Virginia Negro Soldiers and Seamen in the American Revolution

TH E JO URNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

Vol. XXVII-July, 1942-No. 3

VIRGINIA NEGRO SOLDIERS AND SEAMEN IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION To wage war againstthe Britishin the AmericanRevo- lution,the State of Virginiafurnished four military units -the continentalline, for servicein the continentalarmy, the State line, the State militia,and the State navy. Ne- groes,slave and free,fought in each of thesebranches with perhapsthe largestnumber serving in the navy. Some of themvolunteered, some were drafted; others served as sub- stitutesfor their masters. Naturallythe militaryrank of the Virginia Negro in the Revolutionwas thatof a private,although in the navy

BIBLIOGRAPHY ManuscriptSources The Archivesof theUnited States, Washington, D. C. PensionClaims Papers, ArchivesBuilding The Archivesof Virginia,Richmond, Virginia Auditor'sAcocunt Book, 1786,State Library Auditor's Papers. State Boats, State Library ExecutivePapers, State Library Journalsof the Navy Board, 1776-1779,State Library Land BountyWarrants, State Library LegislativePetitions, State Library MilitaryCertificates, Vols. I, II, III, Land Office Officers,Seamen, and Vessels. State Navy,1776-1779, State Library Papers Concerningthe State Navy,Vols. I, II, State Library RejectedClaims Papers, State Library RevolutionarySoldiers, Vol. V, State Library 247 248 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY a numberserved as able seamen,rather than ordinary seamen. There were also in the navy a fewpilots, drummers, boatswain'smates, and a gunner'smate. In the armysev- eral Negroes distinguishedthemselves as spies. Manual laborerswere numerousin the army and navy,and their services were valuable; but this article confinesitself to combatantsonly. In severalNorthern States Negrotroops were organized in separateregiments, but in Virginia,because of relatively smallernumbers, they fought side by side with the white soldier. The mixingof whitesand Negroeswas especially commonin the navy of the State. Virginia Negro troops foughtin many of the major battles of the Revolution- Brandywine,Germantown, Monmouth, Charleston, Savan- nah, Camden,and finallyat Yorktownin theirhome State. The termof servicecorresponded to that of all otherper-

The Archives of Cities and Counties, Clerks' Offices Register of Free Negroes and Mulattoes Deed Books Order Books (Minute Books) Will Books. Laws and GovernmentDocuments United States Heads of Families. First Census of the United States. Records of State Enumerations: 1772 to 1785. Washington: GovernmentPrint- ing Office,1908 Pension Establishment of the United States. Report from the Secre- tary of War in Obedience to Resolutions of the Senate of the 5th and 30th of June, 1834, and the 3rd of March, 1835. Washington, 1835. Virginia Acts of the Assembly Guild, June P. (Ed.) The Black Laws of Virginia. Richmond: Whittett and Shepperson, 1936 Hening, William W. Statutes at Large of Virginia. Richmond, 1819-1820 Journals of the House of Delegates McIlwaine, H. R. (Ed.) OfficialLetters of the Governor of Virginia. 3 Volumes. Richmond: Davis Bottom, 1926 Palmer, William P. (Ed.) Calendar of Virginia State Papers Proceedings of Convention of Delegates for the Counties and Corpora- VIRGINIA NEGROIN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 249 sons. Some foughtthrough the entire period; othersserved fora fewmonths only. There were some instancesof slaves givingtheir alle- gianceto theBritish. Duringa shortinterval in 1775-1776, forexample, several hundred Negro slaves foughtwith the Britishand Tories in thevicinity of Norfolkunder the com- mand of Lord Dunmore,the dethronedgovernor of Vir- ginia,following his emancipationproclamation. Since Dun- more's expeditionfailed dismally and inasmuchas his proc- lamationhad no permanenteffect in liberatinghis black regiment,this whole event and otherminor episodes lose historicalinterest when compared with the victorythe Ne- gro soldiersand seamenhelped to achievein the American cause. The naval establishmentof the continentalgovernment embracednot only the well knowncontinental navy but also

tion of the Colonyof Virginia. Held at Riehmond,March 20, 1775. Richmond,1816. Begistersof BevolutionarySoldiers Burgess,Louis A. (Ed.) VirginiaSoldiers of 1776. Compiledfrom Docu- mentson filein the Virginia Land Office. Richmond,1927. Eckenrode,Hamilton J. (Ed.) List of RevolutionarySoldiers of Virginia. Richmond:Davis Bottom,1912. Gwathmey,John H. (Ed.) HistoricalRegister of Virginiansin theRevolu- tion. Soldiers,Sailors, and Marines. 1775-1783. Richmond:Dietz Press, 1938. MeAllister,J. T. VirginiaMilitia in theRevolutionary War. Hot Springs (Va.): McAllisterPublishing Company, 1913. Nottingham,Stratton, (Ed.) RevolutionarySoldiers and Sailors from Lancaster County,Virginia, Onancock, Virginia, 1930. RevolutionarySoldiers and Sailors fromAccomae County, Virginia. Onancock,1927. RevolutionarySoldiers and Sailors from Northampton County,Virginia, Onancock,1929. Stewart,Robert A. The Historyof Virginia's Navy of the Revolution. Richmond:Mitchell and Hotchkiss,1933. Newspapersand Magazines RichmondEnquirer SouthernLiterary Messenger, Vols. XXIV-XXV, 1857 Virginia Gazette VirginiaHistorical Register, Vol. VI, 1852. 250 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

eleven state navies. In the Virginia navy therewere ap- proximatelyforty vessels-ships, brigs,brigantines, sloops, galleys,armed pilot boats,and barges-each of whichwas mountedwith ten or more guns. The crews fluctuatedin number; sometimesthere were less than twenty-five,at other times there were more than a hundred. Negroes foughton manyof thesevessels, where they ranged in number fromone to ten persons on each vessel. Since one of the main purposesof the Virginianavy was to defendthe exposedcoast line of the State, nearlyall the sailors were drawnfrom the countieslying on ChesapeakeBay and the riversflowing into this body of water. THE PROBLEM OF ENLISTMENT AlthoughNegroes, slave and free,fought in theRevolu- tion,the continentalmilitary authorities at the beginning of the struggleissued instructionsforbidding their enlist-

Secondary Sources Aptheker, Herbert. The Negro in the American Revolution. New York: International Publishers, 1940. Eckenrode, Hamilton J. The Revolution in Virginia. Boston: Houghton, Miflin, 1916. Hartgrove, W. B. "The Negro Soldier in the American Revolution," Journal of Negro History, Vol. 1, 1916. Livermore,George. An Historical Research Respecting the Opinions of the Founders of the Republic on Negroes as Slaves, as Citizens, and as Soldiers. Boston, 1863. McCormac, Eugene I. White Servitude in Maryland, 1634-1820. Balti- more, 1904. Moore, George H. Historical Notes on the Employment of Negroes in the American Army of the Revolution. New York, 1862. Muhlenberg, Henry A. The Life of Major General Peter Muhlenberg of the Revolutionary Army. Philadelphia: Carey and Hart, 1849. Nell, William C. Colored Americans in the Wars of 1776 and 1812. Philadelphia, 1902. Paulin, Charles Oscar. The Navy of the American Revolution. Its Administration, its Policy, its Achievements. Cleveland, 1906. Russell, John H. The Free Negro in Virginia, 1619-1865. Johns Hopkins Press, 1913. Starkey, Marion L. The First Plantation. A History of Hampton and Elizabeth City County, Virginia, Hampton, 1936. Wright, James M. The Free Negro in Maryland, 1634-1860. New York: Columbia University Press, 1921. VIRGINIANEGRO IN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 251

ment. The several orders given by George Washington and othercommanders to therecruiting officers during 1775 illustratethe general policy. In Novemberof this year Washingtoncommanded that "Neither Negroes,boys un- able to bear arms,nor old menunfit to endurethe fatigues of the campaignare to be enlisted."' In anotherorder to recruitingofficers later he said: "You are not to enlistany but freemen,able of body and under the age of fifty."2 With greater emphasis on a policy of exclusionGeneral Gates orderedrecruiting officers not to enlist"any stroller, Negro, or vagabond."3 The Virginia governmentpursued a similarpolicy, es- peciallywith reference to the slaves. Observingthat several bondmenhad desertedtheir mastersunder the pre- tense of being free men and had enlistedas soldiers,the GeneralAssembly in 1777 enactedthat "no recruitingoffi- cer shall enlist any Negro or mulatto until such Negro shall produce a certificatefrom a justice of the peace that he is a free man."4 This provision appears to afford the entrance of free Negroes into the armed forces withoutlimitations, but this group was still hamperedas the traditionof non-military dutiesfor freeNegro membersin the colonialmilitia still prevailed. Beginningas early as 1705,free Negroes and mulattoesbecame subject to enrollmentin the militia;but, unlike white persons,they were required to musterfor servicewithout bringing arms. Each of the several acts passed by the colonial assemblybetween 1723 and 1757 providedthat they were to enrollfor serviceas drummers, fifers,trumpeters, or pioneers,but not as regularsoldiers.5

'George H. Moore, Employment of Negroes in the American Army of the Revolution (New York, 1862), p. 7. 2 Virginia Gazette, January 3, 1777. 3Frank Moore, Diary of the American Revolution from Newspapers and Original Documents (New York, 1856), I, p. 110. 'W. W. Hening, Statutes at Large of Virginia (Richmond, 1819-1820), Vol. IX, p. 280. 6Ibid., Vol. V, p. 17; VI, p. 533; VII, p. 95. 252 JOURNA-LOF NEGROHISTORY

