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Emblematic Forest Dwellers Reintroduced Into Cities: Resource Selection by Translocated Juvenile Kaka

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Emblematic Forest Dwellers Reintroduced Into Cities: Resource Selection by Translocated Juvenile Kaka Current Zoology, 2016, 62(1), 15–22 doi: 10.1093/cz/zov010 Article Article Emblematic forest dwellers reintroduced into cities: resource selection by translocated juvenile kaka a,b, b,c b Mariano R. RECIO, * Keith PAYNE, and Philip J. SEDDON aSchool of Surveying, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand, bDepartment of Zoology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand, and cDepartment of Physics, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand *Address correspondence to Mariano R. Recio. E-mail: [email protected]. Received on 9 February 2015; accepted on 29 April 2015 Abstract Urbanization and exotic species are major threats to the conservation of forest-dependent wildlife species. Some emblematic species, indicators of habitat quality for the conservation of other spe- cies, might successfully be reintroduced within cities when habitat restoration and pest manage- ment programs are combined. We studied the landscape resource selection of juvenile kaka Nestor meridionalis tracked with Global Positioning System (GPS) units and released into the predator- free reserve of Zealandia in Wellington city, New Zealand. Kaka moved beyond the predator exclu- sion fence into urban suburbs. The home range size and areas of high use estimated using local convex hull (a-LoCoH) ranged from 20 to 240 ha and 2 to 21 ha, respectively. Using resource selec- tion functions and model selection we found that native forest patches and urban areas close to the reserve were selected by kaka to establish their home ranges. At a lower scale of selection (i.e., se- lection of habitats within home ranges), kaka selected the same habitat, but not necessarily those close to the reserve. Native forest patches throughout the city can facilitate the dispersal of individ- uals, while the reserve provides protection and opportunities for supplementary feeding. Urban areas might have been selected due to the placement of feeders in private backyards. Survival of forest-dwelling species in cities requires careful urban planning and management to provide the necessary habitat patches, refugia, and food sources. Key words: forest-dwellers, GPS, kaka, New Zealand, reintroductions, resource selection, urbanization, Wellington. Habitat loss and fragmentation are major threats to the conserva- Another major cause of biodiversity loss is biological invasions tion of biodiversity worldwide. Urbanization, in particular, results (Vitousek et al. 1997; IUCN 2001). Introduced animal species can in permanent destruction and modification of habitat at local and become an agent of change and a threat to native biological diversity global scales (Marzluff 2001; McKinney 2008). Urbanization cre- via predation or competition with native species (Courchamp et al. ates a matrix of disconnected natural patches inhospitable for many 2003). Urban areas can provide an appropriate environment for wildlife species (McKinney 2002). Among the wildlife species most introduced generalist species able to adapt to the opportunities pro- affected by urbanization are forest dwellers or forest-dependent spe- vided by anthropogenic resources and to become a threat to native cies (Gillies et al. 2010). The survival and persistence of forest- wildlife (Cleargeau et al. 2004; Vanak and Gompper 2010). dependent species in urban environments is related, among other The long-term conservation of native forest wildlife species, such reasons, to the ability of individuals to move within and between as forest-dwelling birds, within modified urban environments forest patches of specific composition and configuration (Hanski (Jokima¨ki et al. 2014) might depend on: 1) the successful implemen- 1998; Gillies et al. 2010). tation of suitable urban design and urban planning to promote VC The Author (2016). Published by Oxford University Press. 