areas of the social brain (Happé & the consequences of insults to the social brain, owing to the Frith, 2014). For example, Marsh and Hamilton (2011) show that discovery that it can be categorized according to one of three This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. brain regions underlying mirroring and mentalizing functions are clinical variants, one of which (behavioral variant-FTD) is espe- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. differentially affected in ASD; thus, shedding light on the roles of cially associated with social-emotional deficits, such as problems these systems in causing poor social and communication skills. with facial recognition, emotion perception, empathy, decision- From a behavioral perspective, the suggestion that impaired making, figurative language, and theory of mind (Henry, Phillips, theory of mind underlies atypical social functioning in ASD was & von Hippel, 2014; Ibanez & Manes, 2012; Keane, Calder, made just over 30 years ago (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985). Hodges, & Young, 2002; Kumfor & Piguet, 2012; Rosen et al., Since then, the tidal wave of studies that resulted from the emer- 2004; Shany-Ur & Rankin, 2011). One of the main contributions gence of social neuroscience has allowed us to become markedly of this work to neuropsychology has been to improve differential more knowledgeable about the specifics of social cognition in diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease versus FTD, because the former ASD. Where ASD was once equated with theory of mind impair- manifests with deficits on general aspects of cognition and rela- ments, studies have shown that individuals with ASD may perform tively spared social cognition, while the latter is expressed mainly adequately on laboratory tasks of theory of mind, but may not be through social and behavioral impairments (Miller et al., 2003; inclined or able to use such skills in everyday social interactions Shany-Ur & Rankin, 2011). As with schizophrenia, these findings (i.e., they have a reduced propensity to do so; Cage, Pellicano, have encouraged neuropsychologists to develop new assessment NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 989

techniques and scales that can aid in FTD diagnosis and high- and, ultimately, molecular genetic analysis levels; (2) reliably lighted the importance of expanding standard cognitive assess- coupled to activation systems; and (3) heritable and thus likely to ments to include measures of social cognition and social-emotional be linkable to genetic influences and mechanisms. The authors skills. describe how measures of social cognition meet these criteria, Ongoing scientific discoveries regarding social–cognitive defi- using facial emotion identification as an example. Certain aspects cits within medical conditions, combined with efforts to develop of social cognition are also included in many of the National assessment approaches (discussed in the next section), are likely to Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) Common gradually improve our knowledge of the social abilities associated Data Elements (CDE), a of general and disease-specific rec- with developmental, acquired, and degenerative brain disorders. ommendations regarding the domains and measures that should be Research to date in this area clearly demonstrates that assessment used for standardized data collection in clinical research, patient needs to take into account the known social profiles of specific registries, and other . Other efforts to disorders and that a “one size fits all” approach is not feasible achieve consensus on task selection in the domain of social cog- given the heterogeneity of social–cognitive and affective profiles nition have come in the form of targeted recommendations for across conditions. Emphasis has logically been on disorders with specific disorders, such as the SCOPE project (Social Cognition obvious social manifestations, such as those discussed above, but Psychometric Evaluation), which aims to identify and improve much remains to be done to uncover the social consequences of existing measures of social cognition for use in large-scale studies disorders that do not present primarily in terms of social or of schizophrenia (Pinkham et al., 2014). behavioral disturbance. In parallel, it will be necessary to distin- While these endeavors are extremely valuable in promoting the guish between true impairments in social cognition and poor assessment of social cognition across disciplines and levels of performance on tests of social cognition, which may simply be a analysis, disease-specific recommendations (e.g., SCOPE), as well byproduct of impairments in more general aspects of cognition, as research-related (e.g., RDoC, CDE) and discipline-specific rec- such as executive functioning, working memory or attention. For ommendations (e.g., in neurology, Dickerson, 2015), may not example, this distinction speaks to the domain-specific versus apply universally to clinical neuropsychology. Nevertheless, domain-general account of theory of mind deficits after brain though not detailed at length in formal guidelines, the assessment injury. The former refers to impairments that result from damage of social and affective functions is recognized as crucial in the to regions of the social brain critical for adequate theory of mind, comprehensive portrayal of a person’s neuropsychological func- while the latter recognizes that theory of mind is dependent on tioning. For example, in their practice guidelines, the American other cognitive functions that may themselves be impaired (Ap- Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN, 2007) states that perly, Samson, & Humphreys, 2005). neuropsychological evaluations should include both measures of neurocognitive and socioemotional functions. More recently, writ- Neuropsychological Assessment ing about the principles, rationale, and challenges of neuropsycho- logical assessment, Vakil (2012, p. 142) suggests that neuropsy- The impact of social neuroscience on neuropsychology is per- chological assessment is probably typically perceived as cognitive haps nowhere as powerful as in the area of standardized assess- in nature because cognition can be measures quantitatively, but ment, a practice at the heart of the discipline. Binet’s introduction encourages neuropsychologists to also document possible changes of objective and standardized tests of intelligence can be said to in emotional state and behavior. Social and affective changes can have established the foundation for clinical neuropsychological now be measured objectively and quantitatively; however, a num- assessment by providing a more fine-grained description of both ber of obstacles need to be overcome before the assessment of normal variability and impaired cognitive functioning (Stuss & social cognition becomes an integral part of neuropsychological Levine, 2002). The use of standardized tests remains pervasive practice. The main challenges are (at least) threefold, and are across cognitive domains in neuropsychological assessment. How- described here along with possible avenues for further develop- ever, the evaluation of social cognition has a much shorter history, ment. Suggested recommendations for the assessment of social and so it lags behind cognitive assessment, but recent efforts are cognition and competence, as well as issues to consider in the propelling it to the forefront of clinical practice. Increasing support design and structure of social cognition measures are summarized for the inclusion of social cognition in the assessment, description, in Figures 5 and 6. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. and diagnosis of medical conditions is underscored by its recog- The structure and taxonomy of neuropsychological assess- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. nition as a functional domain of importance by seminal publica- ment of social cognition lacks consensus. A number of theo- tions and organizations. For instance, the Diagnostic and Statistical retical and empirical models and frameworks were presented ear- Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, lier in this article, each with their own vision of how social 2013) now lists social cognition alongside core cognitive domains cognition can be conceptualized. Each has potential value for such as attention, learning and memory, executive functions, lan- designing an approach to social and emotional assessment. How- guage, and visuoconstructive-perceptual abilities as important in ever, no consensus exists as to what subdomains should be re- the diagnosis of neurocognitive disorders. The National Institute of ported on. Recognizing the high prevalence of social–cognitive (NIMH) also proposes that social cognition mea- disturbances in neuropsychiatric, neurodevelopemental, and neu- sures can and should be included in its Research Domain Criteria rodegenerative disorders, Henry, von Hippel, Molenberghs, Lee, (RDoC) matrix for studying mental disorders across levels of and Sachdev (2016) suggest one possible approach, a five-step information. R.C. Gur and R.E. Gur (2016, p. 4) note that to be algorithm for evaluation. While not based directly on existing recognized within the RDoC, measures need to be (a) reliably models of social cognition, their recommendations for measures tractable across several levels of analysis and extendable to basic, are based on the clinical that four aspects of social 990 BEAUCHAMP

functioning are typically impaired in neurocognitive disorders: provides an overview of the breadth of processes that must be theory of mind, empathy, social perception, and social behavior. considered and their multifaceted interrelations. In a similar vein, They provide suggestions for existing tasks that can be used to Happé, Cook, and Bird (2017) argue for the development of a measure some of these aspects in . standard taxonomy and vocabulary for social–cognitive processes, In coming years, neuropsychologists will be called upon to as well as a better understanding of how these processes are expand their conception of social cognition and, especially, to interrelated and interdependent. Although these ideas are intro- develop a more fine-grained appreciation of the various subcom- duced in a research context, a standard lexicon would also be ponents of social cognition. Theory of mind, for example, cannot beneficial to clinical neuropsychologists who wish to systematize be reduced to a single construct or task, and must be considered in the way they choose, interpret, and present social–cognitive tests. light of its protracted developmental course (see e.g., Schaafsma, Further efforts could be directed at adapting Happé and Frith’s Pfaff, Spunt, & Adolphs, 2015). Highlighting the complexity and (2014) proposed social–cognitive space to the context of neuro- range of what social–cognitive processes entail, Happé and Frith psychological assessment and at establishing the directionality and (2014) propose a sketch of what a descriptive map of the social– strength of the connections between constructs. There are currently cognitive space might look like and illustrate possible connections as many assessment approaches as there are models of social among processes (see Figure 4). Although they stress that the map cognition; future development of frameworks should consider tax- is tentative and will benefit from empirical testing, it certainly onomy that is easily operationalized in clinical neuropsychology This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.