The rankof pioneergave thema special place as laborers and menialservants. A slightreversal in this generalpol- icy tookplace, however,in 1775 whenactual warfarecame to Virginia. Whereas previouslyfree Negroes could not enroll as armed soldiers,the Virginia Conventionin this year providedthat "all male persons,hired servantsand apprenticesabove the age of sixteen and under fifty" shouldbe enlistedin themilitia.5b The enlistmentof freeNegroes in the armedforces was neverthelessimpaired by the operationof the systemof apprenticeship.Under this systemfree Negro males were legallybound to serviceto a masteruntil they reached the age of thirty-one.Many free Negro males were thus bound. Because of the guaranteeof continuousservice in the ap- prenticeshipcontract, masters in some cases objected to recruitingofficers' impressing their servants. The military authoritieswere confrontedwith this problemin the colonial wars and also in the Revolution.6 Amongthe free Negroes of Virginia seized by recruiting officers,notwithstandirng their apprenticeshipobligations, were Jesse Kelly of Prince William County,the servant of Lewis Lee, and BenjaminPayne of BuckinghamCounty. Lewis Lee valued Kelly's labor so highlythat he sued the two recruitingofficers for havingdrawn his servantKelly intoservice. For a periodof nineyears this suit remained in court,and at the end the plaintiffLee was awarded damages to the extentof thirty-fivepounds and six shillings.7In the case of Payne no suit was enteredby his

lb Proceedintgsof Convention of Delegates for the Counties and Corpora- tions of the Colony of Virginia, 1775, p. 36. 6 Conflictsbetween masters of servants and recruitingofficers were frequent in Maryland during the colonial wars and probably in the Revolution. Cf. E. I. MeCormae, White Servitude in Maryland (Baltimore, 1904), Chap. VII. 'Virginia State Library, Legislative Petitions (MSS), Prince William County, Oct. 26, 1791. Shortly after paying this fine the two officers,John Crittendenand Luke Cannon, petitioned the State legislature to reimbursethem. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 253 master; instead he advised Payne to escape fromservice and returnto him,but when this free Negro actuallyde- sertedhe was seized by a party of pursuingsoldiers and placed again in theranks.8 In stillanother instance a master and a mistressin CumberlandCounty complained to the commandingofficer of the militia that the enlistmentof theirthree bound servants was illegal because,by accident of birth,they claimed these servantswere slaves.9 In spite of prohibitorystatutes and distinctionsbased on race, the militaryhistory of the United States shows that in the wars of this countryNegroes have been even- tually accepted into the armed forces. Facing possible defeatin the Revolutionby the British,the Americanpa- triot commanderspermitted the enlistmentof Negroes, just as the Federal Governmentin the Civil War of 1861- 1865 changedits policyto enlistingNegroes in the face of possible defeat by the Confederacy. Not only did free Negroes of Virginia and otherstates freelyenlist in the Revolution,a certain numberof bondmenlikewise participated. Throughoutthe countryslaves served the cause of Americanindependence (1) as runaways,(2) as enrollees expectingliberation at the end of the war, (3) as sub- stitutesfor their masters,and (4) as persons owned or hiredby the Government.10Slaves in Virginiaenrolled as soldiersand sailors in each of these positions. However, sincethis State passed no act duringthe Revolution permit- ting the armingof slaves, theyeither passed as freemen or theyparticipated as slaves in plain violationof the law. Virginia bondmenfought in the Revolution,although the militaryauthorities held to the policy of exclusionas long as possible. So opposed at one timewas the military establishmentto enlistingslaves that on one occasion a Virginia State Library, Executive Papers, Nov. 22-Dee. 21, 1781. 9 Ibid., May 6, 1782. 10Cf. M. T. Mellon, Early AmericanView on Negro Slavery (Boston, 1934), p. 65. 254 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

courtmartial in GoochlandCounty dismissed one Colonel Parrish fromthe servicefor having "enlisted a slave as a substitutefor his divisionof militia ... knowinghim to be so.""1 It is apparent that despite this incidentthe practice of masterssending their slaves intothe ranks as substitutes for themselveswas fairlycommon, for at the close of the war the General Assemblypassed an act to provide for thefreedom of such slaves. Declaring that these persons had contributedto the cause of libertyand independenceby theirfighting and that "contraryto principlesof justice and to their own solemnpromise" many ownershad re- turnedtheir slaves to a state of servitude,the law making body enacted that every slave who had been enlistedby his ownerin any regimentas a substitute"shall afterthe passage of this act be fullyand completelyemancipated, and shall be held and deemedfree in as fullmeasure as if theywere specificallynamed by this act.''12 Amongthe slaveholderswho senttheir slaves intoservice as substitutes,and perhapswith the promise of freedom, wereLawrence Baker of Isle of WightCounty and William Hintonof Lancaster County. Baker was called for service in the militia; but instead of enteringthis branchof the service himself,he enrolledhis slave David in another branchof theservice, the navy, where he foughton theves- sel called the Patriot. The slaveholderBaker therebyre- lieved himself"from the performanceof a tour of militia duty."118William Hinton enlisted in the navy on board the " Legislative Petitions, Goochland County, March 19, 1781; Executive Papers, May 11, 1781. In this case the Negro testifiedto the court that he was a free man and that his name was William Jackson. 12 Hening, op. cit., XI, pp. 308-309. The execution of this act was assigned to the attorney general who was required to commence an action in forma pauperis in behalf of such slaves who were still being held in bondage by their owners. Since an unlawful detention could be made to this officeronly by the slave himself or by some friendly person, it is doubtful if many slaves, ex- soldiers, received the liberty provided for by this law. '3Journalof the House of Delegates,1794, p. 44. VIRGINIA NEGROIN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 255

shipDragon in 1777to servefor a periodof five years. After servingonly one year he was permittedto leave because of bad health,but onlyafter pledging to furnisha substitute for his unexpired term. The substitutehe furnishedwas his slave Lewis Hinton who participated in actual fightingon the Dragon for three years, or until the close of the war.14 One example of a slave runningaway to fightin the Revolutionis furnishedby the slave Toby. Afterhaving run away fromhis masterin 1773, fiveyears later Toby enteredthe serviceof his countryas a soldierin the four- teenthVirginia regiment. Enrolling himselfunder the fictitiousname of William Ferguson, Toby served until legally dischargedat the end of the war.15 For a timeVirginia might reasonably pursue a policy of excludingNegroes, for after1776 this state was spared from British invasion for a period of three years. This period of relief came to an end in 1779 when the scene of warfarewas shiftedby the Britishfrom the Northto the South. At this criticaljuncture Virginia was called upon not onlyto send troopsand suppliesto the Southernarmy, butalso to defendthe State againstthe successive invasions of the British commandersLeslie, Phillips, BenedictAr- nold, Tarleton, and finallyCornwallis. Tidewater Vir- ginia in particularwas throwninto a panic by raids which camechiefly from the British headquarters at Portsmouth.16 Duringthe enthusiasmof the early part of the war the Virginia regiments were filled without difficulty,but in later years theywere filledonly with great effort.Volun- teerssatisfied the earlydemand; in the later years recruits

1 United States Archives, "Pension Claims Papers."I isLegislative Petitions, 2034-c, Oct. 22, 1789. Despite the fact that Toby ran away from his master, James Wimbish, and was not discovered by him until 1785, the master emancipated Toby, alias William Ferguson, at a considerable financial loss to himself. About this same time Toby married a white woman by whom he had several children. " He-nryA. Muhlenburg, The Life of General Peter Muhlenburg of the Revolutionary Army (Philadelphia, 1849), chap. vi. 256 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

could be securedonly by drafting. Under theseconditions Negroeswould logically be acceptedin thevarious calls for troopsin the criticalperiod from1779 to 1781. In one of these calls made by Thomas Jefferson,then governorof Viriginia,forty-five counties were "required to send [to various centers] everyman whomthey could arm immediately.1'17 Depleted ranks characterizedthe navy as well as the armyand themilitia. Several calls for seamenwere made in 1779and 1780,and each successivecall offeredadditional bountiesand pensions as an inducement. In the call of October,1780, naval officerswere instructedto impress not only all available seamen in the easterncounties, but also half of all the male orphansin this section.'8The lack of success in the Virginianavy as in the continentalnavy was caused, then,not by lack of armament,naval stores, and provisions,but by a constantdeficiency in sailors.19 Facing these adverse conditions,especially during the last two years,the formerlysnobbish commanding officers willinglyenlisted not onlyfree Negroes but slaves as well. One additionalcause formodifying the traditionalopposi- tion to slaves participatingin warfarewas the fact that throughoutthe Revolution,British commanders sought to enticethe blacks to fightagainst theirmasters by issuing emancipationproclamations or by the promiseof freedom. The remedy,then, for preventing slaves and free Negroes

