The God Who Gives Rest in the Land: Joshua Paul R. House

This article is an adapted and expanded Accurate Old Testament interpretation God’s graciousness to Israel therefore does excerpt from House’s forthcoming Old depends upon a sound understanding of not include an arbitrary expulsion of the Testament Theology (InterVarsity Press). Old Testament theology. This principle is Canaanites. Rather, rest for Israel coincides true regardless of the text under consid- with judgment for the Canaanites, and eration, but is especially crucial for grasp- Joshua warns his people against suffering ing the significance of books with a similar fate. controversial contents. Certainly the book of Joshua fits this description. After all, it Joshua’s Place in the Hebrew Canon includes accounts of holy war, of divid- One of the chief differences between the ing God-given land, and of miracles. It English and Hebrew Bibles is that the claims to fulfill promises offered to former welds together Joshua, Judges, Abraham and Moses years earlier. Given Ruth, 1-2 Samuel, 1-2 Kings, 1-2 its contents, then, interpreters must take Chronicles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther great care in stating what the book says to form a section of historical books, while about God, God’s relationship to Israel the latter links Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and the rest of the world, and God’s stan- and Kings together as the Former Proph- dards for receiving divine blessing. ets. The English Bible thereby depicts the This article seeks to state Joshua’s ba- events of Israel’s history from conquest (c. sic theological emphases. To do so, it ad- 1400 or 1250 B.C.) to the return to Jerusa- dresses the book’s authorship and date, lem during the Persian era (c. 425 B.C.), place in the Old Testament, and contents. then proceeds to Job. The Hebrew Bible, Special attention is given to how this book on the other hand, describes events that gathers ideas from previous texts and is span the conquest to a few decades after then in turn used in subsequent scriptures. the Babylonian captivity (c. 550), then pre- Hopefully this approach will make sents the prophetic books. These canoni- Joshua’s theological contribution to Bib- cal distinctions allow a subtle but lical Theology accessible to scholars, stu- important interpretative shift in thinking. dents, and ministers. By distinguishing Joshua-Kings as pro- Though Joshua includes many impor- phetic literature the Hebrew canon em- tant theological emphases, its main idea is phasizes the common ground shared by that God gives rest to Israel in the prom- the prophetic books (Isaiah, Jeremiah, ised land. At long last the chosen people Ezekiel, and the Twelve) and their more reside in the place God promised Abraham heavily-historical predecessors. This would belong to his descendants (Ge 12:7). grouping treats the Former Prophets as It must be remembered that this giving of both proclamation and as history written land only occurred after the original inhab- from a specific perspective. It also allows itants had refused to repent over a four- readers to discover that the prophets were hundred-year period of time (Ge 15:13-16). neglected throughout Israel’s past, and 12 that they influenced books that they did lively debate during the past half century. not write. The Hebrew order helps read- This debate has basically been divided be- ers absorb the events from a prophetic tween scholars who think the books were viewpoint, then encounter the words the written by a single author who carefully prophets themselves used to interpret the crafted a consecutive history using accu- times in which they lived. rate sources, those who believe the texts In the Prophets segment of the canon, it were composed by two, three, or more care- becomes evident that the members of the ful editors writing at different stages of prophetic movement united narrative his- Israel’s history, and those who think each tory and a deep concern for theological book had a separate author. These com- commitment in their written works. They mentators include a variety of data in their did so to make sense of their nation’s his- discussions, but usually begin with evi- tory. Here prophets and those who agree dence from the books themselves. with them preach and write God’s word. Prophets explain and predict the past. Textual Evidence Prophets anoint and denounce kings. The No author is ever identified in the text. existence of the prophetic books indicates Major characters in the accounts could that long after the prophets died the people have played a role in the books’ composi- of God determined that these men and tion, of course, but none is singled out as women indeed spoke for the Lord. an author in any direct way. Given this As they tell Israel’s history the Former situation, it is necessary to examine other Prophets display at least five distinct char- types of information the accounts offer to acteristics.1 First, they assess the past determine when they were written, and based on God’s covenant with Israel. Sec- by