Figure 4. Possible descriptive map of the space of social cognition and hypothesized connections proposed by Happé and Frith (2014). From “Annual Research Review: Towards a Developmental Neuroscience of Atypical Social Cognition,” by F. Happé and U. Frith, 2014, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55. Copyright by the Association for Child and Adolescent Mental Health. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 991

contexts and across the life span. In addition, the social models and The standard recommendations for neuropsychological assess- map presented here highlight the multiple levels of social process- ment, such as ensuring that tests meet psychometric standards, also ing that should be appraised to fully appreciate the integrity of an apply to social cognition (AACN, 2007). Likewise, the admonish- individual’s social functioning, from basic perceptual processing ment that clinical evaluation should rely on multiple sources and (e.g., biological motion discrimination, face/voice processing) to methods of collecting information, such as direct testing and third more complex mental state attributions and reasoning (e.g., theory party questionnaires (M. H. Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010), is of mind, intent attribution). While psychological models of social also pertinent. Tests of cognition are rarely, if ever, uncontami- cognition tend to focus on higher level affective (e.g., emotion nated by multiple processes (Vakil, 2012), and the same can be recognition) and cognitive processes (e.g., mentalizing), sensory said for tests of social cognition. Test development in the area of and perceptual processes should not be neglected in the clinical social cognition should, therefore, consider the effect of confound- assessment of social abilities, as failure of these processes can ing cognitive factors on the measurement of specific social– directly impact people’s ability to adequately navigate social sit- cognitive processes, among other considerations. These and other uations (Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010). To this effect, Beau- general recommendations for the assessment of social processes champ and Anderson (2010) stress that to have clinical utility, the are outlined in Figure 5. components of a social model need to be accessible by standard Other considerations relate to the design and structure of spe- psychological assessment. Such assessment, however, may require cific social tests and take root in the major findings of social the development of new approaches and measures. neuroscience (see Figure 6). These findings suggest that the nature Access to well validated, standardized measures with ade- of stimuli and the way in which they are presented cognitive quate norms is still limited. No one debates whether social and neural responses. Factors such as type, quality, per- cognition can be assessed objectively in much the same way that spective, affective load, and modality should, therefore, be care- other cognitive functions have been assessed by neuropsycholo- fully considered in the design of social tests. For example, multiple gists over the years. However, given the relative recency of social lines of evidence indicate that neural and behavioral responses neuroscience and its impact on the field, the actual capacity of differ according to whether social stimuli are presented from neuropsychologists to reliably assess this domain in clinical prac- first-person or third-person perspectives (Avram et al., 2014; Ch- tice continues to be hampered by a lack of validated, standardized isholm et al., 2014; Fehr, Achtziger, Roth, & Struber, 2014; tools. Many of the measures used in experimental social neurosci- Ramsey, Hansen, Apperly, & Samson, 2013; Vogeley et al., 2004). ence and developmental or social psychology are well validated This literature can be extended to the presentation of stimuli in for targeting social–cognitive processes; however, they are typi- virtual reality, and raise the issue of how individuals consider cally ill-suited to clinical assessment and often lack standardiza- first-person perspectives by way of avatars (Pavone et al., 2016). tion and norms. For example, the Cyberball paradigm, a comput- These findings underscore the importance of considering perspec- erized task in which avatars throw a ball to one another, has been tive in the assessment of social cognition, because an individual’s used to elucidate social processes such as rejection, peer relation- reaction may differ depending on whether they are personally ships, and prosociality in numerous social neuroscience publica- involved in the scenario or not. Social neuroscience research also tions (e.g., S. Cacioppo et al., 2013; Vrijhof et al., 2016; Will, indicates that neural activity differs in accordance with whether Crone, van Lier, & Gürog˘lu, 2016). The task has good psycho- metric properties, but does not have norms and is not easily individuals are actively involved in a task (e.g., they must generate implemented in clinical settings. Other existing social measures, a response) or passively view a social scene (e.g., Sevinc & such as those traditionally used in the evaluation of moral - Spreng, 2014), indicating that observing and participating in a ing, for example, have experimental and philosophical value, but social event do not have the same neural basis. Research on moral are hypothetical and do not reflect everyday adaptive functioning reasoning further illustrates why affect and should be because they typically present extreme life-and-death situations considered in the interpretation of social tasks, with studies show- through written scenarios (Chiasson, Vera-Estay, Lalonde, ing that moral judgments are subject to variations in emotional Dooley, & Beauchamp, 2017; Kahane, 2015). engagement (e.g., Greene et al., 2001; Moll, de Oliveira-Souza, & A small number of direct assessment tools are ready to be used Eslinger, 2003). Other studies indicate that using pictures is an in neuropsychological practice (for a review of some adult mea- effective way to enhance emotional investment in social tasks, This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. sures, see Henry et al., 2016), and some reviews of existing social over and above written scenarios, and that actual staging of social This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. measures and questionnaires have been published (e.g., Crowe, interactions generates the largest effects compared with audio and Beauchamp, Catroppa, & Anderson, 2011; McConachie et al., picture presentations (de Castro, Veerman, Koops, Bosch, & Mon- 2015; Pinkham et al., 2014). Reviewing and critiquing all existing shouwer, 2002). tests is a substantial endeavor, which warrants a separate review. Neuropsychologists need to adapt standardized testing to fit Instead, given the rapid expansion of test development focused on the nature of social stimuli. A third issue related to the devel- social cognition, and the likelihood that a large number of tests and opment and standardization of social–cognitive measures is that batteries will emerge in coming years, a useful approach may be to clinicians and test developers may need to shift their beliefs about provide neuropsychologists with recommendations and questions what constitutes a good measure. Unlike many core cognitive to consider when deciding on what measures to use and when processes that can be evaluated using concrete and relatively judging their quality, rather than merely providing a list of existing simple paradigms (e.g., selective attention, speed of information measures. These considerations should allow neuropsychologists processing, and ), measure of social cognition to choose and critique new tools and make the best decisions as the need to be more complex, dynamic and interactive based on the field evolves. very nature of social interaction. 992 BEAUCHAMP

of children and adolescents who exhibit social problems, showing that virtual social environments can be reliably used to assess and promote social skills (e.g., Bouchard, 2011; Kim et al., 2007; Ku et al., 2007; Mitchell, Parsons, & Leonard, 2007; Park et al., 2009; S. Parsons, Mitchell, & Leonard, 2004, 2005; Robillard, Bouchard, Dumoulin, Guitard, & Klinger, 2010), although caution is needed to avoid equating virtual characters and human stimuli (de Borst & de Gelder, 2015). Other technological approaches, such as intelli- gent video gaming and robotics (e.g., Jordan, King, Hellersteth, Wiren, & Mulligan, 2013; E. S. Kim et al., 2013; Murphy, Faulkner, & Reynolds, 2014), may also afford interesting avenues for assessment of social competence. While clinical reality does not yet allow for integration of these technologies into routine clinical assessment, a future can readily be foreseen when some tasks are presented in these ways. An important movement toward examiner-administered computerized and tablet testing in clinical practice is already underway and will no doubt increase in coming years. These media allow for easier presentation of dynamic social stimuli. Consistent with this new direction in neuropsychological assessment, the American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology Figure 5. See the online article for the color version of this figure. and the National Academy of Neuropsychology have published a position article on the use of such devices (Bauer et al., 2012; see also, Bilder, 2011). The field of neuropsychology has already acknowledged that The next generation of social cognition assessment could also ecological validity and external validation are important in deter- draw inspiration from tried and true methodological approaches mining the reliability of test findings (AACN, 2007; Spooner & such as naturalistic and observational measurement, which may Pachana, 2006; and see Vakil’s “hierarchical mediation model,” better capture complex social processes in settings that reproduce Vakil, 2012). This is nowhere perhaps more true than in the real-life as closely as possible. For instance, quantitative methods measurement of social processes, which may require a shift away are available for the measurement of parent–child interactions from traditional evaluation approaches to be predictive of every- (e.g., Funamoto & Rinaldi, 2015) and peer interactions (e.g., day function. The assessment of social skills has typically been Gibson, Hussain, Holsgrove, Adams, & Green, 2011). While such limited to customary paper-pencil tasks, as well as subjective approaches have been used mostly in research settings in the ratings by parents and teachers, which are limited in ecological context of developmental and social psychology, some of these validity, hampered by social desirability, and lack value for pre- validated and well-established paradigms could foreseeably be dicting real-world daily functioning. To improve the evaluation of transformed into standardized clinical measures. Zaki and Ochsner social skills, both and clinicians may need to rely on (2009) have argued for better integration of naturalistic approaches more innovative approaches to assessment, including consider- ation of technologies that can approximate reality in laboratory or clinical settings. Virtual reality (VR) is one example of novel methodologies that may be useful in the assessment of social skills. VR has become more widespread as a tool for representing social scenarios and is increasingly accessible to individuals on a small-scale and afford- able basis. The strength of VR lies in its ability to make partici- pants feel as if they are present in the environment projected to This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. them. The technique may be particular relevant to the study of This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. social processes because it leads participants to react, feel, think and behave more similarly to the way they would in physical reality; thus, heightening the validity and authenticity of their responses (Bohil, Alicea, & Biocca, 2011; T. D. Parsons, Gaggioli, & Riva, 2017; Tarr & Warren, 2002). Research using VR has illustrated the potential of virtually enriched environments as a novel and effective way to ecologically test cognitive function, and has been shown to be exciting and motivating for children, aspects that contribute to its validity and reliability (Lalonde, Henry, Drouin-Germain, Nolin, & Beauchamp, 2013; T. D. Parsons, Rizzo, Rogers, & York, 2009; P. R. Penn, Rose, & Johnson, 2009; Rose, Brooks, & Rizzo, 2005). Some researchers have begun to capitalize on the advantages of VR in the evaluation and training Figure 6. See the online article for the color version of this figure. NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 993