' McIlwaine, H. R. (Ed.), Letters of the Governors of Virginia. (Rich- mond, 1926), Vol. II, pp. 516-17. 18 Hening, op. cit., Vol. X, p. 385. 19Paullin, Charles 0., The Navy of the American Revolution (Cleveland, 1906), pp. 144-145. Maryland, like Virginia, had laws excluding or limiting the services of free Negroes; but in 1780, when a draft was authorized to secure one thousand addi- tional soldiers for three years' service, this State sanctioned the arming not only of free Negroes but slaves as well. In the following year the legislature of Maryland resolved to raise immediately 750 Negroes to be incorporated with the other troops (Wright, Free Negro in Maryland. New York, 1921) p. 125; Moore, op. cit., p. 20. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 257

fromfighting with the British was to allow themto fightfor the cause of Americanindependence. At the timeof the Revolutionthere were not more than one thousandfree Negro males of militaryage in Virginia. This was the group who had the least restrictionsplaced on their enlistment,although some of this numberwere handicappedfor service because theywere "bound out" as apprenticesand were thereforenot consideredstrictly free men. The exact numberof Virginia Negroes who fought in theRevolution cannot be determined,but thereis reason to believe that fivehundred free Negroes participatedin this eventalong witha smallernumber of slaves. The fol- lowingtable presents the names of one hundredand fiftyof whomapproximately one hundredtwenty-five are freeNe- groes and twenty-fiveare slaves. Their line of servicewas about equally dividedbetween soldiers and seamen.20 Name County Service Abram Seaman Ailstock,Absalom PrincessAnne Seaman Alvis, York Seaman Anderson,Nathaniel PrincessAnne Seaman Arbado, Francis Seaman Armstrong,Adam Henrico Soldier

20A fairly complete list of the names of Virginians who fought in the Revolution is found in three registers: H. J. Eckenrode, List of the Revolu- tionary Soldiers of Virginia (Richmond, 1912), John H. Gwathmey,Historical Register of Virginians in the Revolution (Richmond, 1938), and Robert A. Stewart, The History of Virginia's Navy of the Bevolution (Richmond, 1938). Practically all of the one hundred fifty Negroes enumerated above are found in one of these registers, but only about one-fifthof them are labeled as persons of the Negro race. This deficiencyis remedied somewhat by the reference to race in the military bounty warrants, legislative petitions, tax books (land and personal), and acts of the assembly in the State archives. Other referencesto race are made in the registers of free Negroes and mulattoes and the order books in the local archives. Still another aid in distinguishing Negro from white soldiers is by checking the long lists of names in the census report Heads of Families, First Census of the United States. Reoords of State Enumerations: 1782 to 1785, and a list of tax payers not enumerated in this census report in Augusta B. Fothergill, Virginia Tax Payers, 1782-87. 258 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

Artis,Burwell Southampton Soldier Backus Seaman Baine, P. Humphrey Henrico Soldier Baker, David Isle ofWight Seaman Baker, Thomas (Indian) Northampton Seaman Barnett,David Albemarle Soldier Battle,Shadrack Albemarle Soldier Beasley, Larkin Spotsylvania Soldier Becket,George Accomac Soldier Beverly,Sylvester Franklin Soldier Boston Seaman Boush,William Seaman Bowles,Stephen Albemarle Soldier Bowser,James Nansemond Soldier Boyd,Augustin NorthumberlandSeaman Brandon,Thomas Mecklenburg Soldier Brown,Abram CharlesCity Soldier Brown,Freeman CharlesCity Soldier Brown,Isaac CharlesCity Soldier Bundy,Francis Culpeper Soldier Bundy,William Culpeper Soldier Carter,Francis Northampton Seaman Carter,James Northampton Soldier Causey,James NorthumberlandSeaman Charles Seaman Chavis,Anthony Mecklenburg Soldier Chavis,John Mecklenburg Soldier Chris Seaman Collins,Mason King & William Soldier Cowigg,John Goochland Soldier Cuffee ElizabethCity Seaman Cuffy Norfolk Seaman Cumbo,Daniel James City Soldier Cumbo,John CharlesCity Soldier Cumbo,Michael CharlesCity Soldier Cumbo,Stephen JamesCity Soldier VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 259

Daniel Seaman Davenport,Stephen York Soldier Day, George NorthumberlandSeaman Debrix,John JamesCity Soldier Driver,John Gloucester Seaman Emanuel Seaman Evans, Thomas Lunenburg Soldier Flora, William Norfolk Soldier Frank Seaman George Seaman George,Samuel JamesCity Seaman Goff,Moses Cumberland Soldier Going,Sherwood Albemarle Soldier Going,William Halifax Soldier Gowing,Raverly CharlesCity Soldier Hackett,Peter Campbell Soldier Harris,James CharlesCity Soldier Hartless,Peter Amherst Soldier Hathcock,John Southampton Soldier Haws, Peter Lancaster Seaman Haws, William Lancaster Seaman Hearn,Ephraim Gloucester Soldier Hinton,Lewis Lancaster Seaman Holmes,William King William Soldier Hopson,John York Soldier Hughes,Luke King George Soldier Hunt,Goodwyn Greensville Soldier Hunt,Hardy Southampton Soldier Jack Seaman James Seaman Jones,Briton Greensville Soldier Jones,William Spotsylvania Seaman Kelly,Jesse PrinceWilliam Soldier Knight,Jack Seaman LaFayette,James New Kent Spy Lewis,Ambrose Spotsylvania Seaman 260 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

Loney,Daniel Hanover Soldier Lucus, James King George Seaman Lucus,John King George Seaman McCoy,James Westmoreland Soldier McCoy,George Rockbridge Soldier Marshall,Kingston Seaman Matthews,Saul Norfolk Spy Minny Seamai Monoggon,George Gloucester Seamani Morrison,Anthony Lancaster Seaman Moses,Ezekiel Northampton Seaman Nickens,Amos NorthumberlandSeaman Nickens,Edward Lancaster Seaman Nickens,Hezekiah Lancaster Seaman Nickens,James Lancaster Soldier Nickens,John Lancaster Seaman Nickens,Nathaniel Lancaster Seaman Nickens,Richard Lancaster Seaman Nickens,Robert Lancaster Soldier Nickens,William Lancaster Seaman Oats,William NorthumberlandSeaman Payne,Benjamin Buckinghani Soldier Perkins,Joshua Accomac Seaman Perkins,Nimrod Accomac Seaman Peter Seaman Peters,James Culpeper Seaman Pinn,John Lancaster Seaman Pluto Norfolk Seaman Pointer,Richard Greenbrier Soldier Ranger,Joseph ElizabethCity Seaman Redeross,John York Soldier Rich,William Lancaster Soldier Roberts,Hezekiah Accomac Soldier Ross,I)avid Culpeper Soldier Rouse,Peter Bedford Soldier Scott,Jesse Petersburg Soldier (City) VIRGINIA NEGROIN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 261

Scott,William Petersburg Soldier (City) Singleton Soldier Smith,Johnson Albemarle Seaman Sorrell,Edward NorthumberlandSoldier Sorrell,James NorthumberlandSoldier Spriggs,Abel Seaman Starlins,"Captain" Seaman Stephens,Isaac Northampton Seaman Stephens,Simon Accomac Soldier Stephens,Stephen Accomac Seaman Tanner,Nathan Bedford Seaman Tarrant,Caesar ElizabethCity Soldier Tate,James Westmoreland Seaman Tate,Jesse Richmond Soldier Teague,Jacob Accomac Seaman Thomas,James Norfolk Soldier Thomas,William CharlesCity Seaman Toby Soldier Tom Soldier Valentine,Edward Dinwiddie Seaman Valentine,Isham Dinwiddie Soldier Valentine,Luke Bedford Soldier Viers,Benjamin Botetourt Soldier Wallace,James JamesCity Soldier Weaver,Aaron NorthumberlandSeaman Weaver,Elijah Lancaster Seaman Weaver,Elisha Lancaster Seaman Weaver,Richard Lancaster Soldier West,James Spotsylvania Seaman Whistler,Sawney Middlesex Soldier Will Seaman Wood,Charles Lancaster Seaman Wood,Jesse Fluvanna Soldier Wood,Phillip Lancaster Seaman Wood,Thomas Lancaster Seaman 262 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

Althoughslaves and free Negroes had not been pre- viouslyconsidered as personssuitable for military service, theirpractical experience as laborerswas sufficientto meet the simpledemands of eighteenthcentury warfare. Gener- ally speaking,the navy of thatday did notconsist of vessels constructedfor war purposes,nor did it consistof sailors trainedfor warfare. Instead, this arm of the servicede- pended largelyon merchantvessels used in the river and bay navigationtogether with the crewemployed in operat- ing this rivercraft. Since Virginia slaves and free Negroes had had abun- dant experiencein navigatingthe ChesapeakeBay and the inlandwaters of the State theywere well adapted forserv- ice on the improvisednaval vessels of the Revolution.The employmentof slaves on boats had indeed reachedsuch a stage by thetime of theRevolution that the Virginia legislature passed an act to limitthe numberin the merchant serviceon therivers of the State belowthe fall line. In an effortto furnishemployment to a larger numberof free whiteseamen this law providedthat "not more than one- thirdof thepersons employed in the navigationof any bay or rivercraft . . . shall consistof slaves. 20b The exploits of Negro slaves as pilotsand the enlistmentof a relatively large numberof freeNegroes as able seamenin thenavy is to be explainedon the groundsof theirprevious employ- menton thewater. Lancaster and Northumberlandcounties, bordering on the Chesapeake Bay and lyingbetween the Potomac and Rappahannockrivers, operated as themain breeding ground forthe production of Negroseamen. Lyingon theeast and westbank of theRappahannock River and precedingnorth- ward aboutseventy miles to the falls of thisstream are the counties of Middlesex,Essex, Richmond,Westmoreland, King George,and Spotsylvania. These countieslikewise containedmany slaves and freeNegroes who were employed lb Hening, op. cit., XI, pp. 403-404. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 263