whom. Though other factors are also ond, whenever predictions occur they are important,2 two basic details may provide formed by noting how God has blessed insight into these issues. The first element or punished Israel in the past and by not- is the scope of events covered in the books. ing what specific promises the Lord makes At least 700 years unfold. Joshua’s con- to individuals such as David. Third, they quest of Canaan, the history’s initial event, create plot by selecting events and persons occurs no later than 1250 B.C.3 Second for inclusion that fit the prophetic view Kings ends with a description of how of the past, present, and future. Fourth, Jehoiachin, a Judahite king exiled in 597 they assess characters in the history based B.C., is given kind treatment in the thirty- on whether they help gain or lose the seventh year of his imprisonment in promised land. Fifth, they encourage Babylon (2 Ki 25:27-30). This notation readers to turn to the Lord so they can places the author of that material beyond experience blessing instead of punish- 560 B.C. Therefore, it is safe to conclude ment as stated in Deuteronomy 27-28. In- that the books were complete sometime deed, the book of Deuteronomy heavily after that date. Since no further events are influences all the prophetic writers. described, the author of the books could have written the material by 550 B.C. Authorship, Date, and Purpose The second factor is that several writ- Who wrote Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and ten sources are mentioned in the books Kings and in what manner has sparked themselves. Joshua 10:12-13 and 2 Samuel 13 1:17-27 are poetic texts that the author says and chose to strive to identify the nature may be found in the “Book of Jashar.” It of all the stated and unstated sources used is impossible to know the contents of this to write the books.8 Based on the variety source, since only these references from of the books’ material and the difficulty the book have survived. C. R. Kraft sug- of determining what the stated sources, gests, “It seems to have been an ancient much less the unstated sources, contained, national song book, the antiquity of which most experts correctly concluded that the is suggested in part by the relatively poor so-called Pentateuchal sources are not state of preservation of the Hebrew text present in the Former Prophets. of each poem.”4 Regardless of its origins, Did the books’ author use other the author(s) of Joshua and 2 Samuel sources? If so, what was the nature of freely admits using the source, which is these sources and the ones the biblical text an implicit invitation to check the accu- mentions? Interpreters must exercise cau- racy of the citation. tion and humility when answering these Three written sources are mentioned in questions. Though only three sources are 1-2 Kings. The Book of the Acts of explicitly revealed, other data may have Solomon is listed in 1 Kings 11:41, and been used. After all, the stated sources all seems to be cited as the main source for refer to poems or to the activities of kings. most if not all of the Solomon material Yet the books also include genealogies, found in 1 Kings 1-11. The Book of the divisions of land, and accounts of battles. Chronicles of the Kings of Israel is claimed Several narratives about prophets also as a source for every northern king’s reign appear, which makes it possible that the except for Jehoram and Hoshea, while the author gathered written or oral materials Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of from prophetic sources. As for the con- Judah is cited as a source of information tents of the sources named, 1 Kings 11:41 on all of Judah’s rulers except for Ahaziah, indicates that the Book of the Acts of Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Solomon “comprised contemporary an- Zedekiah.5 In each instance where these nals, biographical materials, and extracts three sources appear the author implies from records in the Temple archives.”9 that further details on each king’s era were The Books of the Chronicles of the Kings available in those works. This impression of Israel and Judah probably contained leaves the true nature of the source mate- similar details, since they are said to rial very much in doubt, which has al- chronicle dates, royal achievements, and lowed various scholarly opinions to arise. important events (e.g. 2 Ki 13:8). Whether In the decades after Julius Wellhausen or not these “events” include the proph- popularized source criticism of the ets’ lives and teachings, though, is impos- Pentateuch, several scholars, following sible to determine. Wellhausen himself,6 sought to divide Do such conclusions lessen the histori- Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings into cal value of the Former Prophets? No, be- more sources. Some critics argued that the cause archaeological evidence indicates same J and E sources supposedly found that the historical data is accurate and re- in the Pentateuch also run throughout the liable.10 The author researched Israel’s books that follow.7 