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Unraveling the Evolution, Dynamics and Time-Scales of Magmatic ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library UNRAVELING THE EVOLUTION, DYNAMICS, AND TIME- SCALES OF MAGMATIC PROCESSES BELOW GEDE VOLCANO, WEST-JAVA, INDONESIA DANIEL KRIMER Asian School of the Environment A thesis submitted to the Nanyang Technological University in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor ofPhilosophy 2015 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Acknowledgements First off, I wish to thank Professor Fidel Costa, my research advisor, for his professional guidance and patience throughout my candidature and research work at EOS. I am also deeply indebted for the faith he placed in me, which 1 know I have occasionally probed during the years, but finally he seemed to be right about it, too. I am very grateful for the thorough reviews and constructive feedbacks of the members of my thesis committee, Heather Handley, Jon Blundy, and Caroline Bouvet de Maisonneuve. I also thank Nathalie Goodkin, my committee chair, for conducting my oral defense so professionally. I would like to express my gratitude to Chris Newhall, who was already willing to embrace me before I joined to EOS as a graduate student, and later during my doctorate carrier. I also wish to thank him a thousand times for providing me with shelter in some difficult times at the early years. Sasha and Marina Belousov are thanked for the constructive discussions during fieldworks. Fieldworks were possible thanks to the support of CVGHM and the Gunung Gede-Pangrango National Park. A special thanks goes to Jason Herrin for his unflagging help with EPMA and EBSD data collection and discussions on various igneous petrology- related topics. Tim Druitt and Jean-Luc Devidal at LMV are thanked for their assistance with LA-ICP-MS data collection and scientific discussions during my times there. Edwin Tan is acknowledged for his endless patience and help with IT-related matters. A special thanks goes to Emma Hill for introducing me to the mysterious world of numerical modeling and MATLAB®. Humza Akhtar is specially thanked for discussions and help with coding in MATLAB®. Dawn Ruth is thanked for her help with FT-IR data collection. I am thankful for the generous financial support of EOS (Magma Plumbing Project) and the French-Singapore exchange program, MERLION. Thomas Shea, Julia Hammer, and Benoit Welsch are also thanked for discussions about three-dimensional problems of zoning and twinning in crystals. Finally, I cannot express how grateful I am to my loving wife, Raquel Baeza, for the patiently spent endless hours listening to my narration about crystals, magmas, and all sort of volcanic stuff. I am exceptionally glad for her support, care, and understanding. I also thank my newly bom daughter, Lara for waiting being bom until I could finish writing up my thesis, and not starting perturbing our livesjust before. i ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary 1 Introduction 3 CrystaIize, Intrude, Mingle, Erupt, Repeat: magmatic evolution of Gede volcano, West- Java, Indonesia 10 ABSTRACT 10 1. Introduction 13 2. Geological setting and deposits ofGede Volcanic Complex 15 2.1TheGedeVolcanicComplex 15 2.2 Holocene eruptive units of Gede, field observations, and sampling strategy 19 2.3. Historical eruptions and geophysical monitoring data ofGede 22 3. Analytical methods 22 4. Petrography and mineralogy ofGede pyroclastic flow units 26 4.1. Nomenclature and symbols 26 4.2. The >45 kyr old PF unit 27 4.3. The 10 kyr old PF unit 35 4.4. The 4 kyr old PF unit 40 4.5. The 1.2 kyr unit 46 4.6. The 1 kyr unit 50 4.7. The ‘recent’ eruptions 54 5. Trace element geochemistry ofminerals 59 5.1. Plagioclase 60 5.2. Amphibole 62 5.3. Pyroxenes 64 6. Whole rock and glass geochemistry: major, minor, and trace elements 76 6.1. >45kyrunit 76 6.2. 10 kyr unit 78 6.3. 4 kyr unit 79 6.4. 1.2 kyr unit 80 6.5.1kyrunit 81 6.6. The ‘recent’ eruptions 82 6.7. Matrix glass and melt inclusions and their relation to mineral zonings and whole rocks 88 7. Geothermometry, oxybarometry, and hygrometry 89 7.1. Temperature and oxygen fugacity estimates 89 7.2. Volatiles in melt inclusions 97 8. Selecting partition coefficients 98 9. Discussion ofmagmatic processes: variablefractionation, mixing, and mingling 102 9.1. Deep and shallow magma differentiation events recorded in the >45 kyr unit 104 9.2. Crystal-cumulate mafic magma replenishment and mingling/mixing of the 10 kyr unit 113 9.3. Mafic-felsic magma mixing and mingling in the 4 kyr and younger units 115 10. A model for reservoir dynamics and magmatic evolution beneath Gede volcano 120 11. Relation ofGede petrology and geochemistry to volcano hazards and monitoring data 123 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 125 