even within neuroscience research as a way to improve the real- should take into account the particularities and social profiles of world quality of the social information that participants encounter each disorder via appropriate protocol modifications and ensure in laboratory settings. For example, the limitations of measuring the methods are empirically validated anew within the target empathy using a series of standard written questions is self evident population. when compared with recording the in vivo reactions of a human Cassel and colleagues’ (Cassel et al., 2016) review highlights the being faced with a real social conflict with other individuals. range of methodologies that have been attempted across constructs and conditions. Among others, the authors document empirical work Intervention based on behavioral training, cognitive rehabilitation, cognitive– behavioral therapy, , mindfulness, mentalisation-based In their seminal articles on the challenges for the discipline of treatment, metacognitive training, psychoeducation, and naturalistic neuropsychology, both Costa (1983) and Ruff (2003) recognized experiential/social learning for the treatment of social–cognitive the need to further develop the intervention aspect of the field, deficits. Within these approaches, the paradigms reviewed rely on along with existing strengths in diagnostics. The discipline took on techniques as diverse as repetition, positive reinforcement, error- this call-to-arms in the domain of cognition, as highlighted by an less learning, self-instructional training, use of vanishing cues, role increase in the number of neuropsychologists working in rehabil- playing, reflection and mimicry, and have presented materials such itation settings (Beaumont, 2008). These efforts must now be as sketches, cartoons, written scenarios, video vignettes, and vir- extended to build an arsenal of treatment approaches that are tual avatars (Cassel et al., 2016). While the authors note that most compatible with developments in the detection and characteriza- of the literature using these varied techniques indicates positive tion of disorders of social cognition. Social neuroscience and outcomes, they underscore the advantage of naturalistic, experien- neuropsychology has provided information on areas of impairment tial approaches in the remediation of social cognition deficits in various disorders, but a gap remains between knowing what is because they are most likely to be generalized and transferred to affected and knowing how to address social impairments. real life settings (Cassel et al., 2016). This idea is reminiscent of An advantage in the area of social intervention is that many the recommendations made in the present article concerning the social processes that have a long history of investigation in sister prioritization of realistic and dynamic stimuli for the assessment of disciplines, such as social and , already social functioning and the development of social–cognitive mea- have been the focus of intervention research. Examples of docu- sures that approximate the complexity of real social environments. mented training techniques come from research on broader social Some domains of social cognition may not be as readily trac- competence, such as peer relationships, parent–child interactions, table to existing interventions because they have only recently emotional and behavioral adjustment, aggression, and antisocial been described as characteristic of a particular disorder. For ex- behavior (e.g., Barlow, Bergman, Kornør, Wei, & Bennett, 2016; ample, some evidence suggests that moral reasoning may be af- Bierman, 2004; Furlong et al., 2013; Mortensen & Mastergeorge, fected after (M. H. Beauchamp, Dooley, & 2014; National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health & Social Anderson, 2013; Chiasson, Elkaim, Weil, Crevier, & Beauchamp, Care Institute for Excellence, 2013). These can be distinguished 2017; Couper, Jacobs, & Anderson, 2002), but the underlying from efforts to improve specific aspects of social cognition. As nature of the impairment remains unclear and, therefore, is diffi- with assessment, headway in developing social–cognitive inter- cult to target through intervention. In other cases, there may be ventions has already been made in the context of ASD and schizo- substantial empirical work associated with a social process, yet no phrenia. The existing interventions may target distinct social– intervention efforts have yet been directed toward it. For example, cognitive processes, such as (Murza, Schwartz, Cassel et al. (2016) found no treatment programs specifically Hahs-Vaughn, & Nye, 2016) or theory of mind (Fletcher-Watson, targeting the affective component of empathy, despite the ample McConnell, Manola, & McConachie, 2014) in ASD, or emotion social neuroscience and neuropsychological literature addressing perception and theory of mind in schizophrenia (Kurtz et al., 2016; this construct (e.g., Bonfils et al., 2016; Decety & Jackson, 2004; D. L. Penn, Roberts, Combs, & Sterne, 2007; Tan et al., 2016). Decety & Lamm, 2006; de Sousa, McDonald, & Rushby, 2012; Alternatively, some interventions aim to improve general aspects Gonzalez-Liencres, Shamay-Tsoory, & Brune, 2013; Hillis, 2014; of psychosocial adjustment, social interactions, or social partici- Lamm, Bukowski, & Silani, 2016; Singer & Lamm, 2009; Wit- pation (Camargo et al., 2014; Chang & Locke, 2016; Mueser, tenberg et al., 2008). Ongoing efforts to accurately map the social This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Deavers, Penn, & Cassisi, 2013; Otero, Schatz, Merrill, & Bellini, landscape associated with distinct brain disorders will undoubtedly This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. 2015). help move the field toward designing appropriate interventions. In their review of social cognition interventions, Cassel et al. (2016) provide a detailed summary of treatments developed to The Future: Challenges and Directions remediate social–cognitive deficits including emotion perception, self-awareness, theory of mind, and interpretational in clinical Twenty-five years ago, reference to social cognition and social conditions such as ASD, schizophrenia spectrum disorders, bor- skills was more limited to the disciplinary boundaries of develop- derline personality disorder, and traumatic brain injury. The au- mental and social psychology. Today, the terms are omnipresent in thors demonstrate how existing intervention protocols that have social neuroscience and have surfaced in the daily vocabulary of been empirically tested in ASD and schizophrenia could be trans- experimental and clinical neuropsychologists. Research literature ferred to the field of traumatic brain injury. As noted by the can now be found about the social–cognitive or social-emotional authors, applying treatment approaches across disorders has po- manifestations of practically any neuropsychological disorder. De- tential for advancing efforts to remediate social–cognitive deficits spite this rapid evolution, however, we have barely scratched the within neuropsychology (Cassel et al., 2016). Such a strategy surface of what we know about the social brain and behavior. In 994 BEAUCHAMP

moving research and practice forward, the following challenges nings cannot be separated from the environmental and experiential and directions for the future of social neuroscience and neuropsy- contexts that make humans social beings. Distal factors, such as chology warrant consideration. culture, SES, resource accessibility, and social , as well as more proximal, individual factors, such as , values, Structure and Taxonomy and physical attributes all have a part to play in our social interactions and reactions (M. H. Beauchamp & Anderson, 2010). As mentioned above, a better taxonomy and structure of social Social neuroscientists speak to this broad view of social function- cognition is needed. These should extend beyond social neurosci- ing in recognizing that the complexity that underlies social behav- ence to neuropsychology and be developed with reference to ior requires consideration of multiple levels of organization across theoretical and empirical support from multiple disciplines, as well social and biological perspectives (J. T. Cacioppo & Cacioppo, as be translatable to the clinical assessment of social functioning. 2013). It is worth reminding ourselves of these multiple levels Keeping clinical practice in mind will ensure a shared understand- when fundamental principles of social neuroscience are applied to ing of social processes and their interrelations across experimental neuropsychological practice. and applied neuropsychology. The elaboration of any taxonomy should be broad enough to include a wide range of processes Novelty and Technology relevant across the life span. Neuropsychologists wishing to bring additional structure to the area of social cognition could perhaps be Given the complexity and inherently dynamic quality of social inspired by past efforts to conceptualize, evaluate, and report interactions, neuropsychologists should be encouraged to embrace executive functioning, as it too represents an umbrella term for a innovative measurement and intervention approaches that allow vast array of interdependent processes. more accurate reproduction of social scenes and interactions. This Related to the notion of taxonomy, future research should aim to may mean departing from more traditional, paper-and-pencil test- establish clear social–cognitive endpoints for distinct disorders ing techniques and moving toward technologies that hold greater with social manifestations. Because social cognition is diversified ecological value. Notwithstanding such advances, though, long- and sustained by a diffuse network of regions, brain insult can have standing principles of validity, reliability, and standardization must drastically different social outcomes across disorders. Neuropsy- still be honored. chologists need a clearer sense of which aspects of social func- tioning to investigate when they suspect or are presented with a Disciplinarity particular diagnosis. Social neuroscience and neuropsychology are far from being the Complexity and Holistic Ecology first two disciplines to consider their respective contributions. As noted at the beginning of this article, others have already written Social neuroscience and neuropsychology should continue to about the implications of social neuroscience for their field. More promote an integrative and comprehensive view of the social brain generally, the alliance of neuroscience and other applied disci- and associated behaviors. Social–cognitive and affective processes plines has been occurring for several years, despite some conflict are complex, as are their global behavioral manifestations in so- and resistance. In reflecting on the relationship between social ciety. Those processes should be systematically incorporated into neuroscience and neuropsychology, we should consider the current scientific, diagnostic, evaluative, and rehabilitation frame- bridges and inroads created in other disciplines and borrow from works, alongside current notions of cognition more generally. their lessons learned. For example, a considerable literature ad- The comprehensive view of the brain and behavior proposed dresses the collaboration between neuroscience and education (C. here should also apply to the use of research methods from the two Beauchamp & M. H. Beauchamp, 2012). A recurrent theme in this disciplines. The major discoveries of social neuroscience and their discussion has been the problems of translating fundamental find- relevance to neuropsychology are in large part attributable to the ings from neuroscience to practical classroom applications, and the cutting-edge technologies and methodologies associated with the misapplications that have ensued as a result. Similar problems may former, in particular neuroimaging. , occur in the transfer of social neuroscience principles to clinical however, has attracted some criticism, not only because of its neuropsychology, and both disciplines should be mindful of each This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. failure to increase our understanding of cognition, but more gen- other when making statements on the significance of experimental This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. erally because it is “neither necessary nor sufficient to address all findings for clinical practice, and in borrowing findings for the questions in psychology” (Decety & Cacioppo, 2010, p. 770). development of assessment and intervention protocols. Decety and Cacioppo (2010), therefore, propose that human neu- Social neuroscientists and neuropsychologists could also ponder roscience consider the “Golden Triangle” in research on brain- the nature of the connection between their two disciplines and behavior relationships: that is, the combination of behavioral as- what they have to gain from each other through different types of sessment (e.g., response, choice, and judgment), physiological partnerships. While the terms interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, measurement (e.g., EEG, neuro-hemodynamics, etc.) and experi- and transdisciplinary tend to be used interchangeably across dis- mental manipulations (e.g., lesion studies, animal studies, etc.). ciplines, Samuels (2009) offers a useful framework for those A complete view of brain-behavior relationships should also considering the types of unions that can occur between disciplines, consider the idea that humans and the environment are part of a by showing that these terms have distinct meanings for the ways in single system, a notion referred to as holistic ecology (for a review which disciplines can contribute to each other. Multidisciplinarity of holistic origins of social cognition see Fiske & Taylor, 2013, occurs through the additive effect of individual knowledges that Chapter 1). Indeed, social cognition and its biological underpin- are shared between specialized groups. By comparison, interdis- NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 995