on the boats of the Rappahannockand the Potomac. A similarcondition prevailed in the Eastern Shore counties of Accomacand Northampton,a narrow stretch of territory almostentirely surrounded by water. Elizabeth City and Norfolkcounties, at the mouthof the James River and facingthe ChesapeakeBay and HamptonRoads, fellin this same generalclassification. In this region were located two of the Virginia ship yards and in it cruised the Potomac and Rappahannock fleetsof theVirginia navy. To theseand otherfleets there came fromLancaster Countythe freeNegro Seamen Peter Haws, William Haws, AnthonyMorrison, Elijah Weaver, John Weaver, John Pinn, Thomas Wood, Charles Wood, and seven membersof the familyof Nickens-Hezekiah, James, Richard,Edward, Nathaniel,John, and William. From the adjoiningcounty of Northumberlandthere came James Sorrell, James Causey, Augustus Boyd, Aaron Weaver and Amos Nickens. From AccomacCounty on the Eastern Shore there came NimrodPerkins, Joshua Per- kins, Simon Stephens,and Stephen Stephens. From the town of Fredericksburgthere came William Jones and AmbroseLewis, the townwhere the vessels of the Rappa- hannockfleet were launched. Certainslaves also enlistedwith these free Negroes in thenavy. Amongthem were Mary Tarrant's Caesar, Law- rence Baker's David, Robert Brough's Pluto, Elenor Boury's Cuffy,Mary C. Graves' Cuffee,William Hinton's Lewis, Charles Thomas' Jack, and two slaves owned or hiredby the State of Virginia-Jack Knightand William Boush. Anotherof theseslaves was a fullblooded African by the name of Starlins. Altogetherat least seventy-two Negroes,slave and free,were drawninto the naval service fromsixteen counties in Tidewater,Virginia.

FIGHTING ON LAND AND SEA Negro seamenin the navy foughtin largestnumbers on 264 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

thefollowing vessels: thePatriot, the Liberty, the Tempest, the Gloucester,the Hero, the Dragon, and the Diligence. Enrolledon thePatriot were Caesar Tarrant,David Baker, Pluto, Jack Knight,"Captain" Starlins,and Cuffee; on theLiberty were Charles, James, George, Emanuel, Richard Nickens,William Jones, Samuel George; on the Gloucester wereEdward, James, and HezekiahNickens, Anthony Mor- rison,Peter and William Haws; on the Hero were Pluto, Jack, Bachus, Boston, Will, and George; on the Dragon were Nathaniel Nickens,Abel Spriggs, Ambrose Lewis, ThomasWood, and Lewis Hinton;and on theDiligence was NimrodPerkins. Onlysix of thesepersons were slaves, the fiveon thePatriot and Lewis Hintonon the Dragon.21 Some of thesemen gave serviceon morethan one vessel. Samuel George,for example,fought on both the Tempest and theGloucester; Anthony Morrison fought on theHornet and the Gloucester;Richard Nickens on the Hero and the Tempest; and JosephRanger foughton fourvessels-the Hero, the Dragon, the Jefferson,and the Patriot. At the end of service these seamen were regularlydischarged. James Causey, for example,on February 16, 1780, was dischargedfrom service on the Dragon "having well and trulyserved three years . . . theterm of his enlistment." 122 As notedpreviously, many of the Negroesin the naval service were able seamen rather than ordinaryseamen. A few rose to higherranks. James Thomas served as a boatswain'smate on the Northampton,and James Sorrell as a gunner'smate on the Hero. NimrodPerkins was a drummeron board the Diligencegalley. The Negro members of the State navy also comprisedat least four slave pilots: Minny,Cuffee, " Captain" Starlins, and Caesar Tarrant. The last two were very skillful;so skillfulthat ' Virginia State Library, " Officers,Seamen, and Vessels, State Navy " (MS), 1776-1779; "Journals of the Navy Board" (MS), Nov. 4, 1777; "Land Bounty Warrants" (MSS), James Jennings; Robert A. Stewart, The History of Virginia's Navy of the Bevolution (Richmond, 1933), pp. 188, 236, 247. ' I"Land Bounty Warrants," James Causey. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 265 they may be classified among the heroes of the American Revolution. The navyof Virginiaserved the general purposes of all navies in timeof war. The functionof this navy was to capture the many British vessels in the Chesapeake Bay and the waters of Virginia,to preventthe British from makingraids on the river plantationsfor the purpose of carryingoff slaves, to maintaincommunication with the outside world in order that the State might continue its normal import and export trade, to secure supplies for the soldiers on land, and in general to protect the shores of the State since the continentaland state regimentsof soldiers were frequentlydrawn to remoteparts of the country. The Virginia navy functionedin this capacityuntil about 1780. By the time of the Yorktown campaign it had been nearly destroyed. The navy which rendered such indispen- sable service in this last engagement was the continental fleetand the Frenchfleet under DeGrasse. The one or two State vessels remainingat the close of the Revolutioncon- tinued in operation until 1787. In the accomplishmentof the tasks of the navy the vessels on which the Negroes fought played an active part. The schooner,Liberty, for instance,fought in twentydis- tinctactions; the Patriot captured a Britishvessel, the Fan- ny,laden withstores and suppliesfor theirforces at Bos- ton; the Tempest fought the Arnold in the James River;23 and the Dragon afterstaying in the RappahannockRiver for one year, proceeded down the river into the bay and around to the Eastern Shore of Maryland cruising about all the time trying to defend the country against British ships.24 On one occasion while cruising at sea, the Dragon had a fightwith the British schooner Lord Howe which "out- sailed" the Virginia ship "and got away."25 The Dragon

Southern Literary Messenger, vols. 24-25 (1857), pp. 135, 211. 24 ILand Bounty Warrants," James Jennings. ? United States Archives, "Pension Claims Papers," Lewis Hinton. 266 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

was builtat Fredericksburgand at one timecontained more Negro sailors thanany othervessel. One of the mostdar- ing of its crewwas Lewis Hinton,the slave who substituted forhis master. He servedthree years on theDragon. Because of the hard life on the sea, especiallyin war time,it is likelythat the Negro seamenin the Revolution undervarious commandersfared about like the Negro seamenin the War of 1812 under CommodorePerry. Under thisofficer white and coloredmen messed together and they fraternizedin general.26 All enjoyed togetherthe boun- teous supplyof rumgiven by the State-a half pint a day withan extra amountduring periods of fighting.One or moretierces were kept on hand forthis purpose. Drinking was so regularthat the naval authoritiessupplied a back allowancefor any amountthey had failed to give. Thus it was that the slave Kingston,one time,was allowed one gallon,a quart and a pint.27 The naval board, the governingbody of the navy, at- temptedalso to keepthe seamen well suppliedwith clothing. The keeper of the public store,for instance,on one occasion, was orderedby the board to supply AnthonyMor- risonon the Gloucesterwith one outsidejacket, one inside jacket,two shirts,one pair of drawers,two pairs of trousers,two pairs of stockings,one pair of shoes,one hat,and a blanket. Under this order five other Negroes on this vessel weresupplied also withthe same articles.28 On this occasionthe board orderedthat certainNegro seamen on board the Hero-Pluto, Jack,Bachus, Boston, Will,and George-shouldeach be suppliedwith one jacket, twopairs of stockings,one and a halfyards of coarselinen, one pair of shoes, and a sufficientamount of coarse cloth to makeeach of thema pair of trousers.29For a thirty-day

S'George Livermore, An Historical Research Respecting the Opinions of the Founders of the Bepublic on Negroes as Slaves, as Citizens and as Soldiers (Boston, 1863), p. 159, (Appendix A). "'Papers Concerning the State Navy," Vol. 1. ' I"Journals of Navy Board," Nov. 4, 1777. X Ibid. VIRGINIA NEGROIN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 267 period,two years later, the crew of onehundred four officers and seamenon theship Dragon weregiven an amplesupply of pork, flourand spirits. Sharing in these provisions on the Dragon at this time were five Negroes: Jesse Tate, Lewis Hinton,William Haws, JosephRanger, and Thoinas Wood.30 Some of the Negro seamen were killed or wounded in action. Cuffee,the slave pilot, died from injuries received in service ;31 Aaron Weaver received two dangerous wounds in an engagement at the mouth of the York River ;32 and Joseph Ranger was with the Jefferson when it was blown up by the enemy on the James River."3Ranger was taken prisoner with the rest of his crew shortlybefore Cornwallis' surrender. Against this record of bravery and valor exhibited by these seamen, certain other Negro seamen have a record of desertion from the Virginia navy. Francis Arbado, "a black Frenchman," deserted the Man- ley; Abel Spriggs and Thomas Wood, mulattoes,deserted theDragon.34 A rewardof sixtydollars was offeredto any personwho would place Spriggsand Wood in jail or deliver themon board any vessel belongingto the State navy. Some of the Negro seamenmade distinguishedrecords and wererewarded in ways to be later shownin thisarticle. "Captain" Starlins,a slave and a full blooded African, whowas trainedas a pilot fromhis youth,showed unusual braveryon the Patriot whenhe led the crew in an attack on a Britishsloop in theJames River. In themidst of this fightStarlins "hollered for joy" at the momentwhen he thoughthe had capturedthe British sloop. His vessel went downin defeat,however, because of the suddenappearance of fiftyBritish sailors on the scene. This Africanwas held

3"Papers Covering the State Navy," Vol. 1. " Stewart, op. cit., p. 176.