Other commentators history, chose appropriate material from basically rejected the J and E hypothesis, available sources, and crafted the data into 14 a coherent whole. Readers are even in- ence of Deuteronomy’s standards on the vited to peruse the documents to read writer’s work, Noth called the author “the more about the kings. Certainly the au- Deuteronomist.” Further, Noth said the thor wrote from a theological viewpoint, “Deuteronomist” selected source materi- but that fact does not automatically mean als that were then carefully crafted into a the history is inaccurate (see below). In- unified whole.13 Part of the crafting pro- deed, theological scruples may lead to a cess included writing Deuteronomy 1-4 to greater concern for accuracy and truth. introduce the history, providing narrative There is no compelling reason, then, to links between “books,” and composing doubt that this openly honest author faith- strategic speeches that summarize and fully used accurate sources to write the advance the story.14 Finally, Noth stated books, even though the sources’ exact con- that the “Deuteronomist” had probably tents and age cannot be recovered. witnessed the fall of Jerusalem (and thus Several conclusions about the books must have penned the history by 550 emerge from this brief discussion of B.C.)15 and therefore wrote to explain to sources. First, they were completed some- future generations how Israel lost its time subsequent to Jerusalem’s destruc- land.16 The “Deuteronomist” was, then, a tion, perhaps by 550 B.C. Second, the careful, theologically astute individual author freely admits using sources for this who chronicled the negative side of centuries-long history, claims the sources Israel’s history. are accurate, and invites inspection of Many commentators accepted Noth’s these sources. Third, as will be stated later, basic thesis, but modified certain theo- the book’s theological interests do not logical or compositional details. For ex- negate their historicity, or vice versa. ample, Gerhard von Rad and H. W. Wolff Fourth, more explicit knowledge of the observed that the history’s theology author’s identity and methodology must might be more hopeful than Noth be gained by moving beyond an analysis thought. Von Rad claimed that the of the books’ sources to their literary and “Deuteronomist” emphasized how God theological characteristics. fulfilled Prophetic predictions in history, and that the great historian believed God Theories of Authorship would continue to work with and Though earlier scholars had suggested through David’s descendants because of some of the same points, it was Martin the promises made to David in 2 Samuel Noth who in 1943 set what remains the 7:13.17 According to von Rad, the par- agenda for the authorship discussion.11 tially hopeful ending of the history (2 Ki Noth claimed that one author wrote all 25:27-30) implies “that the line of David four books. His theory was clear, concise, has not yet come to an irrevocable end.”18 and in step with then-current critical opin- Wolff also located positive theology in ions on the Pentateuch and the Prophets. the many texts that encourage Israel to He argued that the author was heavily repent and turn to the Lord.19 These pas- influenced by the language and thinking sages indicate that God still cares for Is- “found in the Deuteronomic Law and the rael, and calls this nation back to its prior admonitory speeches which precede and relationship with the Lord. These, and follow the Law.”12 Because of the influ- other,20 studies helped balance Noth’s 15 presentation of the books’ theology. plains the books’ unity. G. H. Jones basi- R. K. Harrison provided a strong per- cally agrees with Smend’s conclusions, spective against Noth’s single-author because he thinks this theory explains theory in his comprehensive Introduction both the unity Noth emphasizes and the to the Old Testament (1969). While agree- diversity inherent in the text.28 Jones ing that a person heavily influenced by therefore believes that a “deuteronomic covenant thinking and the book of school,” or movement, may have pro- Deuteronomy wrote Joshua, Harrison cor- duced this history after several decades rectly argued that this conclusion need not of theological reflection.29 be based on an acceptance of source criti- Following F. M. Cross’ suggestion that cal theories of the Pentateuch.21 As for there is no explanatory text for Jerusalem’s Noth’s theory, he writes, “The term fall to match the one for Samaria’s demise `Deuteronomist’ can only be applied ... in (2 Ki 17), R. D. Nelson said that one pro- the sense that the author recognized with David editor wrote during Josiah’s time, Moses (Deut. 28:1ff), that obedience to and was followed by an exilic writer who God brought blessing, while disobedience explained how and why the monarchy resulted in calamity.”22 He concludes that ended. Nelson based his argument on de- the book was written within Samuel’s life- tailed structural, theological, and linguis- time (c. 1045 B.C.), and suggests that tic grounds.30 This 1981 volume stated