ciplinarity occurs when knowledge is created at the intersection of Adolphs, R. (2010). Conceptual challenges and directions for social neu- established disciplines. Finally, transdisciplinarity occurs when roscience. Neuron, 65, 752–767. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron diverse people interact within a new group to generate new knowl- .2010.03.006 edge. Adolphs, R., & Anderson, D. (2013). Social and emotional neuroscience. Considering the major developments of social neuroscience Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23, 291–293. http://dx.doi.org/10 reviewed in this article and their application within neuropsy- .1016/j.conb.2013.04.011 chology, the two disciplines appear currently to be working Ahmed, S. P., Bittencourt-Hewitt, A., & Sebastian, C. L. (2015). Neuro- together along the lines of multi- and interdisciplinarity. In the cognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 15, future, however, the two fields could also consider uniting in 11–25. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.dcn.2015.07.006 transdisciplinary ways by engaging in more direct collabora- American Academy of Clinical Neuropsychology. (2007). American Acad- tion. Samuels (2009, p. 49) specifies that “transdisciplinarity is emy of Clinical Neuropsychology (AACN) practice guidelines for neu- an approach to examining and solving complex problems ropsychological assessment and consultation. The Clinical Neuropsy- through the collaborative efforts of multiple diverse partners” chologist, 21, 209–231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13825580601025932 and that “what connects transdisciplinary partners is not a American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical man- common theoretical perspective or methodology or epistemol- ual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiat- ogy, but a common issue to which all apply their own particular ric Publishing. expertise with the goal of reaching a holistic understanding of Anderson, S. W., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A. R. the issue.” Some of the challenges facing those who wish to (1999). Impairment of social and moral behavior related to early damage better understand social cognition, social competence, and their in human prefrontal cortex. Nature Neuroscience, 2, 1032–1037. http:// perturbation and rehabilitation in the context of brain insult, dx.doi.org/10.1038/14833 might best be met by a transdisciplinary approach that brings to Annaz, D., Campbell, R., Coleman, M., Milne, E., & Swettenham, J. bear the best of social neuroscience and neuropsychology in (2012). Young children with autism spectrum disorder do not preferen- unique and perhaps unanticipated ways. tially attend to biological motion. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, 401–408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-011-1256-3 Conclusion Apperly, I. A., Samson, D., & Humphreys, G. W. (2005). Domain- specificity and theory of mind: Evaluating neuropsychological evidence. Neuroscientific research into social cognition and its clinical Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 572–577. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j applications clearly are here to stay. Neuropsychologists have the .tics.2005.10.004 opportunity to embrace many of the major discoveries that have Arsenio, W. F., & Lemerise, E. A. (2004). Aggression and moral devel- emerged from social neuroscience and to use them to refine and opment: Integrating social information processing and moral domain expand their conceptual and empirical knowledge of the social models. Child Development, 75, 987–1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j brain, social cognition, and social behavior. A deeper understand- .1467-8624.2004.00720.x ing of social functioning can readily be applied to improving the Avram, M., Hennig-Fast, K., Bao, Y., Pöppel, E., Reiser, M., Blautzik, J., diagnosis, assessment and treatment of a wide range of medical . . . Gutyrchik, E. (2014). Neural correlates of moral judgments in first- conditions, whether they result in major social impairments and and third-person perspectives: Implications for and beyond. socially maladaptive behavior, or more subtle social traits and BMC Neuroscience, 15, 39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2202-15-39 particularities. Baez, S., García, A. M., & Ibanez, A. (2016). The social context network The focus of this review has primarily been on how social model in psychiatric and neurological diseases. Current Topics in Be- havioral Neurosciences, 30, 379–396. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ neuroscience has informed neuropsychology over the past 25 7854_2016_443 years; however, there is no reason why the relationship cannot be Barlow, J., Bergman, H., Kornør, H., Wei, Y., & Bennett, C. (2016). bidirectional for the next 25. Certainly, the “bedside” study of Group-based parent training programmes for improving emotional and brain disorders has already contributed to our understanding of the behavioural adjustment in young children. Cochrane Database of Sys- function (and dysfunction) of the social brain, and the application tematic Reviews, (8), CD003680. of principles of social neuroscience to neuropsychological assess- Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child ment and intervention has the potential to be translated back to the have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46. http://dx.doi.org/10 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its alliedsocial publishers. neuroscience “bench.” .1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Barrett, L. F., & Satpute, A. B. (2013). Large-scale brain networks in References affective and social neuroscience: Towards an integrative functional architecture of the brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23, 361– Adolphs, R. (2001). The neurobiology of social cognition. Current Opinion 372. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2012.12.012 in Neurobiology, 11, 231–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388 Bauer, R. M., Iverson, G. L., Cernich, A. N., Binder, L. M., Ruff, R. M., (00)00202-6 Adolphs, R. (2003a). Cognitive neuroscience of human social behaviour. & Naugle, R. I. (2012). Computerized neuropsychological assessment Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 165–178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ devices: Joint position paper of the American Academy of Clinical nrn1056 Neuropsychology and the National Academy of Neuropsychology. Ar- Adolphs, R. (2003b). Is the human amygdala specialized for processing chives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 27, 362–373. http://dx.doi.org/10 social information? Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, .1093/arclin/acs027 326–340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb07091.x Beauchamp, C., & Beauchamp, M. H. (2013). Boundary as bridge: An Adolphs, R. (2009). The social brain: Neural basis of social knowledge. analysis of the literature from a boundary Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 693–716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/ perspective. Review, 25, 47–67. http://dx.doi annurev.psych.60.110707.163514 .org/10.1007/s10648-012-9207-x 996 BEAUCHAMP

Beauchamp, M. H., & Anderson, V. (2010). SOCIAL: An integrative Bora, E., & Meletti, S. (2016). Social cognition in epilepsy: framework for the development of social skills. Psychological Bulletin, A systematic review and meta-analysis. Epilepsy & Behavior, 60, 50– 136, 39–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017768 57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2016.04.024 Beauchamp, M. H., Dooley, J. J., & Anderson, V. (2013). A preliminary Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2013). Theory of mind impairments in first- investigation of moral reasoning and empathy after traumatic brain episode psychosis, individuals at ultra-high risk for psychosis and in injury in adolescents. Brain Injury, 27, 896–902. http://dx.doi.org/10 first-degree relatives of schizophrenia: Systematic review and meta- .3109/02699052.2013.775486 analysis. Schizophrenia Research, 144, 31–36. http://dx.doi.org/10 Beaumont, J. G. (2008). Introduction to neuropsychology. New York, NY: .1016/j.schres.2012.12.013 Guilford Press. Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2016). Meta-analysis of social cognition in Beblo, T., Sinnamon, G., & Baune, B. T. (2011). Specifying the neuro- attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Comparison with psychology of affective disorders: Clinical, demographic and neurobio- healthy controls and autistic spectrum disorder. Psychological Medicine, logical factors. Neuropsychology Review, 21, 337–359. http://dx.doi.org/ 46, 699–716. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002573 10.1007/s11065-011-9171-0 Borod, J. C. (2000). The neuropsychology of emotion. Oxford: Oxford Bedford, R., Elsabbagh, M., Gliga, T., Pickles, A., Senju, A., Charman, T., University Press. . . . the BASIS team. (2012). Precursors to social and communication Bouchard, S. (2011). Could virtual reality be effective in treating children difficulties in infants at-risk for autism: Gaze following and attentional with phobias? Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 11, 207–213. http:// engagement. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42, dx.doi.org/10.1586/ern.10.196 2208–2218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1450-y Brothers, L., Ring, B., & Kling, A. (1990). Response of neurons in the Bellerose, J., Beauchamp, M. H., & Lassonde, M. (2011). New insights macaque amygdala to complex social stimuli. Behavioural Brain Re- into provided by : Social cognition and search, 41, 199–213. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-4328(90)90108-Q theory of mind. In H. Duffau (Ed.), Brain mapping: From neural basis Bufalari, I., Aprile, T., Avenanti, A., Di Russo, F., & Aglioti, S. M. (2007). of cognition to surgical applications (pp. 181–190). Paris: Springer. Empathy for and touch in the human somatosensory cortex. Cere- http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-0723-2_14 bral Cortex, 17, 2553–2561. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhl161 Bierman, K. L. (2004). Peer rejection: Developmental processes and Byrne, R. W. (1996). Machiavellian intelligence. Evolutionary Anthropol- intervention strategies. New York, NY: Guilford Press. ogy, 5, 172–180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1996)5: Bilder, R. M. (2011). Neuropsychology 3.0: Evidence-based science and 5Ͻ172::AID-EVAN6Ͼ3.0.CO;2-H practice. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 17, Cacioppo, J. T. (2002). Social neuroscience: Understanding the pieces 7–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617710001396 fosters understanding the whole and vice versa. American , Blakemore, S. J. (2008). The social brain in adolescence. Nature Reviews 57, 819–831. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.11.819 Neuroscience, 9, 267–277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2353 Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. G. (1992). Social psychological contribu- Blakemore, S. J. (2012). Development of the social brain in adolescence. tions to the decade of the brain. Doctrine of multilevel analysis. Amer- Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 105, 111–116. http://dx.doi ican Psychologist, 47, 1019–1028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X .org/10.1258/jrsm.2011.110221 .47.8.1019 Blakemore, S. J., Burnett, S., & Dahl, R. E. (2010). The role of puberty in Cacioppo, J. T., Berntson, G. G., & Decety, J. (2010). Social neuroscience the developing adolescent brain. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 926–933. and its relationship to social psychology. Social Cognition, 28, 675–685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21052 http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/soco.2010.28.6.675 Blakemore, S. J., & Choudhury, S. (2006). Development of the adolescent Cacioppo, J. T., & Cacioppo, S. (2013). Social Neuroscience. Perspectives brain: Implications for executive function and social cognition. Journal on Psychological Science, 8, 667–669. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 296–312. http://dx.doi.org/10 1745691613507456 .1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01611.x Cacioppo, J. T., Cacioppo, S., Dulawa, S., & Palmer, A. A. (2014). Social Blakemore, S. J., Winston, J., & Frith, U. (2004). Social cognitive neuro- neuroscience and its potential contribution to psychiatry. World Psychi- science: Where are we heading? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 216– atry: Official Journal of the World Psychiatric Association (WPA), 13, 222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.03.012 131–139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wps.20118 Blumstein, D. T., Ebensperger, L. A., Hayes, L. D., Vásquez, R. A., Ahern, Cacioppo, S., Frum, C., Asp, E., Weiss, R. M., Lewis, J. W., & Cacioppo, T. H., Burger, J. R.,...Young, L. J. (2010). Toward an integrative J. T. (2013). A quantitative meta-analysis of functional imaging studies understanding of social behavior: New models and new opportunities. of social rejection. Scientific Reports, 3, 2027. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ Frontiers in , 4, 34. srep02027 Bohil, C. J., Alicea, B., & Biocca, F. A. (2011). Virtual reality in neuro- Cage, E., Pellicano, E., Shah, P., & Bird, G. (2013). Reputation manage- science research and therapy. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12, 752– ment: Evidence for ability but reduced propensity in autism. Autism This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. 762. Research, 6, 433–442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aur.1313 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Bonfils, K. A., Lysaker, P. H., Minor, K. S., & Salyers, M. P. (2016). Camargo, S. P., Rispoli, M., Ganz, J., Hong, E. R., Davis, H., & Mason, R. Affective empathy in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Schizophrenia (2014). A review of the quality of behaviorally-based intervention re- Research, 175, 109–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.03.037 search to improve social interaction skills of children with ASD in Bonfils, K. A., Lysaker, P. H., Minor, K. S., & Salyers, M. P. (2017). inclusive settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44, Empathy in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of the interpersonal reactiv- 2096–2116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2060-7 ity index. Psychiatry Research, 249, 293–303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ Casebeer, W. D. (2003). Moral cognition and its neural constituents. j.psychres.2016.12.033 Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 4, 840–846. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ Bonini, L. (2016). The extended mirror neuron network: , origin, nrn1223 and functions. The , 23(1). Advance online publication. Casey, B. J., Galvan, A., & Hare, T. A. (2005). Changes in cerebral http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1073858415626400 functional organization during cognitive development. Current Opinion Bonini, L., & Ferrari, P. F. (2011). Evolution of mirror systems: A simple in Neurobiology, 15, 239–244. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2005.03 mechanism for complex cognitive functions. Annals of the New York .012 Academy of Sciences, 1225, 166–175. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749- Cassel, A., McDonald, S., Kelly, M., & Togher, L. (2016). Learning from 6632.2011.06002.x the of others: A review of social cognition treatments and their NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 997