REFERENCES 126 APPENDlXl 149 APPENDlX2 151 APPENDIX3 152 APPENDIX4 153 iii ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library Eu-anomaly and Rare Earth Element zoning in crystals from subduction zone magmas as indicators for processes and volcano plumbing systems: a case study of the Gede volcano, West-Java, Indonesia 158 ABSTRACT 158 1. Introduction 159 2. Samples and geological background 160 3. Analytical methods 161 4. Review ofEuropium (Rare Earth Elements) and Strontium partitioning in amphibole, cIinopyroxene, and plagioclase 162 5. Textural observations, major elementzoning in minerals and relation to REE and Eu- anomaly 164 5.1. Plagioclase 165 5.2. Amphibole 165 5.3. Clinopyroxene 167 6. Whole rockgeochemistry: Rare earth elements 175 7. Discussion 176 7.1. What caused the moderate negative Eu-anomalies and REE patterns in mafic clinopyroxenes? 176 7.2. Eu-anomalies in evolved cIinopyroxene and silicic liquids 186 9. Conclusions and implications 191 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 192 REFERENCES 193 The effects of3D diffusion on retrieved time scales from Fe-Mg zoning in orthopyroxne and application to mafic-silicic magma mixing at Gede volcano, West- Java, Indonesia 202 ABSTRACT 202 1. Introduction 202 2. Commonly used terms and definitions 204 3. Methods 206 3.1. Modelvariables 206 3.2. Numerical methods and diffusion equation 209 3.3. Simulation protocol and preparation of the ID & 2D models 210 4. Results and interpretations 217 4.1. ID along-axes and on-center traverses 217 4.2. ID along-axes and off-center traverses 220 4.3. 2D on-center planes 224 4.4. 2D off-center planes 226 5. Discussion 229 5.1. ID or 2D model, what is more applicable in different cases? 229 5.2. Influence of crystal morphology on diffusion 237 5.3. Isotropic or anisotropic diffusion of Fe-Mg in orthopyroxene? - comparison of natural and simulated data 239 5.4. Preparation guidelines for diffusion modeling in orthopyroxene 240 6. Modeling natural crystals 242 6.1. Selecting crystals for diffusion modeling and assessing their crystallographic orientations 242 6.2. Estimating the initial Fe-Mg concentration distribution and the boundary conditions in the selected orthopyroxene crystals 243 6.3. Modeling Fe-Mg diffusion profiles 244 7. Conclusions 247 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 248 REFERENCES 249 APPENDIXl 255 Conclusions 257 iv ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library SUMMARY Gede is the closest active stratovolcano to the capital of Indonesia, thus it is a potential hazard to millions of people around the volcano and in Jakarta. It is currently being monitored by various geophysical methods in a collaborative project between CVGHM and EOS. However, interpretation of new unrest is fraught with uncertainty unless its geological and petrological history is well understood. I present here a detailed petrochemical study to untangle Gede’s past history since about the last 45 kyr to present that sheds light on its magmatic evolution and reservoir dynamics, and the time-scales of these processes. A key finding is that Gede’s evolutionary path changed in the Holocene: the main magma dynamics has shifted from a deep mafic reservoir (about 24 km below its summit) to a shallow one (at about 4 km) made of silica-rich melts. Mingling and mixing of volatile-rich basaltic and crystal-rich rhyolitic magmas is one of the most important processes that lead to the main erupted compositions (andesites) and which also may lead to eruption. Three-dimensional numerical simulation of diffusion of chemically zoned minerals reveals that these shallow reservoir processes start probably only a month before eruption. These results should guide interpretations of monitoring signals and improve hazard mitigation efforts in a future unrest event. 1 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library INTRODUCTION Subduction-zone volcanoes are among the most active and produce the most explosive eruptions worldwide. They are located along the convergent margins of oceanic and continental crusts, a place where landscape variability and therefore biodiversity is among the highest on the globe and thus are heavily populated. Along and across the subduction-zones volcanoes produce a large compositional variety of magmas through time and space (e.g. Ishikawa & Nakamura, 1994; Patino et al., 2000; Plank & Langmuir, 1988), which manifests in different eruption styles. These volcanoes, therefore, often pose a great threat ofhuman life (e.g. Merapi, 2010) and can lead to remarkable economical loss (e.g. Mount St. Helens, 1980). Magma compositions and eruption style may result from both the composition of the primary magma and the evolution paths and processes that it experiences. Fractional crystallization (e.g.
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