Anishinaabekwewag Teachings of Self-Determination By Jessica Martin A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree Department of Indigenous Studies Master of Arts in Indigenous Governance The University of Winnipeg Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada August 12, 2020 Martin 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My first and biggest nod of appreciation goes to my family—my parents and step parents—Lana (Peter) and Dean (Lori), my brother Jordan, my grandparents, aunties and uncles, and cousins. I grew up in an environment where I was encouraged to think critically and question the narrative, and to not shy away from difficult topics. I was surrounded by people that showed me the value of hard work, humility, kindness, lending a hand when it’s needed, and the power of a good laugh. I have spent some time away from them throughout my schooling, but their support has grounded me, motivated me, and always gave me a place to land. They never faltered in their support for my academic pursuits, no matter where they took me. I am so blessed to be part of this boisterous bunch. Thank you to my friends who have continued to support me, even from a distance. To Caitlyn Rowley, thank you for being braver than me and saying “hello” at our undergraduate orientation day. You have always been a source of encouragement and kindness, and my university experience would not have been the same without you. To Lee McGowan, thank you for the kind words of encouragement, your unwavering friendship, and your critical eyes when I needed an opinion on a challenging piece of writing. To Vi Avalos, thank you for your encouragement, support, and friendship during my time in Winnipeg. In the last few years when things seemed to be changing every day and schooling took me all over the world, my family and friends have been constants and for that I have been and will remain grateful. Thank you to the professors and lecturers along the way that encouraged me to use my voice. To Dr. Tolly Bradford and Dr. Colin Neufeldt, who provided me the foundation on which much of my success in university has been based. To Dr. Jerry Fontaine, whose encouragement gave me a much-needed confidence boost when I was facing grad school struggles. To Darren Martin 2 Courchene, who challenged and supported me to engage with Anishinaabe philosophies and to be an empowered ally. Jerry and Darren always listened to and validated what I had to say and encouraged me to use my voice. They helped me shape my final project into something I am proud of and am excited to share. To Dr. Mark Ruml, for stepping up and helping push me over the finish line. Finally, to Elders Beverley Courchene and Margaret Smith, for bringing your valued knowledge and viewpoints to my committee as respected Grandmothers and Knowledge Keepers in the Ojibwe-Anishinaabe community. Miigwech also for bringing ceremony to my defense; it eased my nerves and brought me peace on the big day. Martin 3 ABSTRACT Since being excluded from decolonization efforts in the mid-twentieth century on the grounds that they were not colonized peoples but minorities living within sovereign states, Indigenous peoples have called for a broader understanding of self-determination. The Indigenous self-determination debate has become characterized by a spurious dichotomy between its collective and individual aspects, with the argument from leaders often being grounded in trickle-down logic that collective self-determination is a prerequisite for individual, so the former must be addressed first. As a result of such arguments and the heteropatriarchal ideologies implemented through the Indian Act, Anishinaabekwewag have been largely excluded from self-determination discourse. However, in order for self-determination to be realized in a meaningful way, a more holistic and inclusive understanding is necessary. Anishinaabekwewag occupy a unique space from which to contribute to the development of such an understanding. In this thesis I will explore and apply a framework informed by ikweism, a concept derived from Anishinaabekwe thought and conceptualizations within the context of Anishinaabe cosmologies, ontologies, epistemologies, and axiologies regarding the strength of femininity and its inherent connections with ideas regarding Anishinaabe sovereignty and self-determination. In doing so, I will demonstrate that Anishinaabe philosophies have long worked to empower Anishinaabekwewag and provide a strong foundation on which Anishinaabe self-determination discourse can find meaning going forward. Martin 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 ABSTRACT 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS 4 LIST OF FIGURES 6 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 7 Positionality 7 Context 9 Purpose and Questions 14 Significance of Discussion 16 Notes for Chapter One 17 CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGIES 19 Locating Self: Indigenous v. Indigenized Research 19 Language Use and Terminology 21 A Nation-Specific Approach 24 Using