relevance to traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation. Davidson, R. J., & Sutton, S. K. (1995). Affective neuroscience: The Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09602011.2016 emergence of a discipline. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 5, 217– .1257435 224. Chang, Y. C., & Locke, J. (2016). A systematic review of peer-mediated de Borst, A. W., & de Gelder, B. (2015). Is it the real deal? Perception of interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. Research in virtual characters versus humans: An affective cognitive neuroscience Autism Spectrum Disorders, 27, 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 576. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/ .2016.03.010 fpsyg.2015.00576 Cheng, Y., Yang, C. Y., Lin, C. P., Lee, P. L., & Decety, J. (2008). The de Castro, B. O., Veerman, J. W., Koops, W., Bosch, J. D., & Monshou- perception of pain in others suppresses somatosensory oscillations: A wer, H. J. (2002). Hostile attribution of intent and aggressive behavior: study. NeuroImage, 40, 1833–1840. http://dx A meta-analysis. Child Development, 73, 916–934. http://dx.doi.org/10 .doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.01.064 .1111/1467-8624.00447 Chiasson, V., Elkaim, L., Weil, A., Crevier, L., & Beauchamp, M. H. Decety, J., & Cacioppo, J. (2010). Frontiers in human neuroscience: The (2017). Moral reasoning in children with focal brain insults to fronto- golden triangle and beyond. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, temporal regions. Brain Impairment, 18, 102–116. http://dx.doi.org/10 767–771. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691610388780 .1017/BrImp.2016.33 Decety, J., & Jackson, P. L. (2004). The functional architecture of human Chiasson, V., Vera-Estay, E., Lalonde, G., Dooley, J. J., & Beauchamp, empathy. Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience Reviews, 3, 71–100. M. H. (2017). Assessing social cognition: Age-related changes in moral http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1534582304267187 reasoning in childhood and adolescence. The Clinical Neuropsycholo- Decety, J., & Lamm, C. (2006). Human empathy through the lens of social gist, 31, 515–530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2016.1268650 neuroscience. Scientific World Journal, 6, 1146–1163. http://dx.doi.org/ Chisholm, J. D., Chapman, C. S., Amm, M., Bischof, W. F., Smilek, D., & 10.1100/tsw.2006.221 Kingstone, A. (2014). A cognitive ethology study of first- and third- de Sousa, A., McDonald, S., & Rushby, J. (2012). Changes in emotional person perspectives. PLoS ONE, 9, e92696. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/ empathy, affective responsivity, and behavior following severe trau- journal.pone.0092696 matic brain injury. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychol- Chita-Tegmark, M. (2016). Social attention in ASD: A review and meta- ogy, 34, 606–623. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2012.667067 analysis of eye-tracking studies. Research in Developmental Disabili- Dickerson, B. C. (2015). Dysfunction of social cognition and behavior. ties, 48, 79–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2015.10.011 Continuum, 21, 660–677. Cooper, R. P., & Shallice, T. (2010). Cognitive neuroscience: The troubled Dinstein, I. (2008). Human cortex: Reflections of mirror neurons. Current marriage of and neuroscience. Topics in Cognitive Biology, 18, R956–R959. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.007 Science, 2, 398–406. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1756-8765.2010 di Pellegrino, G., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Gallese, V., & Rizzolatti, G. .01090.x (1992). Understanding motor events: A neurophysiological study. Ex- Corrigan, P. W. (1997). The social perceptual deficits of schizophrenia. perimental Brain Research, 91, 176–180. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ Psychiatry, 60, 309–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1997 BF00230027 .11024809 Dunbar, R. I. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthro- Costa, L. (1983). Clinical neuropsychology: A discipline in evolution. pology, 6, 178–190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6: Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 5, 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 5Ͼ178::AID-EVAN5Ͻ3.0.CO;2-8 01688638308401147 Dunbar, R. I. (2009). The social brain hypothesis and its implications for Cotter, J., Firth, J., Enzinger, C., Kontopantelis, E., Yung, A. R., Elliott, R., social evolution. Annals of Human Biology, 36, 562–572. http://dx.doi & Drake, R. J. (2016). Social cognition in multiple sclerosis: A system- .org/10.1080/03014460902960289 atic review and meta-analysis. Neurology, 87, 1727–1736. http://dx.doi Eddy, C. M., & Cavanna, A. E. (2013). Altered social cognition in Tourette .org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000003236 syndrome: Nature and implications. Behavioural Neurology, 27, 15–22. Couper, E., Jacobs, R., & Anderson, V. (2002). Adaptive behaviour and http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/417516 moral reasoning in children with frontal lobe lesions. Brain Impairment, Eddy, C. M., Parkinson, E. G., & Rickards, H. E. (2016). Changes in 3, 105–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1375/brim.3.2.105 mental state and behaviour in Huntington’s disease. The Lancet Psychi- Cowell, J. M., & Decety, J. (2015). Precursors to morality in development atry, 3, 1079–1086. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30144-4 as a complex interplay between neural, socioenvironmental, and behav- Elsabbagh, M., & Johnson, M. H. (2016). Autism and the social brain: The ioral facets. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the first-year puzzle. , 80, 94–99. http://dx.doi.org/10 of America, 112, 12657–12662. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/ .1016/j.biopsych.2016.02.019 pnas.1508832112 Erdley, C. A., Rivera, M. S., Shepherd, E. J., & Holleb, L. (2010). Crick, N., & Dodge, K. (1994). A review and reformulation of social Social-cognitive models and skills. In D. W. Nangle, D. J. Hansen, C. A. This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. information-processing mechanisms in children’s social adjustment. Erdley, & P. J. Norton (Eds.), Practicioner’s guide to empirically based This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74–101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033- measures of social skills (pp. 21–35). New York, NY: Springer. http:// 2909.115.1.74 dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0609-0_2 Crone, E. A., & Elzinga, B. M. (2015). Changing brains: How longitudinal Eslinger, P. J., Flaherty-Craig, C. V., & Benton, A. L. (2004). Develop- functional magnetic resonance imaging studies can inform us about mental outcomes after early prefrontal cortex damage. Brain and Cog- cognitive and social-affective growth trajectories. WIREs Cognitive Sci- nition, 55, 84–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00281-1 ence, 6, 53–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/wcs.1327 Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., Pavesi, G., & Rizzolatti, G. (1995). Motor facili- Crowe, L. M., Beauchamp, M. H., Catroppa, C., & Anderson, V. (2011). tation during action observation: A magnetic stimulation study. Journal Social function assessment tools for children and adolescents: A sys- of , 73, 2608–2611. tematic review from 1988 to 2010. Clinical Psychology Review, 31, Fehr, T., Achtziger, A., Roth, G., & Strüber, D. (2014). Neural correlates 767–785. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2011.03.008 of the empathic perceptual processing of realistic social interaction Das, P., Lagopoulos, J., Coulston, C. M., Henderson, A. F., & Malhi, G. S. scenarios displayed from a first-order perspective. Brain Research, (2012). Mentalizing impairment in schizophrenia: A functional MRI 1583, 141–158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2014.04.041 study. Schizophrenia Research, 134, 158–164. http://dx.doi.org/10 Fett, A. K., Viechtbauer, W., Dominguez, M. D., Penn, D. L., van Os, J., .1016/j.schres.2011.08.019 & Krabbendam, L. (2011). The relationship between neurocognition and 998 BEAUCHAMP

