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Social Cognitive Neuroscience Chapter 5 Social Cognitive Neuroscience M ATTHEW D . L IEBERMAN Who we are as humans has a lot to do with what happens have become leaders in the field, despite few having pub- between our ears. What happens between our ears has a lot lished social cognitive neuroscience findings at that point. to do with the social world we traverse, engage, and react There were introductory talks on social cognition and cog- to. The former has been the province of neuroscience and nitive neuroscience by Neil Macrae and Jonathan Cohen, the latter the province of social psychology for nearly a respectively, along with symposia on stereotyping (William century. Recently, scientists have begun to study the social Cunningham, Jennifer Eberhardt, Matthew Lieberman, mind by literally looking between the ears using the tools and Wendy Mendes), self - control (Todd Heatherton, Kevin of neuroscience. Social cognitive neuroscience uses the tools Ochsner, and Cary Savage), emotion (Ralph Adolphs, of neuroscience to study the mental mechanisms that cre- Turhan Canli, Elizabeth Phelps, and Stephanie Preston), ate, frame, regulate, and respond to our experience of the imitation and social relations (Alan Fiske, Marco Iacoboni, social world. On its worst days, social cognitive neurosci- David Perrett, and Andrew Whiten), and theory of mind ence is phrenological, cataloguing countless brain regions (Chris Ashwin, Josep Call, Vittorio Gallese, and Kevin involved in the vast array of social processes. On its best McCabe). If this meeting represented the first time that all days, social cognitive neuroscience enhances our under- of the ingredients of social cognitive neuroscience were standing of the social mind as well as any other method. mixed together in a single pot, the water was already boil- The goals of this handbook chapter are to give an ing when the ingredients were tossed in. To appreciate overview of the human history of this research area how the pot got this way, several historical strands must (Section I), to summarize the techniques common to this be highlighted. approach (Section II), to survey the functional neuro- In the early 1990s, John Cacioppo used the term “ social anatomy of social cognition (Section III), and to discuss neuroscience ” (Cacioppo, 1994) to characterize how the how brain research can make specific contributions to the social world affects the nervous system. Work in this area social psychological enterprise (Section IV). A special was mostly health relevant (Berntson, Sarter, & Cacioppo, note to social psychologists with little intrinsic interest in 1998; Kiecolt - Glaser & Glaser, 1989; Segerstrom, Taylor, the brain trying to determine whether social cognitive neu- Kemeny, & Fahey, 1998) or animal research (Carter, 1998; roscience is worth getting acquainted with: Go straight to Insel & Winslow, 1998; Panksepp, 1998) examining the Section IV. impact of social factors on the autonomic, neuroendocrine, and immune systems (Blascovich & Mendes, this volume). In other words, early social neuroscience primarily focused I. HISTORY on how the social world affects the peripheral nervous system and other bodily systems. Although neurocognitive mecha- The Oxford Dictionary of Psychology (Colman, 2006) nisms clearly fall under the umbrella of social neuroscience, identifies a 2001 conference, held at the University of there were few investigations linking social processes with California, Los Angeles, as a starting point for social cog- brain processes during the 1990s. Social cognitive neuro- nitive neuroscience. This was the first formal meeting on science represented a new arm of social neuroscience that social cognitive neuroscience, and many of the attendees primarily focused on the neurocognitive mechanisms of I would like to thank Naomi Eisenberger and members of the UCLA Social Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory for various discussions about the contents of this chapter. 143 Handbook of Social Psychology, edited by Susan T. Fiske, Daniel T. Gilbert, and Gardner Lindzey. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 144 Social Cognitive Neuroscience everyday social cognition. Subsequently, the terms “ social cognitive processes that were seemingly similar. These cognitive neuroscience ” and “ social neuroscience ” have lines of research are the precursors of social cognitive neu- largely become synonymous because the domains and meth- roscience and served as inspiration for many who would ods of study have merged. go on to work in this area. Although social cognitive neuroscience reached its Finally, a great deal of human capital was spent bring- boiling point around 2001, with numerous scientists begin- ing social cognitive neuroscience into existence. Influential ning to use neuroscience methods to study social cogni- scientists already