the Samuel may have been involved in its two-author theory more carefully than it composition.23 Other evangelical scholars had been in the past, yet also generally state that either Joshua or some other con- agreed with other commentators who ad- temporary of the events wrote the book.24 vocated the multiple-authorship position.31 From the time the seminal writings of Abraham Keunen and Julius Wellhausen Conclusion on Authorship appeared, 25 some scholars have con- Though it is prudent to be cautious cluded that at least two editors were re- about the author of an anonymous docu- sponsible for collecting the history. ment, the single author approach is prob- Alfred Jepsen located two editors, one ably the best answer to the problem. At with a priestly perspective and one with least four reasons point to this conclusion. prophetic convictions.26 Jepsen could not First, this position best explains the Former be sure, though, where one editor spoke Prophets’ unity. As is evident from the texts and the other did not. Rudolf Smend themselves, each new “book” in the his- agreed with Jepsen’s concept of pro- tory is linked to its predecessor. Thus, phetic and priestly editors, and added a Moses’ death links Joshua to Deuteronomy, third compiler who displayed keen inter- Joshua’s death ties Judges to Joshua, est in the law. Thus, Smend claimed that Samuel’s career as Israel’s last judge unites a prophetic editor wrote an initial history Judges and 1-2 Samuel, and David’s final after Jerusalem’s fall (587 B.C.), a priestly days helps 2 Samuel flow into 1-2 Kings. compiler reworked the history c. 580-560 Certain themes also hold the books to- B.C., and a law-oriented editor com- gether, such as conquering the promised pleted the work after 560 B.C.27 These land, God’s promises to David, and Israel’s individuals were all heavily influenced loss of land through idol worship. by “deuteronomic” thought, which ex- Second, the single author theory ad- 16 equately explains the history’s diversity. The narrative itself is a sweeping account Because the author used source material of Israel’s tragic loss of the land it was that spans from the conquest to the de- promised in the Pentateuch.34 This trag- struction of Jerusalem, some diversity is edy occurred because the nation failed to to be expected. It is also true that the au- live up to covenant standards, particularly thor had to include various ideological those found in Deuteronomy. Despite this viewpoints to portray Israel’s theological correlation with Deuteronomy, it is unnec- heritage accurately. essary to conclude the historian wrote any Third, as Burke Long has argued, the part of that book. Deuteronomy’s influ- single author hypothesis fits the nature of ence is sufficient to explain the emphases ancient historiography. Indeed, ancient in Joshua-Kings. Though the loss of the historians, such as Herodotus, often used promised land was quite a negative event, diverse types of material to present a se- the Deuteronomist did not view the situ- ries of scenes that created the author’s ation as permanent. Living after the main arguments.32 Seen this way, what nation’s defeat, this great writer looked to some scholars consider evidence for two God’s eternal covenant with David as or more editors can actually be viewed as proof that Israel was not finished. part of a carefully structured whole. With this portrait in place, some tenta- Fourth, the single author theory retains tive conclusions about the author’s meth- its scholarly attractiveness without en- odology can be suggested. First, the countering the difficulties of the multiple author decided to compose a history of author position. Proponents of multiple Israel based on the theological principles editions do not agree on the number, date, found in Deuteronomy. Second, this indi- or criterion of the proposed redactions. vidual collected and collated the written They are forced to posit “schools” that last sources the books mention, perhaps other for decades to account for the books’ materials not specified in the texts, and unity; or, must utilize highly selective and unique information the author possessed. sensitive criteria to separate one edition Third, the author wove an account that from the other.33 These tendencies appear stressed a continuity of leadership and to be based too much on a preference for mission from Moses to Joshua, the growth source criticism than on the text itself. of the monarchy, the promises to David, Without question, the single author view- and the prophets’ role in predicting the point has its own problems, such as ac- nation’s demise. Throughout the process counting for the books’ various the Deuteronomist stressed that God was theological emphases, but it does deal re- the one who determined history. Thus, sourcefully with theological, historical, theology and detail were combined in a and literary issues. way that created a history, an assertion A fairly distinct authorial portrait that is discussed below. emerges from these discussions. The au- thor is an anonymous individual who Approaching