social cognition with functional outcomes in schizophrenia: A meta- Reviews, 37, 1537–1548. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.05 analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 573–588. http:// .001 dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.07.001 Green, M. F. (2016). Impact of cognitive and social cognitive impairment Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2013). Social cognition: From brains to on functional outcomes in patients with schizophrenia. The Journal of culture. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/97814 Clinical Psychiatry, 77(Suppl. 2), 8–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP 46286395 .14074su1c.02 Fletcher-Watson, S., McConnell, F., Manola, E., & McConachie, H. Green, M. F., Horan, W. P., & Lee, J. (2015). Social cognition in schizo- (2014). Interventions based on the Theory of Mind cognitive model for phrenia. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 16, 620–631. http://dx.doi.org/ autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Cochrane Database of Systematic 10.1038/nrn4005 Reviews, (3), CD008785. Green, M. F., Lee, J., & Ochsner, K. N. (2013). Adapting social neurosci- Fox, P. T., & Raichle, M. E. (1984). Stimulus rate dependence of regional ence measures for schizophrenia clinical trials, Part 1: Ferrying para- cerebral blood flow in human striate cortex, demonstrated by positron digms across perilous waters. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39, 1192–1200. emission tomography. Journal of Neurophysiology, 51, 1109–1120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt131 Frith, C. D. (2007). The social brain? Philosophical Transactions of the Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, Royal Society of London Series B, Biological Sciences, 362, 671–678. J. D. (2001). An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.2003 judgment. Science, 293, 2105–2108. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2006). The neural basis of mentalizing. Neuron, .1062872 50, 531–534. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.05.001 Gur, R. C., & Gur, R. E. (2016). Social cognition as an RDoC domain. Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2008). Implicit and explicit processes in social American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Ge- cognition. Neuron, 60, 503–510. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron netics, 171, 132–141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajmg.b.32394 .2008.10.032 Guyer, A. E., Silk, J. S., & Nelson, E. E. (2016). The neurobiology of the Funamoto, A., & Rinaldi, C. M. (2015). Measuring parent-child mutuality: emotional adolescent: From the inside out. Neuroscience and Biobehav- A review of current observational coding systems. Infant Mental Health ioral Reviews, 70, 74–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.07 Journal, 36, 3–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj.21481 .037 Hamilton, A. F., & Grafton, S. T. (2006). Goal representation in human Furlong, M., McGilloway, S., Bywater, T., Hutchings, J., Smith, S. M., & anterior intraparietal sulcus. The Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 1133– Donnelly, M. (2013). Cochrane review: Behavioural and cognitive- 1137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4551-05.2006 behavioural group-based parenting programmes for early-onset conduct Happé, F., Cook, J. L., & Bird, G. (2017). The structure of social cognition: problems in children aged 3 to 12 years. [review]. Evidence-Based Child In(ter)dependence of sociocognitive processes. Annual Review of Psy- Health: A Cochrane Review Journal, 8, 318–692. http://dx.doi.org/10 chology, 68, 243–267. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416- .1002/ebch.1905 044046 Gallagher, H. L., & Frith, C. D. (2003). Functional imaging of ‘theory of Happé, F., & Frith, U. (2014). Annual research review: Towards a devel- mind’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 77–83. http://dx.doi.org/10 opmental neuroscience of atypical social cognition. Journal of Child .1016/S1364-6613(02)00025-6 Psychology and Psychiatry, 55, 553–557. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp Gallese, V., Fadiga, L., Fogassi, L., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Action .12162 recognition in the premotor cortex. Brain: A Journal of Neurology, Healey, K. M., Bartholomeusz, C. F., & Penn, D. L. (2016). Deficits in 119(Pt 2), 593–609. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/119.2.593 social cognition in first episode psychosis: A review of the literature. Gangitano, M., Mottaghy, F. M., & Pascual-Leone, A. (2004). Modulation Clinical Psychology Review, 50, 108–137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j of premotor mirror neuron activity during observation of unpredictable .cpr.2016.10.001 grasping movements. The European Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 2193– Hein, G., & Singer, T. (2008). I feel how you feel but not always: The 2202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2004.03655.x empathic brain and its modulation. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, Garrigan, B., Adlam, A. L., & Langdon, P. E. (2016). The neural correlates 18, 153–158. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2008.07.012 of moral decision-making: A systematic review and meta-analysis of Henry, J. D., Phillips, L. H., & von Hippel, C. (2014). A meta-analytic moral evaluations and response decision judgements. Brain and Cogni- review of theory of mind difficulties in behavioural-variant frontotem- tion, 108, 88–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2016.07.007 poral dementia. Neuropsychologia, 56, 53–62. http://dx.doi.org/10 Gibson, J., Hussain, J., Holsgrove, S., Adams, C., & Green, J. (2011). .1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.12.024 Quantifying peer interactions for research and clinical use: The Man- Henry, J. D., von Hippel, W., Molenberghs, P., Lee, T., & Sachdev, P. S. chester Inventory for Playground Observation. Research in Developmen- (2016). Clinical assessment of social cognitive function in neurological tal Disabilities, 32, 2458–2466. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2011.07 disorders. Nature Reviews Neurology, 12, 28–39. http://dx.doi.org/10 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. .014 .1038/nrneurol.2015.229 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Giedd, J. N. (2008). The teen brain: Insights from neuroimaging. Journal Heyes, C. (2010). Mesmerising mirror neurons. NeuroImage, 51, 789–791. of Adolescent Health, 42, 335–343. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.02.034 .jadohealth.2008.01.007 Hickok, G. (2009). Eight problems for the mirror neuron theory of action Gill, K. E., Cressman, V., Poe, S. L., Steinfeld, S., Ben-David, S., Keilp, understanding in monkeys and humans. Journal of Cognitive Neurosci- J.G.,...Corcoran, C. (2016). Social inference in individuals at clinical ence, 21, 1229–1243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2009.21189 high risk for psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 10, 77–80. Hillis, A. E. (2014). Inability to empathize: Brain lesions that disrupt http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eip.12182 sharing and understanding another’s emotions. Brain: A Journal of Gomes, A., Rinehart, N., Greenham, M., & Anderson, V. (2014). A critical Neurology, 137(Pt 4), 981–997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/brain/awt317 review of psychosocial outcomes following childhood stroke (1995– Iacoboni, M. (2009). Imitation, empathy, and mirror neurons. Annual 2012). Developmental Neuropsychology, 39, 9–24. http://dx.doi.org/10 Review of Psychology, 60, 653–670. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev .1080/87565641.2013.827197 .psych.60.110707.163604 Gonzalez-Liencres, C., Shamay-Tsoory, S. G., & Brüne, M. (2013). To- Iacoboni, M., Woods, R. P., Brass, M., Bekkering, H., Mazziotta, J. C., & wards a neuroscience of empathy: Ontogeny, phylogeny, brain mecha- Rizzolatti, G. (1999). Cortical mechanisms of human imitation. Science, nisms, context and psychopathology. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral 286, 2526–2528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.286.5449.2526 NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 999

Ibañez, A., & Manes, F. (2012). Contextual social cognition and the findings. Neuropsychology Review, 22, 280–297. http://dx.doi.org/10 behavioral variant of frontotemporal dementia. Neurology, 78, 1354– .1007/s11065-012-9201-6 1362. http://dx.doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182518375 Kurtz, M. M., Gagen, E., Rocha, N. B., Machado, S., & Penn, D. L. (2016). Jackson, P. L., Meltzoff, A. N., & Decety, J. (2006). Neural circuits Comprehensive treatments for social cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: involved in imitation and perspective-taking. NeuroImage, 31, 429–439. A critical review and effect-size analysis of controlled studies. Clinical http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.026 Psychology Review, 43, 80–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2015.09 Jeste, S. S., Frohlich, J., & Loo, S. K. (2015). Electrophysiological bio- .003 markers of diagnosis and outcome in neurodevelopmental disorders. Lalonde, G., Henry, M., Drouin-Germain, A., Nolin, P., & Beauchamp, Current Opinion in Neurology, 28, 110–116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/ M. H. (2013). Assessment of executive function in adolescence: A WCO.0000000000000181 comparison of traditional and virtual reality tools. Journal of Neurosci- Jordan, K., King, M., Hellersteth, S., Wirén, A., & Mulligan, H. (2013). ence Methods, 219, 76–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jneumeth.2013 Feasibility of using a humanoid robot for enhancing attention and social .07.005 skills in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. International Jour- Lamm, C., Bukowski, H., & Silani, G. (2016). From shared to distinct nal of Rehabilitation Research Internationale Zeitschrift fur Rehabilita- self-other representations in empathy: Evidence from neurotypical func- tionsforschung Revue Internationale de Recherches de Readaptation, tion and socio-cognitive disorders. Philosophical Transactions of the 36, 221–227. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MRR.0b013e32835d0b43 Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 371, 20150083. Kahane, G. (2015). Sidetracked by trolleys: Why sacrificial moral dilem- http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0083 mas tell us little (or nothing) about utilitarian judgment. Social Neuro- Leekam, S. (2016). Social cognitive impairment and autism: What are we science, 10, 551–560. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2015 trying to explain? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of .1023400 London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 371, 20150082. http://dx.doi.org/ Kaplan, J. T., & Iacoboni, M. (2006). Getting a grip on other minds: Mirror 10.1098/rstb.2015.0082 neurons, intention understanding, and cognitive empathy. Social Neuro- Lemerise, E. A., & Arsenio, W. F. (2000). An integrated model of emotion science, 1, 175–183. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17470910600985605 processes and cognition in social information processing. Child Devel- Keane, J., Calder, A. J., Hodges, J. R., & Young, A. W. (2002). Face and opment, 71, 107–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00124 emotion processing in frontal variant frontotemporal dementia. Neuro- Levallois, C., Clithero, J. A., Wouters, P., Smidts, A., & Huettel, S. A. psychologia, 40, 655–665. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0028-3932 (2012). Translating upwards: Linking the neural and social sciences via (01)00156-7 neuroeconomics. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 789–797. http://dx Kennedy, D. P., & Adolphs, R. (2012). The social brain in psychiatric and .doi.org/10.1038/nrn3354 neurological disorders. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 559–572. Levenson, R. W., Sturm, V. E., & Haase, C. M. (2014). Emotional and http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2012.09.006 behavioral symptoms in neurodegenerative disease: A model for study- Kensinger, E. A., & Gutchess, A. H. (2017). Cognitive aging in a social ing the neural bases of psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical and affective context: Advances over the past 50 years. The Journals of Psychology, 10, 581–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy- Gerontology Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72, 032813-153653 61–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbw056 Lieberman, M. D. (2012). A geographical history of social cognitive Keysers, C., & Gazzola, V. (2009). Expanding the mirror: Vicarious neuroscience. NeuroImage, 61, 432–436. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j activity for actions, emotions, and sensations. Current Opinion in Neu- .neuroimage.2011.12.089 robiology, 19, 666–671. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2009.10.006 Lindinger, N. M., Malcolm-Smith, S., Dodge, N. C., Molteno, C. D., Kilford, E. J., Garrett, E., & Blakemore, S. J. (2016). The development of Thomas, K. G., Meintjes, E. M.,...Jacobson, S. W. (2016). Theory of social cognition in adolescence: An integrated perspective. Neuroscience mind in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcoholism: and Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 106–120. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j Clinical and Experimental Research, 40, 367–376. http://dx.doi.org/10 .neubiorev.2016.08.016 .1111/acer.12961 Kim, E. S., Berkovits, L. D., Bernier, E. P., Leyzberg, D., Shic, F., Paul, Lozier, L. M., Vanmeter, J. W., & Marsh, A. A. (2014). Impairments in R., & Scassellati, B. (2013). Social robots as embedded reinforcers of facial affect recognition associated with autism spectrum disorders: A social behavior in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Devel- meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 26(4 Pt 1), 933–945. opmental Disorders, 43, 1038–1049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803- http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0954579414000479 012-1645-2 Marsh, L. E., & Hamilton, A. F. (2011). Dissociation of mirroring and Kim, K., Kim, J. J., Kim, J., Park, D. E., Jang, H. J., Ku, J.,...Kim, S. I. mentalising systems in autism. NeuroImage, 56, 1511–1519. http://dx (2007). Characteristics of social perception assessed in schizophrenia .doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.003 using virtual reality. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 10, 215–219. http:// Marshall, P. J., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2011). Neural mirroring systems: This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9966 Exploring the EEG ␮ rhythm in human infancy. Developmental Cogni- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Kling, A. S., & Brothers, L. (1992). The amygdala and social behaviour. In tive Neuroscience, 1, 110–123. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2010.09 J. P. Aggleton (Ed.), The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, .001 memory, and mental dysfunction (pp. 353–377). New York, NY: Wiley- Martin, A. K., Dzafic, I., Robinson, G. A., Reutens, D., & Mowry, B. Liss. (2016). Mentalizing in schizophrenia: A multivariate functional MRI Koscik, T. R., & Tranel, D. (2012). Brain evolution and human neuropsy- study. Neuropsychologia, 93(Pt A), 158–166. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ chology: The inferential brain hypothesis. Journal of the International j.neuropsychologia.2016.10.013 Neuropsychological Society, 18, 394–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ Matto, H. C., & Strolin-Goltzman, J. (2010). Integrating social neurosci- S1355617712000264 ence and social work: Innovations for advancing practice-based re- Ku, J., Han, K., Lee, H. R., Jang, H. J., Kim, K. U., Park, S. H.,...Kim, search. Social Work, 55, 147–156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sw/55.2 S. I. (2007). VR-based conversation training program for patients with .147 schizophrenia: A preliminary clinical trial. Cyberpsychology & Behav- Matusall, S., Christen, M., & Kaufman, I. (2011). Historical perspectives ior, 10, 567–574. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.9989 on social neuroscience. In J. Decety & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Oxford Kumfor, F., & Piguet, O. (2012). Disturbance of emotion processing in handbook of social neuroscience (pp. 9–27). Oxford: Oxford University frontotemporal dementia: A synthesis of cognitive and neuroimaging Press. 1000 BEAUCHAMP