33 Acts of the Assembly, 1812, chap. CXXXVI, p. 139. '3Clerk's Office,Elizabeth City County, Court Records, 1825-1832, p. 360. ' Virginia Gazette, May 16, 1777; July 3, 1779. 268 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

in highesteem by all the Virginianaval officers,especially CommodoreJames Barron.35 Caesar Tarrantwas a pilot forfour years and engaged in severalsea fightswith the British. His chiefengagement tookplace southof theVirginia capes whileserving on the Patriot. He steeredthis vessel duringthe whole action and "behaved gallantly."36Fighting with Tarrant on the Pa- triotwas Pluto, the slave of RobertBrough. He likewise displayed valor in several actions on board this armed vessel.37 AmongNegro seamenin the Virginianavy the greatest numberof years of servicewas givenby JosephRanger of Elizabeth City County. He enlistedin 1776 and continued in serviceuntil the State disposedof its last vessel in 1787. Ranger enteredthe servicefrom Northumberland County, thehome of six or moreother Negro Virginia navy seamen. He served firston the Hero about threemonths, and was afterwardstransferred to the Dragon for a period of four years. After this vessel was convertedinto a fire ship, Rangerwas transferredto the Jeffersonfor a year,or, as previouslynoted, until it was blown up by the enemyon James River. His finalvessel for serviceduring the war periodwas the Patriot on whichhe performedduty about six monthsuntil the battle of Yorktown. Rangerwas serving on thePatriot when he was takenprisoner with the rest of crew shortlybefore Cornwallis ' surrender.38 Since theVirginia fleet was practicallydestroyed by the British,this State later obtainedpermission from Congress to keep twoarmed vessels at its ownexpense. These vessels were the Libertyand the Patriot. Ranger served on both of theseships until the final discontinuation of thisremnant of theVirginia navy six years afterthe close of thewar.39

'3 VirginiaHistorical Register, Vol. 1, (1848) pp. 129-131. "6R. A. Stewart, op. cit., p. 255. 9 Journal of House of Delegates, Oct. 1793, p. 43. ' Clerk's Office,Elizabeth City County, Court Becords, 1825-1832, p. 360; "Land Bounty Warrants," Joseph Ranger. ' Virginia State Library, "Auditors Papers, State Boats," 173, 174. VIRGINIA NEGROIN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 269

Duringthe course of the Revolution the State ofVirginia contributedheavily to thecontinental army under Washing- tonby the organizationof fifteenregiments of soldiers. As membersof the continentalarmy the soldiersof theseVir- ginia regimentsof coursefought in all the major battlesof the war. Enlisted in some and perhaps all of these regi- mentswere Virginia Negroes. For example,Peter Rouse of BedfordCounty was enlistedin thefirst Virginia regiment, Thomas Evans of Lunenburg and James Carter of North- ampton County were enlisted in the second, John Chavis of Mecklenburgwas in the third,Shadrack Battle of Albemarle Countywas in thetenth, Toby, alias WilliamFerguson, was in the fourteenth,and WilliamFlora of the townof Ports- mouthwas enlistedin thesixteenth. Some of the Virginia Negro soldiers participatedin many battles and incurredall the hardships of warfare. ShadrackBattle served three years and foughtin thebattles of Brandywine,Germantown, Monmouth, and Savannah;40 SylvesterBeverly served throughoutthe war and fought in such engagementsas Monmouth,Stony Point, Paulus Hook, GuilfordCourt House, and Yorktown.4'Anthony Chavis not only served underWashington at Brandywine and Yorktown,but also under LaFayette and General Greenein the Southerntheater.42 William Flora likewise foughtthroughout the war in manybattles, and attained particulardistinction in thebattle of GreatBridge near his home in NorfolkCounty, Virginia.43 Though entering the war in its closingstages, John Hathcock and Hardy Hunt, SouthamptonCounty Negroes, participated in several engagementsin Virginiaand in the Southernstates.44 In a class withthese soldiers for honorable service was James Carter. This man firstgave eighteenmonths garri-

?" Land Bounty Warrants," Shadrack Battle. 'Journals and Documents, Virginia House of Delegates, 1822-23, p. 102. ""Land Bounty Warrants," Anthony Chavis. " Ibid., William Flora. "Legislative Petitions,. Southampton County, Oct. 9, 1792; Nov. 19, 1795. 270 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

son servicein his native county,Northampton, and after- wards enlistedwith the second Virginia regimentin the townof Portsmouth.From thispoint the part of his regi- mentto whichhe belongedwas orderedSouth to the aid of South Carolinathen under invasion by the British. Carter marchedwith his regimentthrough Virginia and North Carolinato SouthCarolina. Fightingwith the patriot army in the battles connectedwith the British invasion of the South,including Camden under GeneralGates, Carter re- turnedto Virginia with the regimentof whichhe was a member,and foughtin theclosing battle of Yorktown.45 In all probabilitySylvester Beverly and ShadrackBattle wereonly two of a muchlarger number of Virginia Negroes in thebattle of Monmouthand otherNorthern engagements. In thebattle of Monmouththere were about fifteen thousand troopsin theAmerican army, and morethan seven hundred ofthese, according to Bancroft,were black men.46 That Vir- ginia Negroeswere well representedin this and otheren- gagementsin Pennsylvaniaand New Jerseyduring 1777 and 1778is shownby the factthat the brigadecommanded by Woodfordat thistime had a totalof fortyNegroes, and the brigade commandedby Muhlenburgcontained ninety- eight Negroes.47These Virginia brigadiergenerals com- mandedchiefly Virginia troops including these Negroes. The soldiers of color were sometimesdiscriminated againstby theirofficers. Thus one VirginiaNegro soldier, Thomas Evans, was preventedfrom fighting in the battle of Monmoutheven though he was regularlyenlisted. Evans was allowed to marchwith his regimentwithin two miles of Monmouthwhen Colonel Brent of this regimentordered himnot to fightbut to remainbehind and take care of his baggage. Again a year later when the regimentof Evans

'Clerk's Office,Northampton County, Order Book (MS), 1831-36, p. 125. ' George Bancroft, History of the United States, X (Boston, 1874), p. 133. 'Washington Manuscripts, Library of Congress, cited in the Journal of Negro History, 1, p. 127. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 271 reached the neighborhoodof Stony Point preparatoryto battle this officergave him similar orders. Evans served the secondVirginia regiment for threeyears, but as a vic- timto race prejudice"he was in no battle."48 Certain Virginia Negro soldiers distinguishedthemselves for bravery. In this class fell Richard Pointer,a slave of GreenbrierCounty, Saul Matthews,a slave of Nor- folkCounty, James Lafayette, a slave of New Kent County, and WilliamFlora, the freeNegro of Portsmouth. During the Revolutionaryperiod westernVirginia was constantlysubject to attackby the Indians. One of these attackscame in GreenbrierCounty in May, 1778,on an occasion whena companyof peoplehad gatheredat thehouse of ColonelDonnelly, the master of Pointer,to defendthem- selves against one of these expectedonslaughts. At the momentwhen a large bodyof the invadingIndians reached Donnelly'shouse, they were meton the outsideby Pointer alone and held at bay by himlong enoughfor the company insideto arm themselvesand defeatthis attempt of the In- dians to slaughterthe entireparty.49 Saul servedthe patriot cause in the doublecapacity of a soldierin the Americanarmy and a spy forAmerican com- mandersin the Britisharmy. He servedhis masterand a numberof officersat intervalsthroughout the war. This slave of Thomas Matthews"shouldered his musket" and wentover to the Americanside in the early monthsof the war at the timewhen many slaves of Norfolkand Princess Annecounties were following the British in responseto the proclamationof Dunmore. At times Saul as a spy was able to get very valuable informationfor Americancommanders. On one occasion in 1781during the campaign of theBritish in thevicinity of Portsmouththis year, Saul, at the risk of his life,was sent into the British garrisonby Colonel Parker on the usual

'8Legislative Petitions, Lunenburg County, Dec. 23, 1819. '"Ibid., Greenbrier County, Nov. 12, 1795. 272 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY

mission of securing informationof value to the American forces. He broughtback militarysecrets of such value to Colonel Parker that on the same night,serving as a guide, he led a party of Americansto the Britishgarrison, who successfullycarried offthe picket.50On anotheroccasion in 1781,when Saul's masterand manyother Virginians had fledinto the adjoining State of NorthCarolina, he was sent by themto Norfolkto securesimilar intelligence concerning the movementand plans of the Britishtroops. For his services as a spy and a soldier such distinguished army officersas Baron Von Steuben,LaFayette, Peter Muhlenburg,and GeneralNathaniel Greene praised him to the highest.Josiah Parker,colonel of the Virginia militiain 1781,said that he deservedthe applause of his country."" While Saul was servingColonel Parker and otheroffi- cers as a spy duringthe invasionof the Britishat Ports- mouth,Virginia, James LaFayette was performinga similar valuableservice for the Marquis de LaFayetteduring the invasionof theBritish over much of the entireState. This larger invasion was under the commandof Cornwallis. JamesLaFayette firstbore the name of JamesArmistead because he was the slave of WilliamArmistead, but after theRevolution he becameknown by all as JamesLaFayette because of his constantservice to this noted commander. "Often at the peril of his life" this slave frequentedthe Britishcamp and thereby"kept open a channelof themost usefulinformation to the armyof the State." In all of his daringmissions to theBritish camp thisspy performedhis taskwith "cheerfulness and fidelity. " 52 In crossingthe bridgesouth of Norfolk,known as the Great Bridge, on December9, 1775, a detachmentof the small armyof Dunmorewas metwith a volleyof gun fire