Ikweism to Make Meaning 25 Story as Methodology 27 Water as a Common Thread 29 Notes for Chapter Two 29 CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW 31 Finding Roots in Creation: Understandings of Women in the Literature 31 “when the god met the goddess”: Examining the Impacts of Colonization on Anishinaabekwewag 37 Residential Schools 40 Indian Act 42 Imposition of a Heteropatriarchal Marriage Construct 43 Manipulation of Cultural Imagery 44 Reclaiming Anishinaabekwewag Self-Determination 45 Conclusion 47 Moving Forward: Gaps and Chapter Overviews 47 Notes for Chapter Three 49 CHAPTER FOUR: CONCEPTUALIZING WOMEN AND THE FEMININE IN ANISHINAABE AND CHRISTIAN CREATION STORIES 52 Understanding Anishinaabe Creation Stories 53 Creation Stories and Anishinaabekwewag 55 Anishinaabekwewag Roles 60 Water 62 Reflections on Christian and Anishinaabe Creation Stories 67 Martin 5 Conclusion 73 Notes for Chapter Four 73 CHAPTER FIVE: CONSTRAINING IKWEIST AMBITION FOR ANISHINAABEKWEWAG SELF-DETERMINATION IN CANADA 78 Legislative and Ideological Foundations of the Indian Act 79 Impacts of the Indian Act on Anishinaabekwewag 82 Heteropatriarchy 83 Altered Discourse 90 Altered Relationships 94 Water 95 Conclusion 100 Notes for Chapter Five 101 CHAPTER SIX: RESPONDING TO CHALLENGES TO ANISHINAABEKWEWAG SELF-DETERMINATION 105 Theorizing Anishinaabe Decolonization 105 Responding to Challenges to Self-Determination 107 Walking with Our Sisters 107 Shoal Lake 40 and Freedom Road 111 Josephine Mandamin and Autumn Peltier: Water Carriers, Protectors 116 Conclusion 122 Notes for Chapter Six 122 CONCLUSION 125 Notes for Conclusion 127 BIBLIOGRAPHY 128 Martin 6 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Tomson Highway’s visualizations of the linear/fallic monotheistic model in comparison to the circular pantheistic model (and half-circular polytheistic model). 30 Figure 2. Concentric circle model of Anishinaabe social organization, as described by Elder Maria Campbell. 40 Figure 3. Concentric circle model of Anishinaabe social organization, as described by Elder Niizhoosake Copenace. 41 Martin 7 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Positionality I am a Canadian woman of primarily Belgian, French, Scottish, and Russian descent. My ancestors on my mother’s paternal side emigrated from Belgium to northern Alberta in the early twentieth century. My earliest known French ancestors—my father’s paternal family—arrived on the east coast some time prior to the Great Upheaval out of Acadia in the mid-eighteenth century. My ancestors were expelled to the Thirteen Colonies, following which some returned to what became Canada. Unfortunately, I know very little about this side of my family. Nor do I know much about either my mother or my father’s maternal sides, beyond that they came to Canada in the early-to-mid-twentieth century. It has always been my plan to explore my family history further following the completion of my degree. I was born in Kelowna, British Columbia but I have spent most of my life in rural northern Alberta and consider myself an Albertan. I am fortunate enough to have been raised within a large network of extended family, and still remain close to grandparents and cousins. While I love to travel and have been away from home for extended periods of time for schooling, I still very much consider northern Alberta to be my home and look forward to returning there to be closer to my family again. My post-secondary education journey started at Concordia University of Edmonton (CUE) in a Bachelor of Arts program where I had a concentration in History and a minor in Psychology. I had decided the spring before entering university during a trip to the United Kingdom that I was going to pursue spending a year abroad there. I ended up doing just that during my second year, both semesters of which I studied at Coventry University. Martin 8 My original intention when entering CUE’s B.A. program was to complete my three-year degree and apply to the university’s after-degree elementary Education program. For as long as I could remember, I had never faltered in my answer to the oft-ask question, “What do you want to be when you grow up?” Without a doubt, I wanted to be a teacher. However, in the early weeks of my final year, my friend Shannon Tyler asked me why I wanted to become a teacher. I realized then that I didn’t have a good reason other than “because that’s always been my plan.” Shannon challenged me to explore other options for further education after graduation, and I will be forever grateful to her for that. While I researched possible graduate studies options, I was taking classes that focused on Western Canadian history, the history of interactions between Indigenous peoples and Christian institutions and missionaries, and the history of the relationships between the Canadian government and Indigenous peoples in what became the prairie provinces. These classes were what initially drew my interest to Indigenous studies. With CUE being a small university, each of these courses were taught by Dr.