FROM NEGLECTED SPACE TO PROTECTED PLACE AN ADMINISTRATIVE HISTORY OF MOJAVE NATIONAL PRESERVE Prepared for: U.S. Department of the Interior National Park Service Mojave National Preserve Prepared by: Eric Charles Nystrom Great Basin CESU Cooperative Agreement H8R0701001 March 2003 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I still vividly remember the way I met this thesis. My advisor, Dr. Hal Rothman, casually pitched it to me: “I have a project that would be cool, but it would take a year and probably rearrange your schedule.” Yes, every bit as promised. I really need to thank Dr. Rothman for everything he has done for me. I couldn’t possibly list even a fraction of the debts I owe him, big and small. It will have to suffice to say that he’s taught me a lot, and I’m a much better historian than I ever thought I could be at this stage because of his guidance. I’ll never forget his lessons, the explicit ones and the silent ones alike. I'd also like to convey my deep gratitude to Dr. David Wrobel, Dr. Andrew Kirk, and Francisco Menendez, who served on my M.A. Committee at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and to Dr. Bill Leslie, my Ph.D. advisor in the Department of the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology at Johns Hopkins University, for his patience as I finish the revisions to this project. The employees of the National Park Service, especially the current and former staff of Mojave National Preserve, have been wonderful throughout the project. They put up with my questions and tolerated my miscues, and I can only hope that this history does them justice. I'd like to specifically thank Dave Anderson, Gordon Chappell, Bob Conway, Jean de los Reyes, Tim Duncan, Kelly Hawk-Mee, Marv Jensen, Mary “Jeff” Karraker, Andy Lesczykowski, Gretchen Luxenberg, Mary Martin, Janet McDonnell, Sean McGuinness, Kristy McMillan, David Moore, Tom Mulhern, Ruby Newton, Dave Paulissen, Gordon Pine, Barbara Schneider, Dennis Schramm, Doug Scovill, Linda Slater, Ted Weasma, and Danette Woo for sharing their experiences, comments, assistance, and time with me. I'd like to acknowledge a professional debt to Elisabeth M. Infield and the late Frank Wheat for their important accounts of the California Desert Protection Act. Like any other historian who might attempt to write about the eastern Mojave, my indebtedness to Dennis iii Casebier is substantial. His well-researched series of books form the backbone of any historical study, and his incredible archive collections are a priceless resource for any future account of the history of the park's lands. My own account of the pre-park history of the area which is now Mojave National Preserve relies heavily on his research, though any mistakes in interpretation are, of course, mine alone. Bill Fullerton, my desert chauffeur, was a tremendous help and an honest friend - how they squeezed such a big heart into such a rough exterior, I’ll never know. My families, the one I’ve had for decades now and the one I formally acquired only months ago, cheered me on through the entire ordeal. I hope Bruce Nystrom and Herbert Nystrom would have approved of my efforts. Rachel Diane Land Nystrom is my best friend in the world. She’s smart, caring, hilarious and tender, beautiful and considerate, helpful, warm and utterly unique. She married me, and I’m the luckiest guy on the planet. I dedicate this text to her. Eric Charles Nystrom Baltimore, Maryland iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..............................................................................................................iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................................................vii One: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1 Two: PRELUDE TO SYSTEMATIC FEDERAL MANAGEMENT............................................9 Native Americans and Anglo Contact.........................................................................................9 Grazing......................................................................................................................................16 Mining.......................................................................................................................................21 Railroads...................................................................................................................................27 Homesteading............................................................................................................................31 Modern Roads and Rights of Way............................................................................................33 Modern Military Training.........................................................................................................38 Recreation.................................................................................................................................40 Three: BLM MANAGEMENT IN THE EAST MOJAVE..........................................................46 FLPMA and the Desert Plan.....................................................................................................48 The East Mojave National Scenic Area and the Genesis of the CDPA....................................51 The Political Battle Over the CDPA.........................................................................................60 Four: AN AWKWARD START AND THREATS OF AN EARLY END...................................75 The Dollar Budget.....................................................................................................................86 Five: PLANNING FOR MOJAVE’S FUTURE...........................................................................98 Six: PARK MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION........................................................119 Seven: VISITOR SERVICES.....................................................................................................137 Resource and Visitor Protection..............................................................................................138 Interpretation...........................................................................................................................155 Eight: RESOURCE MANAGEMENT.......................................................................................168 Natural Resources...................................................................................................................168 Cultural Resources..................................................................................................................186 Nine: FUTURES.........................................................................................................................206 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................................................209 v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Illustration 1 - Joshua tree and buckhorn cholla..............................................................................2 Illustration 2 - Prehistoric petroglyphs at Indian Well..................................................................10 Illustration 3 - The 7IL Ranch.......................................................................................................18 Illustration 4 - Stone walls of 1880s-era Providence.....................................................................24 Illustration 5 - U.S. Highway 66, Essex, California......................................................................35 Illustration 6 - High-tension power wires and associated infrastructure.......................................37 Illustration 7 - Visitor's center for Providence Mountains State Recreation Area........................41 Illustration 8 - Zzyzx......................................................................................................................43 Illustration 9 - Four-wheel drive vehicles traveling the Mojave Road..........................................55 Illustration 10 - Painted sign opposing S.21..................................................................................65 Illustration 11 - Cross on Sunrise Rock.......................................................................................128 Illustration 12 - Solar panels at Hole-in-the-Wall........................................................................134 Illustration 13 - Mojave National Preserve entrance monument.................................................135 Illustration 14 - Official logo of Mojave National Preserve........................................................136 Illustration 15 - Buildings at the New Trail Mine........................................................................141 Illustration 16 - Graffiti on Kelbaker Road..................................................................................143 Illustration 17 - The Union Pacific Railroad................................................................................145 Illustration 18 - Kelso Depot........................................................................................................156 Illustration 19 - NPS visitors' center at Hole-in-the-Wall............................................................161 Illustration 20 - Lake Tuendae at Zzyzx......................................................................................176 Illustration 21 - Desert cattle.......................................................................................................179