6 Ibid., Norfolk County, Oct. 9, 1792. 61 Executive Papers (unclassified). 2Legislative Petitions, New Kent County, Nov. 30, 1786. VIRGINIANEGRO IN THE AMERICANREvOLUTION 273

from a group of sentinels in Woodford's second Virginia regiment. One of these sentinels was William Flora. This free Negro's distinctionon this occasion arose out of the factthat he keptfiring at theattacking British when all his comradeshad retiredto theirbreastworks. In themidst of a showerof musketballs fromthe British,Flora fought them alone. By this act and similar acts Flora earned the respect of his officersand the members of his several regiments generally. Thirty years or more after the battle of Great Bridge, William Flora again rose to the defense of his country.The war alarmthis time was soundedby theattack of theLeop- ard on theChesapeake off the coast of Norfolk,the prelimi- nary eventto the War of 1812. For his fightingweapon, strangeto say, Flora broughtwith him the same muskethe had used at thebattle of theGreat Bridge. The old veteran seemedas readyto fightthe Britishon this occasionas he was in theopening days of theRevolution. His actual service this time,however, only involved his enlistmenton one of the gun boats as a marineunder CommodoreDecatur. In commonwith all the recruitsin this emergencyhe re- mainedin thisservice for only a shortperiod of time.53

REWARD FOR SERVICE For this serviceto the cause of Americanindependence the Negro soldiersand seamen of Virginia were liberally rewarded.In commonwith all recruitsthe State paid them in money,in land bounties,and grantedthem pensions, firstas an inducementto enlist,and later as a rewardfor service. In additionto the pensionsgranted by the State, whichcommenced shortly after the war, the Virginiavet- erans benefitedalso by the severalpensions acts passed by Congressabout a halfcentury later-in 1818,1820 and 1832. The militaryland reservedby Virginiaas a bountyfor

I Virginia Historical Begister, Vol. VI, No. 1 (Jan. 1853), pp. 4-6; "Land Bounty Warrants," William Flora. 274 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY her soldierswas firstlocated in westernKentucky, and later in Ohio in the well knownVirginia military tract of more thanfour million acres. The parcelingout of thisvast tract began at theclose of theRevolution and was not completed until 1852. During this long period of timeVirginia gave away moreland to her veteransthan any otherState in the union,or even the United States. The amountof land grantedto a veteranvaried from one hundredacres for a privateto fifteenthousand acres for a major general. Althoughthe bulk of the VirginiaNegroes whofought in theRevolution were privates and commanded therebyonly one hundredacres, therewere at least three personsof this group who received 2,666 2/3 acres, the grant of a subaltern,or a commissionedofficer below the rankof captain. Applicationsfor warrantsto land were made to theland officeat Richmond. In commonwith other states Virginia also providedfor the manumissionof certainindividual slaves who fought in the war. Feeling that slaverywas contraryto the prin- ciples of the Revolutionand that certain Negroes who servedin the war did so faithfully,the GeneralAssembly liberatedthe followingindividuals: James Lafayette,Cae- sar Tarrant,William Boush and Jack Knight,Saul Math- ews, David Baker, Pluto, and RichardPointer. And there were probablyothers. These manumissionswere executed ten or more years afterthe struggle. Each of theseslaves appliedby petitionfor his freedom and receivedit forthe following reasons: JamesLafayette, forhis daringservices as a spy to Marquis de LaFayette,53b Caesar Tarrant, for piloting the armed vessels of the State,54William Boush and JackKnight for "their faithful servicewhilst employed on board the armedvessels in public service."55Saul Matthewsfor his campaigningin two armies-in the Americanarmy as a soldier and in the lb Legislative Petitions, New Kent County, Nov. 30, 1786. R4Hening,op. cit., XIII, p. 102. 'Journal of the House of Delegates, 1789, p. 7. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 275

Britishas a spy,6David Baker for servingas a substitute forhis master,57Pluto forserving as a seamanon one of the armedboats of theState,58 and RichardPointer for display- ing unusual valor by wardingoff, all alone, a companyof Indians.59 Beforethis particular group of slaves weremanumitted certainfree Negro seamen were already receiving payments in moneyfrom the State. On differentoccasions during 1785and 1786,for example, Peter, Will, Abram, Daniel and Tom, ordinaryseamen and able seamen,were paid sums varyingfrom three pounds, seven shillings,and six pence to fifteenpounds, nineteen shillings, and six pence.60In 1786 JosephRanger, the seaman,received one paymentof two pounds and ten shillingsfor one month'sservice; the nextyear he receivedone paymentof fivepounds and seven shillingsfor two monthsand seven days' service.61Per- haps thehighest paid seamenamong the Negroes was James Sorrell,gunner's mate, who servedfor five years on two or more vessels. On one occasion he was given ninety-one pounds,ten shillings,and ten pence,or the balance of his fullpay.62 Paymentin moneyfor servicesin the Revolutionwas insignificant,however, in comparisonwith the paymentsby grantsof land. Amongthose who were givenwarrants to land withina few years afterthe war were Richard,Ed- ward,and NathanielNickens, the seamenof Lancasterand Northumberlandcounties. They each receivedone hundred acres.63 About the same time Joseph Ranger, benefiting

M Legislative Petitions, Norfolk County, Oct. 9, 1792. s'Journal of the House of Delegates, 1794, p. 44. Legislative Petitions, Norfolk County, Nov. 22, 1796. Ibid., GreenbrierCounty, Nov. 12, 1795. 'Virginia State Library, Revolutionary Soldiers (MS), Vol. V. pp. 31, 62, 157, 196, 215. *'"Auditors Papers, State Boats," 173, 174. 'Virginia State Library, "Rejected Claims Papers." 'Land Office,Richmond, Military Certiflcates (MS), Vol. 1, pp. 278, 513; "Land Bounty Warrants," 1786. 276 JOURNAL OF NEGROHISTORY again in anotherway, received a grant of one hundred acres;64 SawneyWhistler, seaman, then received a grantof two hundred acres.65 Other veterans received similar amountsat thistime or later. In lateryears WilliamFlora and David Ross, soldiers,each receivedthe usual allotment forprivates of one hundredacres ;66 JamesCarter, a soldier of longerservice, received two hundredacres.67 Aftergiving warrants to land in the Virginia military tractfor a generationafter the Revolution to thosesoldiers and seamenwho actuallyfought in thiswar, the State then made grants to the heirs of the Revolutionaryveterans. Following the general practice,certain Negro sons and daughterspressed their claims for land in the1830 and 1840 decades. MaryStephens applied for land forthe three years' services of her father,Stephen Stephens, as a seaman in the state navy;68 Nancy Tarrant applied for the threeyears' services of her father,Caesar Tarrant as a pilot in the navy.69 No less vigilant in seekingland were Elizabeth Nickensand JudyWatkins who made claims for the services of their father,Hezekiah Nickens,70and James Nickens, Junior,who made it for the servicesof his father,James Nickens.7' Amongother applicants were Sarah Morrisonof Lan- caster County and Staunton Jones of Fredericksburg. Sarah Morrisonstated that she oftenheard her father,An- thonyMorrison, say that he had never receivedhis land, because all the veteranswho served with him had either

'Military Certificates,Vol. 11, p. 242. `" Ibid., p. 531; "1 Land Bounty Warrants. " " Ibid., p. 392. 'Clerk's Office,Northampton County, Order Book (MS), Vol. XXIX, p. 125. " Military Certificates,Vol. 111, p. 263. "Ibid., p. 169. "Ibid., p. 418. " Ibid., p. 280. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 277

died or had removedfrom Lancaster County. He therefore was at a loss to obtainthe necessaryevidence to establish his claim.72Staunton Jones made claimsalso forhis father, William Jones,a seaman.73Finally therewas Mary Bell whopressed her claims for the services of her father, James Thomas,as a boatswainin the State navy.74 Each of these applicantswas successfulin securinga warrantentitling him or herto land in Ohio. MaryBell and Nancy Tarrant were the heirs who received the largest grantsbecause of the superiortype of serviceof theirpar- ents. Mary Bell receivedtwo warrantsfor 1,3331/3 acres each and Nancy Tarrantreceived the same amountin one warrantembracing 2,666 2/3 acres. One otherNegro who receivedthis large grantwas NimrodPerkins of Accomac County.He was stillliving in 1830,so thathe received2,- 666 2/3acres himselffor his servicesas a drummer. Land was generallyallotted by the State of Virginia,as just indicated,but sincemost beneficiaries did not actually settleon theirland in Ohio,it is doubtfulif this particular groupof Negroveterans or heirsever located in thatState. Like hundredsof othersthey did not choose to start life overagain in a strangeregion. These personsprobably fol- lowedthe commonpractice of assigningwarrants to specu- lators for a sum as low as ten centsan acre, or like many otherveterans who were given land in Ohio theymay have lost it simplythrough the chicanery of lawyers.Falling under one of theseclassifications, for example, was thecase of NathanielNickens who made the followingprovision con- cerninghis bounty:75 I herebyassign all righttittle claime or demandsthat I haveagainst thecommonwealth of Virginiafor services as a seamanin thestate navy to WilliamBiggers and the auditorof public accountsis