doing social neuroscience, such as John tion, there were isolated programs of research focusing on Cacioppo and Ralph Adolphs, helped promote funding for social cognitive neuroscience in the 1990s. Antonio and and publication of social cognitive neuroscience research. Hannah Damasio ’ s work on the socioemotional changes in Established top - notch social psychologists including Todd individuals with ventromedial prefrontal cortex (PFC; see Heatherton, Mahzarin Banaji, Neil Macrae, and Susan Table 5.1 for a list of acronyms and neuroscience terms Fiske began conducting social cognitive neuroscience used in this chapter) (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & research and lent much - needed credibility to the fledg- Anderson, 1994) sparked great interest in social cognitive ling area of research. Finally, Steve Breckler and Carolyn neuroscience, affective neuroscience (Panksepp, 1998), Morf, program officers at the National Science Foundation and neuroeconomics (Camerer, Loewenstein, & Prelec, (NSF) and National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), 2005). Chris and Uta Frith began an extremely fruitful line respectively, had the vision to fund young scientists in this of research on the neural bases of theory of mind in the area, before the area even existed. mid - 1990s (Fletcher et al., 1995), a topic that is founda- Stir all these ingredients together and drop in a generous tional within social cognitive neuroscience. Stan Klein and helping of motivated graduate students and, voilà: social John Kihlstrom examined self - knowledge by examining a cognitive neuroscience. In 2000, the term “ social cognitive patient with temporary amnesia, providing the best early neuroscience ” first appeared in two papers (Lieberman, example of how neuroscience could provide constraints on 2000; Ochsner & Schachter, 2000), and the first functional social psychological theories (Klein, Loftus, & Kihlstrom, magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study examining a 1996). Research on the neural bases of face and biologi- traditional social psychology topic was published (Phelps cal motion processing were relatively advanced in this et al., 2000). In 2001, the first review of social cogni- period (McCarthy, Puce, Gore, & Allison, 1997), but not tive neuroscience was published (Ochsner & Lieberman, yet in a way that resonated with traditional social psycho- 2001), although, in truth, the paucity of published research logical questions. Finally, Cacioppo, Crites, and Gardner at that time made this review as much a promissory note as (1996) examined the neural bases of attitudes and evalu- a progress report. ative processing using event - related potentials (ERPs) In the decade since, social cognitive neuroscience has and demonstrated important dissociations between social gone through an explosion. In 2001, a Google search for “ social cognitive neuroscience ” returned 6 hits. In 2009, the same search returned over 52,000 hits (see Figure 5.1 ). Table 5.1 Acronyms and Jargon in Social Cognitive Neuroscience Similarly, the number of empirical social cognitive neuro- PFC Prefrontal Cortex science articles published each year has steadily increased from 2000 through 2008 (see Figure 5.1 ). There have been STS Superior Temporal Sulcus numerous literature reviews of social cognitive neurosci- TPJ Tempoparietal Junction ence (Adolphs, 2001; Amodio & Frith, 2006; Bechara, FFA Fusiform “Face” Area 2002; Blakemore, Winston, & Frith, 2004; Lieberman, ACC Anterior Cingulate Cortex 2007a; Ochsner, 2004, 2007), not to mention a few cri- Anterior Towards the front of the brain tiques (Cacioppo et al., 2003; Kihlstrom, 2006; Vul, Harris, Posterior Towards the back of the brain Winkielman, & Pashler, 2009; Willingham & Dunn, 2003). Rostral Towards the front of the brain There have been special issues on social cognitive neurosci- Caudal Towards the back of the brain ence in several journals, including Journal of Personality Dorsal Towards the top of the brain and Social Psychology (2003), Neuropsychologia (2003), Ventral Towards the bottom of the brain Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience (2004), Neuroimage (2005), Brain Research (2006), New York Academy of Superior Towards the top of the brain Sciences (2007), Group Processes and Intergroup Relations Inferior Towards the bottom of the brain (2008), and Child Development (2009). Two new jour- Lateral Away from the middle of the brain nals were founded in 2006 to focus on this area of study: Medial Towards the middle of the brain Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience (SCAN) and Methods and Analysis 145 Google hits for SCN (cumulative) 60000 52600 42700 40000 29500 21600 Number of Hits 20000 3530 6 115 346 922 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Year Empirical SCN publications (per
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