15 This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact [email protected] 16 Current Zoology, 2016, Vol. 62, No. 1 connectivity between green spaces and natural areas within a matrix of built-up areas (e.g. ecological networks, Ignatieva et al. 2011); 2) the conservation of natural forest patches; and 3) the management of exotic species. Urban planning and the conservation of natural forest patches can provide habitats to sustain wildlife populations and functional connectivity among patches to ensure movement and flow of individuals and genes between populations (Beier and Noss 1998). Management strategies for exotic species in urban areas should seek to minimize the impact caused by direct predation and by competition for resources within restored or remnant natural habitats. Ultimately, the suitability and success of these combined wildlife management strategies can be assessed in terms of ecosystem health through surrogate or focal animal species (Caro and Fagan 2002). The presence and health of these species can provide an indi- cation of ecosystem condition (Weaver 1995). Moreover, the con- servation of ecosystems to protect indicator species might also protect many co-occuring species. Thus, indicator species can also act as umbrella species (Roberge and Angelstam 2004). One such forest dwelling species considered an indicator of eco- system health is the charismatic New Zealand (NZ) kaka Nestor meridionalis (Leech et al. 2008, Figure 1). The kaka is an endemic arboreal parrot that inhabits lowland native forests where it occu- pies mid to high canopy, make its nests in hollow trees and feed from invertebrates and plant fruits, berries, nectar, sap, flowers, and buds (Heather and Robertson 2005). Kaka used to be abundant in native forests (Wilson et al. 1998). However, the species is suscep- tible to habitat destruction and degradation, and to direct predation and competition by introduced mammals (O’Donnell and Rasch 1991; Moorhouse et al. 2003; Greene et al. 2004). New Zealand’s indigenous forests have been reduced by human exploitation from Figure 1. The emblematic New Zealand kaka Nestor meridionalis, an endan- 82% to only 23% of the land area (Ewers et al. 2006), and as for gered native forest-dependant parrot reintroduced into Wellington city. many other native birds in NZ, the introduction of mammalian Photo: Keith Payne. predators caused a dramatic decline in kaka populations (Beggs and Wilson 1991; Wilson et al. 1998; King 2005; Leech et al. 2008). Consequently, the species is classified as endangered (IUCN Red caused by introduced mammals (Dilks et al. 2003; Greene and Jones List 2015, www.iucnredlist.org, retrieved 12-3-15). Kaka can fulfill 2003; Moorhouse et al. 2003; Veltman and Westbrook 2011). the role of indicator species to identify habitat quality in NZ, as well In Wellington city, the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary (now known as as being a flagship species to attract public support (Andelman and Zealandia) is a predator-free fenced area containing abundant native Fagan 2000; Leech et al. 2008). Specific management and conserva- forest and connected to a green-belt surrounding the city (King tion strategies for kaka will also be relevant for the conservation sta- 2005). The expectation was that species such as the kaka can find tus and health of NZ lowland forest ecosystems (Leech et al. 2008). the necessary resources for breeding and feeding within the sanctu- As for other parrot species, such as the rainbow lorikeet ary, which is considered a population base supporting expansion of Trichoglossus haematodus, musk lorikeet Glossopsitta concinna, kaka along the city green-belt and green spaces toward other native and red-rumped parrots Psephotus haematonotus that have success- habitat patches within the urban matrix. Kaka were first reintro- fully colonized city parklands in Australia (Lill 2009), the kaka has duced into Zealandia in 2002 and more than 300 individuals have recently been reintroduced to sites in or near the NZ capital, been banded there since then (www.visitzealandia.com, retrieved Wellington city (Miskelly et al. 2005; Kerry and Linklater 2013). 12-3-2015). The current kaka population in Wellington is estimated 1 Recent management objectives for the city identify a need to im- to be between 180 and 250 birds (Karori Sanctuary Trust , 2013, prove functional connectivity for wildlife species, and recognize the Wellington, New Zealand, Unpublished data, unpublished data). importance of understanding animal movements within patches to Supplementary food in artificial feeders is provided year-round for guide management strategies (Wellington City Council 2013). The kaka in the sanctuary (Kerry and Linklater 2013). However, reintro- success of the re-establishment of a kaka population and expansion duced individuals are free to move over the exclusion fence and into also depends on the control of introduced mammalian predators. city suburbs. The frequent presence of kaka in inner suburbs has The main introduced predators of kaka (and other native birds) are been reported in previous research on sap feeding behavior (Kerry stoats Mustela erminea, which kill adults (in particular females incu- and Linklater 2013). bating eggs), brush-tailed possums Trichosurus Vulpecula, which The successful reintroduction and conservation of kaka in cities rob nests and compete for high-energy foods and nest-sites, and rats faces
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