Mazza, M., Pino, M. C., Mariano, M., Tempesta, D., Ferrara, M., De Ochsner, K. N. (2008). The social-emotional processing stream: Five core Berardis, D.,...Valenti, M. (2014). Affective and cognitive empathy in constructs and their translational potential for schizophrenia and beyond. adolescents with autism spectrum disorder. Frontiers in Human Neuro- Biological Psychiatry, 64, 48–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych science, 8, 791. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2014.00791 .2008.04.024 McConachie, H., Parr, J. R., Glod, M., Hanratty, J., Livingstone, N., Oono, Ochsner, K. N., & Lieberman, M. D. (2001). The emergence of social I.P.,...Williams, K. (2015). Systematic review of tools to measure cognitive neuroscience. American Psychologist, 56, 717–734. http://dx outcomes for young children with autism spectrum disorder. Health .doi.org/10.1037//0O03-066X.56.9.717 Technology Assessment, 19, 1–506. http://dx.doi.org/10.3310/hta19410 Okruszek, L., & Pilecka, I. (2017). Biological motion processing in schizo- McDonald, S. (2013). Impairments in social cognition following severe phrenia: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophrenia Research. traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological [Advance online publication.] http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2017.03 Society, 19, 231–246. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355617712001506 .013 Miller, B. L., Diehl, J., Freedman, M., Kertesz, A., Mendez, M., & Otero, T. L., Schatz, R. B., Merrill, A. C., & Bellini, S. (2015). Social skills Rascovsky, K. (2003). International approaches to frontotemporal de- training for youth with autism spectrum disorders: A follow-up. Child mentia diagnosis: From social cognition to neuropsychology. Annals of and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24, 99–115. Neurology, 54(Suppl. 5), S7–S10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ana.10568 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2014.09.002 Mills, K. L., Lalonde, F., Clasen, L. S., Giedd, J. N., & Blakemore, S. J. Park, K. M., Ku, J., Park, I. H., Park, J. Y., Kim, S. I., & Kim, J. J. (2009). (2014). Developmental changes in the structure of the social brain in late Improvement in social competence in patients with schizophrenia: A childhood and adolescence. Social Cognitive and Affective Neurosci- pilot study using a performance-based measure using virtual reality. ence, 9, 123–131. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss113 Human , 24, 619–627. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ Mitchell, P., Parsons, S., & Leonard, A. (2007). Using virtual environments hup.1071 for teaching social understanding to 6 adolescents with autistic spectrum Parsons, S., Mitchell, P., & Leonard, A. (2004). The use and understanding disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 589– of virtual environments by adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders. 600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0189-8 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34, 449–466. http:// Moll, J., de Oliveira-Souza, R., & Eslinger, P. J. (2003). Morals and the dx.doi.org/10.1023/B:JADD.0000037421.98517.8d Parsons, S., Mitchell, P., & Leonard, A. (2005). Do adolescents with human brain: A working model. NeuroReport, 14, 299–305. http://dx autistic spectrum disorders adhere to social conventions in virtual envi- .doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200303030-00001 ronments? Autism, 9, 95–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/136236130 Moll, J., Zahn, R., de Oliveira-Souza, R., Krueger, F., & Grafman, J. 5049032 (2005). Opinion: The neural basis of human moral cognition. Nature Parsons, T. D., Gaggioli, A., & Riva, G. (2017). Virtual reality for research Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 799–809. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn1768 in social neuroscience. Brain Sciences, 7, E42. [Advance online publi- Mortensen, J. A., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2014). A meta-analytic review cation.] http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci7040042 of relationship-based interventions for low-income families with infants Parsons, T. D., Rizzo, A. A., Rogers, S., & York, P. (2009). Virtual reality and toddlers: Facilitating supportive parent-child interactions. Infant in paediatric rehabilitation: A review. Developmental Neurorehabilita- Mental Health Journal, 35, 336–353. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/imhj tion, 12, 224–238. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17518420902991719 .21451 Pavone, E. F., Tieri, G., Rizza, G., Tidoni, E., Grisoni, L., & Aglioti, S. M. Mueser, K. T., Deavers, F., Penn, D. L., & Cassisi, J. E. (2013). Psycho- (2016). Embodying others in immersive virtual reality: Electro-cortical social treatments for schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychol- signatures of monitoring the errors in the actions of an avatar seen from ogy, 9, 465–497. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212- a first-person perspective. The Journal of Neuroscience, 36, 268–279. 185620 http://dx.doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0494-15.2016 Murphy, S. M., Faulkner, D. M., & Reynolds, L. R. (2014). A randomised Payne, J. M., Porter, M., Pride, N. A., & North, K. N. (2016). Theory of controlled trial of a computerised intervention for children with social mind in children with Neurofibromatosis Type 1. Neuropsychology, 30, communication difficulties to support peer collaboration. Research in 439–448. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000262 Developmental Disabilities, 35, 2821–2839. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j Pelphrey, K., Adolphs, R., & Morris, J. P. (2004). Neuroanatomical sub- .ridd.2014.07.026 strates of social cognition dysfunction in autism. Mental Retardation and Murza, K. A., Schwartz, J. B., Hahs-Vaughn, D. L., & Nye, C. (2016). Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 10, 259–271. http://dx Joint attention interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder: .doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20040 A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Lan- Penn, D. L., Roberts, D. L., Combs, D., & Sterne, A. (2007). Best guage & Communication Disorders, 51, 236–251. http://dx.doi.org/10 practices: The development of the Social Cognition and Interaction .1111/1460-6984.12212 Training program for schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Psychiatric This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health & Social Care Institute Services, 58, 449–451. http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ps.2007.58.4.449 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. for Excellence. (2013). Antisocial behaviour and conduct disorders in Penn, P. R., Rose, F. D., & Johnson, D. A. (2009). Virtual enriched children and young people: Recognition, intervention and management. environments in paediatric neuropsychological rehabilitation following Leicester, : The British Psychological Society & The traumatic brain injury: Feasibility, benefits and challenges. Developmen- Royal College of . tal , 12, 32–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ Nikolaides, A., Miess, S., Auvera, I., Müller, R., Klosterkötter, J., & 17518420902739365 Ruhrmann, S. (2016). Restricted attention to social cues in schizophrenia Pfeifer, J. H., & Blakemore, S. J. (2012). Adolescent social cognitive and patients. European Archives of Psychiatry and , affective neuroscience: Past, present, and future. Social Cognitive and 266, 649–661. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00406-016-0705-6 Affective Neuroscience, 7, 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr099 Northoff, G. (2010). Humans, brains, and their environment: Marriage Pinkham, A. E., Hopfinger, J. B., Pelphrey, K. A., Piven, J., & Penn, D. L. between neuroscience and anthropology? Neuron, 65, 748–751. http:// (2008). Neural bases for impaired social cognition in schizophrenia and dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2010.02.024 autism spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 99, 164–175. http:// Ochsner, K. N. (2004). Current directions in social cognitive neuroscience. dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.10.024 Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14, 254–258. http://dx.doi.org/10 Pinkham, A. E., Penn, D. L., Green, M. F., Buck, B., Healey, K., & Harvey, .1016/j.conb.2004.03.011 P. D. (2014). The social cognition psychometric evaluation study: Re- NEUROPSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIAL NEUROSCIENCE 1001