Joshua’s Theology carefully collected relevant source data Joshua continues the theological em- and shaped this material into a consecu- phases detailed in Deuteronomy, yet at the tive account that spans Joshua-Kings. This same time reaches as far back as Genesis person finished the work by c. 550 B.C. 12:7 and 15:6-16 to keep promises made 17 to Abraham. The book also looks ahead commitments.38 A real invasion did oc- to when Israel will be at home in Canaan, cur, and Israel certainly was a force in at rest from enemies, but surrounded by Canaan by c. 1220 B.C., so it is incorrect new challenges to their faith. Its message to deem the military events recorded in therefore is grounded in Mosaic prin- Joshua mythic or legendary.39 Attempts ciples, and at the same time exemplifies to determine the full extent of what hap- the prophetic beliefs that will permeate pened through utilizing archaeology the Latter Prophets. Clearly, the book pro- have confirmed the general contours of vides a theological, historical, and canoni- the events, yet have not yielded tremen- cal base for reviewing the Pentateuch’s dous amounts of detailed information on teachings and for preparing readers for specific battles and persons.40 Thus, it is the convictions that will dominate the next reasonable to conclude that Joshua several books of the Old Testament. stands on firm historical ground when it makes its theological observations. Difficulties in Interpretation There is wide agreement on Joshua’s As has been noted in the preceding sec- basic theological convictions, and there tion, scholars have taken a variety of ap- are also certain questions that the book proaches to the authorship and dating of brings to the minds of most interpreters. Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. Not No one seriously disputes the fact that only do commentators disagree about the Joshua continues the theological themes actual date of the final form of the books, begun in Deuteronomy. Joshua believes they also debate the dates and possible that Israel is only as strong as their com- authors of the sources behind them, not to mitment to the covenant that Moses de- mention the date and origins of the pos- scribes in his final speeches to the people. sible oral traditions behind the written War must be conducted according to the sources that were used in the compiling of standards found in Deuteronomy 7 and the books we now possess.35 These are not 20. The land must be distributed as Moses inconsequential matters, but they cannot declared in Numbers 32, 34, and 35. Pass- be solved here. It must suffice to conclude over and covenant renewal services are to that an author/historian writing after the be observed. Because of this obedience, fall of Jerusalem in c. 587 B.C. composed God can be expected to fight for Israel in the books using accurate source material a manner similar to the exodus miracles collected from persons or places current (cf. Dt 27-28). scholars know little or nothing about.36 Even with these principles in place, Historians also discuss the possible though, difficulties remain. The chief one scenarios for the invasion and conquest for most writers is the whole concept of of Canaan, questioning the comprehen- “Holy War,” a practice that seems con- siveness of the victory, its actual date, and tradictory to the biblical passages, many the number of Israelites that partici- of them in Deuteronomy itself, that speak pated.37 Again, these are not minor mat- of God’s love and kindness. This issue ters. What can be said, however, is that will be dealt with when it arises in the the Old Testament has been called a reli- text, but it is appropriate to address it able source of information on the con- briefly now. If Joshua is read in isolation quest by scholars of various theological from the rest of the Old Testament this 18 problem is more acute than if it is con- land. God is seen here as the God who sidered in canonical perspective. The gives the people a place of rest. Ironically, canon does not deal with the death of the they must fight to possess the outer Canaanites in an arbitrary or flippant reaches of the land of rest, which indicates manner. Rather, it prepares the reader the divine expectation of faithfulness and from Genesis 15:16 onward for this diffi- obedience has not changed. Third, chap- cult material. There the text gives Israel ters 22-24 describe covenant renewal cer- four hundred years in Egypt for the emonies that present the key to long-term Amorites to change their ways. Leviticus possession of the land. Here Yahweh is the 18:24-30 takes pains to state that the God who expects real commitment in vic- people of Canaan are involved in repul- tory, in times of suffering, and in times of sively immoral practices that force plenty. These ceremonies prove that the Yahweh to judge them. What occurs, Lord is still the same God who asked then, is not some kind of God-ordained Abraham to sacrifice Isaac, who asked hate mission. Rather, it is divine judg- Jacob to give up his household idols, who ment for sin similar to