Toynbee E Le Relazioni Internazionali All'inizio Della Guerra Fredda

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Toynbee E Le Relazioni Internazionali All'inizio Della Guerra Fredda DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN "XX secolo: politica, economia e istituzioni" CICLO XXV COORDINATORE Prof. Luca Mannori TOYNBEE E LE RELAZIONI INTERNAZIONALI ALL’INIZIO DELLA GUERRA FREDDA Settore Scientifico Disciplinare M/STO-04 Dottorando Tutore Dott. Maggioni Luca Prof. Conti Fulvio Anni 2010/2012 2 TOYNBEE E LE RELAZIONI INTERNAZIONALI ALL’INIZIO DELLA GUERRA FREDDA INTRODUZIONE p. 5 1. TRA STORIA E POLITICA: LA VITA DI ARNOLD J. TOYNBEE 1.1 Il mondo classico come paradigma formativo p. 11 1.2 Al servizio della nazione: Toynbee come civil servant p. 21 1.3 Il lavoro sul campo: Toynbee tra archeologia, antropologia e la pratica del viaggio p. 38 1.4 Finis Britanniae? Toynbee nel grande dibattito sull’impero p. 50 1.5 La rottura della tradizione. Chatham House e i Survey of International Affairs p. 60 2. L’APPROCCIO DI TOYNBEE ALLE RELAZIONI INTERNAZIONALI 2.1 Sulla scacchiera di Toynbee: le civiltà e le religioni p. 71 a) Ruolo e significato della civiltà nelle prime opere di Toynbee p. 72 b) La consacrazione delle civiltà: A Study of History p. 83 c) Ruolo e significato delle religioni p. 107 2.2 Poeta o profeta? Analogia e metodologia di indagine storica nel pensiero di Toynbee p. 117 2.3 Un modello per spiegare il mondo contemporaneo: il paradigma ellenico p. 134 2.4 Gli effetti dell’incontro dell’Occidente con le altre civiltà p. 151 3 3. LA GUERRA FREDDA COME SCONTRO DI CIVILTA’ 3.1 Lo scontro fra due civiltà come spiegazione del nuovo ordine internazionale p. 167 3.2 Due soluzioni per evitare il conflitto: le sfere di influenza p. 189 3.3 Due soluzioni per evitare il conflitto: Civitas Dei e l’unione delle quattro religioni superiori p. 200 3.4 Il contributo di Toynbee alle relazioni internazionali p. 208 a) I cicli economici, politici e generazionali p. 208 b) Le leggi e le forze operanti nelle relazioni internazionali p. 211 c) La prospettiva di Giano p. 215 d) La critica metodologica p. 217 e) Realismo, Idealismo o English School? p. 221 4. SHAPING POLITICS: L’INFLUENZA DI TOYNBEE SUI POLICYMAKER DURANTE LA GUERRA FREDDA 4.1 Toynbee e il Consiglio d’Europa del 1953 p. 231 4.2 La ricezione americana dell’opera di Toynbee e il suo utilizzo a scopo propagandistico p. 246 4.3 L’influenza del pensiero di Toynbee sui policymaker p. 272 a) Da Kennan a Kennedy p. 272 b) Kissinger e il paradigma cinese p. 281 c) Dagli Stati Uniti al Giappone: Toynbee come leader spirituale p. 300 d) L’eredità di Toynbee: The Clash of Civilizations p. 307 CONCLUSIONI: L’INTELLETTUALE E LA POLITICA, UN RAPPORTO CONTROVERSO p. 317 FONTI E BIBLIOGRAFIA p. 339 4 INTRODUZIONE A partire dagli anni Ottanta, in una dozzina di città americane comparvero delle strane lastre sul manto stradale che riportavano un’enigmatica dicitura. Nel giro di qualche anno le segnalazioni riguardanti la presenza di queste piastrelle si moltiplicarono, provenendo da tutto il territorio americano e arrivando anche da alcune città del Sud America. Fino ad oggi si contano diverse centinaia di piastrelle di questo tipo che nel corso degli anni hanno fatto la loro comparsa. La notizia catturò anche l’attenzione dei giornali e delle televisioni prima locali, poi nazionali, le quali diedero ampia copertura al fenomeno a partire dal primo articolo del 1994 sul Baltimora Sun1. Oltre alla peculiarità di un evento tanto bizzarro quanto la comparsa improvvisa, e ripetuta nel tempo, di piastrelle incollate sul manto stradale, ad attirare l’attenzione dei media fu soprattutto il messaggio che quasi sempre, a parte poche variazioni sul tema, esse riportavano: TOYNBEE IDEA IN MOVIE 2001 RESURRECT DEAD PLANET JUPITER. Se il rimando all’opera di Stanley Kubrick - 2001 Odissea nello Spazio - appariva chiaro, più curiosità destava il primo nome riportato, ovvero Toynbee, che da subito venne identificato come la chiave per interpretare il significato di questo messaggio. Sin dalla loro comparsa, le ipotesi sul senso del messaggio riportato su queste lastre furono svariate e nel 2011 venne anche girato un documentario su questo fenomeno, dall’accattivante titolo Resurrect Dead: The Mystery of the Toynbee Tiles, che ottenne anche importanti riconoscimenti2. Per alcuni il termine Toynbee idea si riferiva a un passaggio dell'opera Experiences dello storico inglese Arnold Joseph Toynbee, nel quale si parlava della possibilità che un corpo, una volta morto, potesse tornare in vita3. Per altri il riferimento era all'opera di Ray Bradbury The Toynbee 1 R. HIAASEN, The word on the street turns cryptic, in “The Baltimore Sun”, 19 ottobre 1994 2 Resurrect Dead: The Mystery of the Toynbee Tiles, John Foy director, Land of Missing Part production, 2001 3 "Human nature presents human minds with a puzzle which they have not yet solved and may never succeed in solving, for all that we can tell. The dichotomy of a human being into 'soul' and 'body' is not a datum of experience. No one has ever been, or ever met, a living human soul without a body... Someone who accepts—as I myself do, taking it on trust—the present-day scientific account of the Universe may find it impossible to believe that a living creature, once dead, can come to life again; but, if he did entertain this belief, he would be thinking more 'scientifically' if he thought in the Christian terms of a psychosomatic resurrection than if he thought in the shamanistic terms of a disembodied spirit" (A. J. TOYNBEE, Experiences, Oxford University Press, London, New York 1969, pp.140-141). 