sults of the expert survey and RAND panel. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 40, Schaafsma, S. M., Pfaff, D. W., Spunt, R. P., & Adolphs, R. (2015). 813–823. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbt081 Deconstructing and reconstructing theory of mind. Trends in Cognitive Port, R. G., Gandal, M. J., Roberts, T. P., Siegel, S. J., & Carlson, G. C. Sciences, 19, 65–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.11.007 (2014). Convergence of circuit dysfunction in ASD: A common bridge Scourfield, J., Martin, N., Lewis, G., & McGuffin, P. (1999). Heritability between diverse genetic and environmental risk factors and common of social cognitive skills in children and adolescents. The British Journal clinical electrophysiology. Frontiers in , 8, 414. of Psychiatry, 175, 559–564. http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.175.6.559 http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fncel.2014.00414 Sevinc, G., & Spreng, R. N. (2014). Contextual and perceptual brain Puente, A. E. (1989). Historical perspectives in the development of neu- processes underlying moral cognition: A quantitative meta-analysis of ropsychology as a professional discipline. In C. R. Reynolds & E. moral reasoning and . PLoS ONE, 9, e87427. http://dx Fletcher-Janzen (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child neuropsychology (pp. .doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0087427 3–16). Boston, MA: Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899- Shany-Ur, T., & Rankin, K. P. (2011). Personality and social cognition in 6807-4_1 neurodegenerative disease. Current Opinion in Neurology, 24, 550–555. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/WCO.0b013e32834cd42a Raleigh, M. J., & Steklis, H. D. (1981). Effect of orbitofrontal and Shaw, D. J., & Czekóová, K. (2013). Exploring the development of the temporal neocortical lesions of the affiliative behavior of vervet mirror neuron system: Finding the right paradigm. Developmental Neu- monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus). Experimental Neurology, ropsychology, 38, 256–271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2013 73, 378–389. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(81)90273-9 .783832 Ramsey, R., Hansen, P., Apperly, I., & Samson, D. (2013). Seeing it my Singer, T. (2012). The past, present and future of social neuroscience: A way or your way: Frontoparietal brain areas sustain viewpoint- European perspective. NeuroImage, 61, 437–449. http://dx.doi.org/10 independent perspective selection processes. Journal of Cognitive Neu- .1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.109 roscience, 25, 670–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/jocn_a_00345 Singer, T., & Lamm, C. (2009). The social neuroscience of empathy. Rizzolatti, G., & Craighero, L. (2004). The mirror-neuron system. Annual Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1156, 81–96. http://dx Review of Neuroscience, 27, 169–192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/ .doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04418.x annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230 Spooner, D. M., & Pachana, N. A. (2006). Ecological validity in neuro- Rizzolatti, G., & Fabbri-Destro, M. (2008). The mirror system and its role psychological assessment: A case for greater consideration in research in social cognition. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 179–184. with neurologically intact populations. Archives of Clinical Neuropsy- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2008.08.001 chology, 21, 327–337. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2006.04.004 Rizzolatti, G., & Sinigaglia, C. (2010). The functional role of the parieto- Steinberg, L. (2008). A social neuroscience perspective on adolescent frontal mirror circuit: Interpretations and misinterpretations. Nature Re- risk-taking. Developmental Review, 28, 78–106. http://dx.doi.org/10 views Neuroscience, 11, 264–274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2805 .1016/j.dr.2007.08.002 Robillard, G., Bouchard, S., Dumoulin, S., Guitard, T., & Klinger, E. Stuss, D. T., & Levine, B. (2002). Adult clinical neuropsychology: Lessons (2010). Using virtual humans to alleviate social anxiety: Preliminary from studies of the frontal lobes. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, report from a comparative outcome study. Studies in Health Technology 401–433. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135220 and Informatics, 154, 57–60. Suchy, Y. (2011). Clinical neuropsychology of emotion. New York, NY: Roland, P. E., Meyer, E., Shibasaki, T., Yamamoto, Y. L., & Thompson, Guilford Press. C. J. (1982). Regional cerebral blood flow changes in cortex and basal Tan, B. L., Lee, S. A., & Lee, J. (2016). Social cognitive interventions for ganglia during voluntary movements in normal human volunteers. Jour- people with schizophrenia: A systematic review. Asian Journal of Psy- nal of Neurophysiology, 48, 467–480. chiatry. [Advance online publication.] Romine, C. B., & Reynolds, C. R. (2005). A model of the development of Tarr, M. J., & Warren, W. H. (2002). Virtual reality in behavioral neuro- frontal lobe functioning: Findings from a meta-analysis. Applied Neu- science and beyond. Nature Neuroscience, 5(Suppl.), 1089–1092. http:// ropsychology, 12, 190–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324826an dx.doi.org/10.1038/nn948 1204_2 Telford, E. J., Fletcher-Watson, S., Gillespie-Smith, K., Pataky, R., Spar- Rose, F. D., Brooks, B. M., & Rizzo, A. A. (2005). Virtual reality in brain row, S., Murray, I. C.,...Boardman, J. P. (2016). Preterm birth is damage rehabilitation: Review. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8, 241– associated with atypical social orienting in infancy detected using eye tracking. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 861–868. 262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2005.8.241 http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12546 Rosema, S., Crowe, L., & Anderson, V. (2012). Social function in children Todorov, A., Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Toward socially inspired and adolescents after traumatic brain injury: A systematic review 1989– social neuroscience. Brain Research, 1079, 76–85. http://dx.doi.org/10 2011. Journal of Neurotrauma, 29, 1277–1291. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/j.brainres.2005.12.114 This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. .1089/neu.2011.2144 Tousignant, B., Eugene, F., & Jackson, P. L. (2016). A developmental This article is intended solely for the personal use ofRosen, the individual user and is not to be disseminated H. broadly. J., Pace-Savitsky, K., Perry, R. J., Kramer, J. H., Miller, B. L., perspective on the neural bases of human empathy. Infant Behavior and & Levenson, R. W. (2004). Recognition of emotion in the frontal and Development, 48, 5–12. [Advance online publication.] http://dx.doi.org/ temporal variants of frontotemporal dementia. Dementia and Geriatric 10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.11.006 Cognitive Disorders, 17, 277–281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000077154 Turkstra, L. S., Abbeduto, L., & Meulenbroek, P. (2014). Social cognition Ruff, R. M. (2003). A friendly critique of neuropsychology: Facing the in adolescent girls with . American Journal on Intel- challenges of our future. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 18, lectual and Developmental Disabilities, 119, 319–339. http://dx.doi.org/ 847–864. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acn.2003.07.002 10.1352/1944-7558-119.4.319 Samuels, B. M. (2009). Can the differences between education and neu- Vakil, E. (2012). Neuropsychological assessment: Principles, rationale, and roscience be overcome by mind, brain, and education? Mind, Brain, and challenges. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 34, Education, 3, 45–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2008 135–150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2011.623121 .01052.x Verweij, M., Senior, T. J., Dominguez, D. J., & Turner, R. (2015). Saxe, R. (2006). Uniquely human social cognition. Current Opinion in Emotion, rationality, and decision-making: How to link affective and Neurobiology, 16, 235–239. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.03 social neuroscience with social theory. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, .001 332. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00332 1002 BEAUCHAMP

Vivanti, G., Trembath, D., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). Mechanisms of Woodward, A. L., & Gerson, S. A. (2014). Mirroring and the development imitation impairment in autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Abnormal of action understanding. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society Child Psychology, 42, 1395–1405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802- of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 369, 20130181. http://dx.doi 014-9874-9 .org/10.1098/rstb.2013.0181 Vogeley, K., May, M., Ritzl, A., Falkai, P., Zilles, K., & Fink, G. R. Yeates, K. O., Bigler, E. D., Dennis, M., Gerhardt, C. A., Rubin, K. H., (2004). Neural correlates of first-person perspective as one constituent of Stancin, T.,...Vannatta, K. (2007). Social outcomes in childhood brain human self-. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 817– disorder: A heuristic integration of social neuroscience and developmen- 827. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/089892904970799 tal psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 535–556. http://dx.doi.org/ Vrijhof, C. I., van den Bulk, B. G., Overgaauw, S., Lelieveld, G. J., Engels, 10.1037/0033-2909.133.3.535 R. C., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2016). The Prosocial Cyberball Game: Zaki, J., & Ochsner, K. (2009). The need for a cognitive neuroscience of Compensating for social exclusion and its associations with empathic naturalistic social cognition. Annals of the New York Academy of Sci- concern and bullying in adolescents. Journal of Adolescence, 52, 27–36. ences, 1167, 16–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.07.005 .04601.x Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory- Zelazo, P. D., & Paus, T. (2010). Developmental social neuroscience: An of-mind development: The truth about false . Child Development, introduction. Social Neuroscience, 5, 417–421. http://dx.doi.org/10 72, 655–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00304 .1080/17470919.2010.510002 Will, G. J., Crone, E. A., van Lier, P. A., & Gürog˘lu, B. (2016). Neural Zwaigenbaum, L., Bryson, S., & Garon, N. (2013). Early identification of correlates of retaliatory and prosocial reactions to social exclusion: autism spectrum disorders. Behavioural Brain Research, 251, 133–146. Associations with chronic peer rejection. Developmental Cognitive Neu- http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2013.04.004 roscience, 19, 288–297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2016.05.004 Wittenberg, D., Possin, K. L., Rascovsky, K., Rankin, K. P., Miller, B. L., & Kramer, J. H. (2008). The early neuropsychological and behavioral Received February 27, 2017 characteristics of frontotemporal dementia. Neuropsychology Review, Revision received June 13, 2017 18, 91–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11065-008-9056-z Accepted June 18, 2017 Ⅲ

E-Mail Notification of Your Latest Issue Online!

Would you like to know when the next issue of your favorite APA journal will be available online? This service is now available to you. Sign up at https://my.apa.org/portal/alerts/ and you will be notified by e-mail when issues of interest to you become available! This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.