'2Ibid., p. 262. " Ibid., p. 258. '4Ibid., p. 511. r "Land Bounty Warrants," Nathaniel Nickens. 278 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY herebyrequested to settlethe said claimsand to grantcertificates withmy bounty of land to the said Biggers. Some of theRevolutionary veterans lived to be seventy, eighty,and ninetyyears of age. In additionto receiving land bounties,some of theseold menfound themselves eli- giblealso to receivepensions granted by the UnitedStates Governmentand the Virginia State Government.Among the Virginia Negroes at least twenty-onereceived pensions under the three acts of Congress, thirteen of whom were benefitedby the act of 1832. The mostcommon allowance for these Virginia soldiers and seamenwas ninety-sixdollars a year,although several droppedas low as fortydollars. Amongthe ninety-six dollars a year seamenwere Lewis Hinton,Richard Nickens, JamesHarris, Isaac Brown,Joseph Ranger, Sherwood Go- ing, ShadrackBattle, and Ephriam Hearn. James Carter surpassed these veterans in that he drew a pension of one hundred dollars a year during the last five or ten years of his longlife. The pensionact of 1832extended to all branchesof military and naval service. Some of the group of twenty-one Negroesunder discussion served in themilitia, some in the Virginiacontinental line, and some in the state and continentalnavy. To establisheligibility for these United States pensions the methodfollowed was by depositionin a countyor city court. The orderbooks and minutebooks of the Virginia local courtsfor the pensionyears, 1818, 1820, and 1832,are thusfilled with the sworntestimony of the veteransof the Revolutionor theirheirs. Amongthe depositionsknown to the presentwriter are those of William Flora, Nimrod and Joshua Perkins,Simon Stephensand StephenSteph- ens, George Becket, Joseph Ranger, James Carter and Lewis Hinton. Appearingin person beforethe NorfolkCounty court on April21, 1818, at an old age, WilliamFlora declaredthat VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 279

he was a private in Captain Grimes' companyof the fif- teenthcontinental regiment for three years and thathe was honorablydischarged.78 Appearing in person before the court of Accomac Countyon July 31, 1832,at the age of seventy-two,Nimrod Perkins testified that he enlistedas a drummeron board the Diligence Galley in 1777, and that he continuedon board this vessel untilshe was laid up in 1781. He was born in Accomac County,was living there when discharged,and in fact never lived elsewhere. He furthersaid that he had previouslyreceived a Virginia militaryland warrantfor one hundredacres and scrip for the same for his service. Finally,in order to conformto the requirementsof theUnited States law, he declaredthat his name was not on the pensionroll of any agencyin the State of Virginia.77This sworntestimony of NimrodPer- kinswas apparentlycorrect in thattwo years earlierwhen he was applyingto the land officeat Richmondfor his land bounty,one Elcanah Andrewsstated that he and Perkins cruisedin the ChesapeakeBay and AtlanticOcean together in thevessels Diligence and Accontacand werelaid up in the coldwinter of 1779-1780when the Bay was frozen.Andrews furthersaid thatPerkins was a freeman of colorand that of all thosewho servedon thesetwo vessels he and Perkins werethe only persons still living in 1830.78 Aboutsix weekslater in the adjoiningcounty of North- amptonon the Eastern Shore of Virginia,James Carter was testifyingconcerning his recordin the Revolutionary War fiftyyears before. This old soldierrelated that he enlistedin the armyearly in the war as a privatein a group of eighteenmonths men, and thathe garrisoneda fortin his countyfor this period of time. At theexpiration of eighteen monthshe crossed the Chesapeake Bay and enlisted at Portsmouthfor the war as a privatein the twenty-second

76'Clerk's Office,Norfolk County, Minute Book, 15, p. 120. " Clerk's Office,Accomae County, Order Book (MS), 1829-32, p. 537. " " I Land Bounty Warrants," Elcanah Andrews. 280 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

VirginiaState regimentof artillery.He also toldthe court thathe marchedwith a part of his regimentthrough Vir- ginia,North Carolina, South Carolina and returnedthrough the Carolinasto take part finallyin thebattle of Yorktown. Amongthe engagementsin whichhe foughton this long tourto the South was thebattle of Camdenunder General Gates.79 As previouslynoted, Lewis Hintonwas the Negro slave seamanwho servedas a substitutefor his masterWilliam Hinton. Givinghis testimonytwo years afterthe veterans namedabove, Hinton stated that he tookhis master'splace on the ship Dragon in the springof 1778,and thatwithin threeyears the Dragon and theother Virginia state vessels were all capturedby the enemyin JamesRiver. "Finding no way of escape," whenhis vessel sailed up the Chicka- hominy,a tributaryof the James River, Hinton said he leftthe Dragon and wenthome to Lancaster. Hinton was too sick to attend the Lancaster court in personin 1834 to give this testimony.Notwithstanding he was placed on the pensionroll this same year for ninety- six dollars a year. Althoughthis veteranwas not placed on the pensionroll until1832 his paymentsbegan as of the year 1831. He was thuspaid $288by thegovernment at one timeto bringup thisback pay. Hintonremained a United States pensionerfor at least tenyears. He was stillon the rollat theage of eighty-three.80 Coincidingwith these claims for United States pensions werethose claims made forpensions from the State of Vir- ginia. The veteransclaiming under the State law, with perhaps one exception,were a distinctgroup fromthose seekingthe pensions from the Federal Government.Among the veteransseeking relief from the State were Anthony MIorrison,Richard Nickens, George McCoy, Aaron Weaver, James LaFayette, William Jones,Sylvester Beverly, and

q Clerk's Office,Northampton County, Order Book, 39, p. 125. ' United States Archives, "Pension Claims Papers." VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 281

Peter Rouse. Under the state pensionsystem one certain sum of moneywas grantedfor the present relief of the old soldieror seaman and anothersum was grantedas an an- nual allowance. The presentrelief to these particularin- dividualsvaried from thirty dollars to sixty,and theannual pensionfrom forty dollars to sixty. The State applicantsfor pensionsresorted to the peti- tionsto the legislature,a commonmethod in thatday from citizens for considerationsof all kinds. The many sup- portersof AnthonyMorrison's petition asserted his right to a pensionbecause as an old man,eighty-six years of age "his shatteredand tremblinglimbs are now tottering." Theysaid he had alwaysbeen an industriousman, and more deservingthan the average of the free Negro group.8' About this same time Richard Nickens,likewise of Lancaster County,appealed fora pension. His friendsstated that he conductedhimself "orderly and faithfully"while in the service of his country,and that since he was now (1819) "'old and infirm,"and in his sixty-ninthyear, he shouldbe placed on the pensionlist and alloweda small sum for his presentrelief.82 Two of theseveterans gave the receivingof woundsin battle as special reasons for deserving consideration. GeorgeMcCoy asserted that in a certainbattle he received a severe wound;83 Aaron Weaver asserted,as previously noted,that in an engagementat themouth of the York River he received two dangerous wounds.84In all probability James LaFayette, the spy for the Marquis de LaFayette, experiencedbut little difficulty in securing a pensionbecause his servicesto this commanderwere so valuable. In 1786 he had petitionedthe legislature to emancipatehim; nowin 1819 he feltthat he shouldalso receivea pension. He ac- cordinglyapplied and was givensixty dollars forhis pres-

"' Legislative Petitions, Lancaster County, Dec. 4, 1821. 82 Ibid., Dec. 4, 1819. 8' Acts of the Assemblv, 1831, Chap. 130, p. 140. 8 Ibid., 1812, Chap. CXXXVI, p. 139. 282 JOURNALOF NEGRO HISTORY ent reliefand fortydollars annuallyas a pension.85 While individualNegroes were thus notifyingthe public authoritiesthat they had foughtin the Revolutionfifty years or moreafter this event in an effortto secureland or pensions,groups of Negroes and liberal mindedwhites at thesame timewere likewise reminding the State legislature and the generalpublic of this same fact. They petitioned thelegislature and wrotearticles in newspapersand magazines in orderto protectthe free Negro,win public favor for him,and recognizethe contributionsof all Negroes to warfarein defenseof America. One of the most significantappeals for justice based on previous participationin warfarecame froma group of sixteenfree Negroes of Fredericksburg.This intelligent and progressivegroup petitioned the legislature in 1838for permissionto reopen their school,which had been closed followingthe act of 1831denying education to freeNegroes. They presentedthe argumentthat as free Negroes they wereentitled to a schoolbecause some of them were descend- ants of persons who had foughtin the Revolution,while otherspersonally had "engaged in aiding the effortsof theircountry" in the War of 1812.86Two of the ancestors in theRevolution to whomthey referred were perhaps Wil- liam Jonesand AmbroseLewis, earlyfree Negro residents of Fredericksburgand seamenin the Virginianavy. That Negroesfought in the Revolutionwas also shown by a Richmondnewspaper. Shortlyafter the legislature of Virginiain 1853made its thirdand last attemptto com- pel the freeNegroes to leave the State, a correspondentof the RichmontdEnquirer defended them by sayingthat this measure was very unjust inasmuchas free Negroes had foughtin the Revolution"as long and as hard as white men. 87 Speakingin the same vein a few years later,the