5 Convector1, dove il protagonista, che si presumeva avesse viaggiato nel tempo grazie a una macchina del tempo di sua invenzione, aveva battezzato questo ingegnoso strumento proprio in onore dello storico inglese. In questo racconto si parlava dell'idea di Toynbee che, per sopravvivere, l'umanità dovesse sempre lottare per andare incontro al futuro, e sperare in qualcosa che fosse al di là delle possibilità umane per raggiungere qualcosa che fosse appena alla sua portata. Secondo alcuni, in questo caso il messaggio delle piastrelle si collegava con l’opera di Kubrick invitando l’umanità a cercare di colonizzare Giove, o ad inseguire qualche sfida più grande, per poter sopravvivere. In realtà il rimando più semplice e più verosimile di questo criptico messaggio era direttamente al pensiero dello storico inglese sulla nascita, crescita, crollo e disintegrazione delle civiltà, e al fatto che gli elementi che le componevano potessero sopravvivere alla loro morte ed essere il principio di nuove civiltà legate a quelle precedenti. Per molti enigma che racchiudeva un ancestrale mistero sul senso della vita, per altri invece ingegnosa trovata pubblicitaria, i Toynbee Tiles sono solo l'ultima testimonianza, per quanto all’apparenza superficiale, dell'attenzione che il nome di Arnold Joseph Toynbee e le sue riflessioni sulle civiltà ancora oggi richiamano nel pubblico americano, e della speciale relazione che lega l’intellettuale inglese al paese dove arrivò più vicino a realizzare il sogno della sua vita: influenzare con le proprie riflessioni le scelte politiche di una nazione. Toynbee è stato una delle figure più interessanti del panorama intellettuale di tutto il Novecento. Lo storico britannico, infatti, uno degli ultimi grandi polimati della storia, è ricordato per la sua imponente opera di filosofia della storia chiamata A Study of History in dodici volumi nella quale venivano studiate e confrontate tutte le civiltà che avevano solcato la faccia della Terra. La sua fama è sempre stata altalenante: a partire dagli anni Cinquanta, però, l’interesse mondiale per Toynbee favorì la traduzione delle sue opere in tutto il mondo contribuendo a dare al suo pensiero una diffusione globale. In Italia, tuttavia, la sua fortuna non fu così grande come in altri paesi2, e ciò viene fatto risalire alle critiche rivolte ai suoi primi volumi da Benedetto Croce, il quale disse che “questo libro del 1 R. BRADBURY, The Toynbee Convector, Knopf, New York 1988, tr. it., Il convettore di Toynbee, in ID., Viaggiatore del tempo, Rizzoli, Milano 1989 2 Sulle difficoltà incontrate dalle opere di Toynbee in Italia, si rimanda in particolare all’opera di P. SILVESTRI, Arnold Toynbee e la storia intera, Firenze Atheneum, Scandicci, Firenze 1991, p. 13-14 6 Toynbee (contrariamente alle parole del titolo) non è un libro di storia, ma uno dei tanti prodotti sociologici, una ‘sociologia delle civiltà’, con la pretesa di offrire le leggi del loro nascere, crescere e morire”1. La prima opera ad essere tradotta in italiano fu il compendio di A Study of History fatto da Somervell dal titolo di Le civiltà nella Storia2, da cui più tardi, a metà degli anni Settanta, venne tratta un’altra edizione dal titolo Storia comparata delle civiltà3. Dei volumi integrali invece solo due furono tradotti, nel 1954 e nel 1955, in un’edizione dal titolo Panorami della Storia4. E’ stato interessante scoprire negli archivi della Bodleian Library di Oxford una lettera del 6 giugno 1968 su carta intestata dell’Università di Milano, Istituto di Filosofia, inviata a Toynbee dal professor Enzo Paci, il quale gli comunicava che la casa editrice “il Saggiatore” era interessata a ripubblicare i primi due volumi editi in precedenza da Mondadori, per poi procedere alla traduzione e all’edizione di tutti i volumi di A Study of History. Toynbee rispose in modo entusiasta a questa proposta: tuttavia il progetto non si realizzò mai5. Diversa fortuna ebbero invece le opere di Toynbee come filosofo della storia. Molte furono le traduzioni in italiano: Civiltà al paragone6, Il Mondo e l’Occidente7 e il Racconto dell’uomo8, per citare solo le più famose. Anche il Toynbee storico del mondo mondo antico vantò efficaci traduzioni: L’eredità di Annibale9, il Mondo Ellenico10 e Costantino Porfirogenito11.
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