`S Ibid., 1819, Chap. CLXIX, p. 188. " Legislative Petitions, Spotsylvania County, 1838. "TRichmondEnquirer, Feb. 24, 1854. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 283

writerof an historicalarticle on the Virginianavy in the Revolutioncommented that "amongstthe meritorioussea- men" were "many faithfulblacks who served under the flagof our navyduring the whole war. "88 Aside fromhaving borne worthy military careers in the Revolution,some of theNegro veterans likewise maintained worthycivilian careers in their respectivecounties and cities after this event. They married legally, followed useful occupations,owned property,provided for their families,and were highlyrespected by the people of their communities. Outstandingamong these usefulveterans was William Flora of the town of Portsmouth.Within a year or two after his returnfrom distinguished service in the army, Flora boughttwo half lots on King Streetin this townat a cost of twenty-twopounds and thirty-fivepounds respee- tively.89He therebybecame one of the firstfree Negroes in Virginiato buy townproperty. Flora operateda livery stableand formore than thirty years enjoyed the patronage of thewhite citizens of thistown. As a part of thisbusiness he owned many horses and carriages. Like many other progressivefree Negroes of this period in Virginia with slave wives and children,this head of the familymanu- mittedone or more of them. Declaringthat he wishedto dischargea natural duty and renderhis daughter,Grace Flora, independentand happy,he accordinglyliberated her April 1, 1799.Y Whenthis man died about 1820his real es- tate consistedof two dwellinghouses and a lot, whichhe willedto his son and grandson.9' Afterachieving freedom in 1786 for his servicesas a pilot, Caesar Tarrant of the town of Hampton likewise

'Southern LiteraryMessenger, Vols. XXIV-XXV (1857), p. 17. 89Clerk's Office,Norfolk County, Deed Book, 28, p. 156; Ibid., 29, p. 246. goIbid., 28, p. 33. 91Clerk's Office,Norfolk County, Will Book, 5, p. 21. Flora willed his grandson his lot on Washington Street. In 1828 this heir sold this same lot to the Methodist Church of Portsmouth (Deed Book, 54, p. 86). 284 JOURNALOF NEGROHISTORY made progressas a propertyowner and a man of influence in his community.During the remaining ten or twelveyears of his life followinghis liberationfrom slavery, Tarrant boughtseveral pieces of propertyin Hamptonand in 1796 disposed of it by will. To his wifehe gave his houses and lot; to his daughter,Nancy, he gave one-halfthe property afterhis wife's death; and to his daughter,Lidy, he gave freedomfrom slavery.92Nancy was the daughter who thirty-fiveyears later receivedthe warrantfor 2,666 2/3 acres of land in Ohio. James LaFayette, the faithfulspy to Marquis de La- Fayette,rivaled his namesakein longevityof life. When thedistinguished Frenchman returned to theUnited States in 1824 for his well knowntour of the country,and when passing throughNew Kent County,Virginia, he foundhis Negro ally still alive and active in this county. LaFayette greetedhis namesakeon this occasion. The black LaFay- ette was the ownerof fortyacres of land whichhe pur- chased eightyears earlier.93 In the neighboringcounty of Charles City therelived the Brown familyat least threemembers of whomfought as soldiersin the Revolution.Abraham, one of these par- ticipants,became a propertyowner in Charles City six yearsbefore the Revolution by thepurchase of one hundred fiftyacres of land forthe sum of ninety-sixpounds.94 Free- man and Isaac, the otherparticipants, were likewiseprop- ertyowners at the timeof theirengagement in the Revolu- tion. In 1782 Freeman owned fortyacres and Isaac two hundredand seventyacres.95 In 1830 therewere twenty-fourseparate heads of fami-

2 Virginia State Library, Will Book, Elizabeth City County (photostat) 1701-1904, Part 11, p. 517. The original copy of Tarrant's will is on file in the land officeat the State Capitol. 9 Virginia State Library, Tax Books (MS), Land, New Kent County, 1816-1824. 9Virginia State Library, Records (Photostat), Charles City County,p. 155. The Will of Abraham Brown is recorded in Will Book, 1789-1808, p. 16. 9 Virginia State Library, Tax Books, Land, Charles City County, 1782. VIRGINIA NEGRO IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONu 285 lies of theBrowns, one ofwhom, still living, was theveteran and pensioner,Isaac Brown. The Brownsof the Revolution- ary period and theirdescendants for manyyears to come exhibitedamong themselves strong family ties and a spirit of devotion. A numberof themaccumulated small tracts of land and latermade provisionfor its distributionamong wives,sons, and daughters.By the timeof the Revolution the Brownshad been free people in Charles City County for two or mor&generations; by 1860 therehad emerged severalmore generations. By this timethey had thusbuilt a familytradition of a strongercharacter than was possible formost free Negro familiesof thatday. The role of leadershipin schooland churchwhich this familyassumed after 1865 was exhibitedby themeven in the days of slavery. Samuel, the grandsonof the Revolu- tionarysoldier, Abraham, was a preacherand the pastor of Elam Baptist Churchof Charles City. This churchwas organizedin 1810 withthe Browns,Cumbos, and Harrises, descendantsor relatives of the Revolutionaryveterans, servingas its chiefpromoters. Eight years afterthe organizationof this independentBaptist churchof free Ne- groes (and some slaves), AbramBrown, church clerk, and his wife Susannah,donated a tract of land to this church with CorneliusBrown, John Brown, James Brown, and JamesC. Harris servingas trustees.96

'Clerk 's Office,Charles City County, Deed Book, 6, p. 214. This church has had a continuous existence from the time of organization until the present. Falling heir to the tradition of church leadership, Samuel A. Brown, son of Samuel, the formerpastor of Elam, grandson of Abram, the church clerk, and great grandson of Abraham, the Revolutionary soldier, is the present pastor of the Gillfield Baptist Church of Petersburg. Isaac Brown, the Revolutionary veteran, was a brother or cousin to Abra- ham Brown. Isaac was placed on the United States pension roll in 1829 at the age of seventyfour. By his will made in 1830 this man left his property to his wife, one son, and one daughter (Clerk's Office,Charles City County, Will Book, 3, p. 407). Other Brown wills found in the will books at the clerk's officein Charles City are as follows: Dixon (1811), WTil Book, 2, p. 471; Milly (1827), 4, p. 80; Abraham (1836), 4, p. 375; Reuben (1839), 4, p. 333; Peter (1841), 4, p. 447; James (1864), 6, p. 214; Jesse (1864), 6, p. 216. 286 JOURNAL OF NEGRO HISTORY

The Cumbofaniily of JamesCity, Charles City, and New Kent countiesfurnished to the Revolutionfour members: Michael,Stephen, Daniel and John. The Debrix familyof thesesame counties,the Harris familyof CharlesCity, and the Wallace familyof James City each furnishedat least one member.Each of thesefree Negro families owned property in the slavery period, some owned even before the Rev- olution,and they disposed of it by will as did many of thefree Negro property holders. Several of theRevolution- ary veteransof thesefamilies who were livingin the 1820- 1830 periodapplied and were placed on the pensionroll of the State Governmentor the United States Government. JamesHarris, for example, was placed on theUnited States pensionroll in 1820 for an allowanceof ninety-sixdollars annually. Perhaps the mostcelebrated Virginia Negro familyfor participatingin the Revolutionwas that of Nickensin the countiesof Lancasterand Northumberlandin the Northern Neck of this State. There were at least nine of themwho tookup armsin defenseof thefreedom of thethirteen colo- nies. A Nickenscould be foundon a numberof vessels in the State navyin thepatrol of theRappahannock and Potomac riversand the ChesapeakeBay. One of thisgroup, Richard Nickens,became the beneficiaryof about all the rewards the Virginia and United States governmentshad to offer. He receivedsuccessively the money bounty and land bounty of one hundredacres immediatelyafter the Revolution, he was placed on the state pensionroll in 1820,and he was placed finallyon the UnitedStates pensionroll in 1831,at the age of eighty-four. There were still otherLancaster and Northumberland freeNegro familieswho fullyshared in the Revolutionary War. Among these were Boyd, Weaver, Woods, Haws, Oats, Pinn, and Sorrell. During the generationfollowing the Revolutionthese familiesalso acquired propertyand exhibitedthe solidaritycharacteristic of the familiesal- readymentioned. VIRGINIANEGRO IN THE AMERICANREVOLUTION 287

The AmericanRevolution is by no meansan antiquarian event to presentday Virginia Negroes. To the contrary there are at least twenty-fivefamilies in the State today whoare thedescendants of soldiersand seamenin theRevo- lution. In many instancesthey still live in the counties wheretheir ancestors lived as freemen and answeredthe call for Americanindependence. The Brownsand Cumbos are still in Charles City and James City,the Beekets are still in Accomae,the Battles and Bowles are still in Albe- marle,and the Nickensare still in Lancaster. In so far as the families in Tidewater Virginia are concerned,their sense of pridemay rest in the participationof theirances- torsin thenavy of theRevolution rather than the army. Participationof Negroesin thenavy is indeeda branch of militaryservice which is of general interest.Not only were thesepersons prominent in the navy of Virginia,but in the otherstate navies and the continentalnavy as well.97 One memberof a crewon a continentalvessel in his early years was James Forten,the well-to-doPhiladelphia Ne- gro. He statedthat nearly all thewar vesselsof theRevolu- tionwere manned with colored seamen. On theRoyal Louis oftwenty-six guns, for example, there were twenty such persons. A similarlarge proportionwere to be foundlikewise on the Alliance,the Trumbull,the Confederacy,and other vessels.98Having establisheda naval traditionin theRevo- lution,Negro seamenwere enlistedextensively in the War of 1812. In Perry'sfleet at thebattle of Lake Erie one sailor out of every ten or twelve was a Negro, and two years later on the Java, anothervessel under CommodorePerry, one sailor out of everysix or eightwas a Negro.99 L. P. JACKSON VirginiaState College

' Herbert Aptheker, The Negro in the American Revolution (New York, 1940), pp. 27-29. 's William C. Nell, Colored Americans in the Wars of 1776 and 1812 (Phila- delphia, 1902), pp. 30-31. 'George Livermore, op. cit., p. 159 (Appendix A).