that which God called Moses, who renewed the covenant has reluctantly meted out since the Gar- in the plains of Moab. den of Eden. Deuteronomy 27-28 has Each of these sections clings to the the- made it abundantly clear that if Israel sins ology propounded in the Law. There is no in a similar manner that they will also deviation from monotheism. There is no feel the effects of the wrath of the Lord. wavering from the written word that Israel has no moral free pass in these ac- Moses gave the people. There is no doubt counts. They are simply the human in- that the land they are invading is from struments of divine intervention in God, a gift that they in no way merit. Still, human affairs, and are on this mission mistakes are made. The people are as hu- based on a once-in-history revelation man as their parents. But they confess from God through Moses. their mistakes, unlike their parents, and learn to avoid the harsh penalties that Theological Outline come from ignoring God’s explicit word. Joshua unfolds in a fairly simple way. Because they do, the book of Joshua de- First, in chapters 1-12 Israel conquers the picts what is in effect as great a theologi- bulk of Canaan according to the promises cal and historical triumph as the nation of God. Here God is portrayed as Israel’s ever experienced. God, the God of all the earth (2:11), and the God who fights for Israel. The Lord The God Who Fights for Israel: prepares Joshua to take Moses’ place (1:1- Joshua 1-12 18), then prepares the people to fight for It should come as no surprise to read- the land that will be their inheritance from ers of the canon that the Lord is prepared their God (2:1-5:15), then leads the people to fight on Israel’s behalf.41 Yahweh de- to victory (6:1-12:24). As in Exodus 15, the livered the people from Egyptian bond- Lord is depicted as a warrior who gives age through miraculous means. The Israel the victory over nations seemingly victory song after the Red Sea covered more numerous and powerful. Second, Pharaoh’s forces focuses on the notion that Joshua 13-21 describes the dividing of the Yahweh is “a man of war” (Ex 15:3) who 19 gives Israel the upper hand over their foes. mediated through Moses if he is to be suc- God also led the chosen nation by the fire cessful and courageous in his efforts (1:7- and the cloud, gave them manna to eat, 9). At the same time, he will have all the and dwelled in their midst via the wor- divine resources given his predecessor, ship center. Exodus 17:8-16, Numbers most particularly the presence of God, an 21:1-4, and Numbers 21:21-35 depict “item” that was vital to Moses’ calling (cf. battles in which Yahweh directs Moses to Ex 3:12, 4:12) and to Israel’s ability to move wage war against enemies the Lord has forward in the desert (cf. Ex 34:5-9). Be- destined for defeat. Indeed it was Yahweh cause of the Lord’s presence he will suc- who ordered the people to come to the ceed in his endeavor to do what Moses land in the first place, and who punished was not able to do due to the events of them for not invading earlier (cf. Nu 13- Numbers 20. Israel has no doubt that he 14). The issue, then, as the book begins is is the man for the job (1:10-18). not whether the Lord intends to fight on This call story not only prepares Joshua Israel’s side, but on what terms and in for what follows, it also prepares readers what way this divine aid will happen. The for the themes that will come in the rest terms become apparent as God prepares of the book. First, the call account ex- the nation to attack the promised land. presses the canonical basis for Israel’s Just as Moses was the key to Israel’s foray into Canaan. God promised the pa- trek to the edge of victory, so Joshua will triarchs that the land would belong to be the most important human element in their descendants, and the patriarchs be- their future success. He has already been lieved the Lord, thus making the prom- designated as Moses’ successor (Nu ises apply directly to themselves (Ge 12:7, 27:15-23; Dt 3:21-22, 31:1-8), and he must 15:1-6, etc). For Joshua, as much as for come to accept the fact that his efforts Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and, by extension, towards “the establishment or renewal of Moses, the promises must be believed and God’s kingdom society must be a con- pursued in faith. Lacking faith, the people tinuation of the work of Moses.”42 To this will never accept an abstract notion such end, God encounters Joshua, reminding as Yahweh fighting for them. Certainly the him that he has been called to lead Israel attitude of the previous generation bitterly at this point in time as surely as Moses proved this point. Second, the call story was called to lead Israel at the burning provides the standard by which the na- bush, and as surely as Jacob was called tion must operate as they live by faith. to be the bearer of the Abrahamic cov- They have the covenantal principles ex- enantal promises at Bethel. God’s lead- pressed in the Mosaic law to guide them. ers are not self-selecting. They are the This law will restrain sin, reward obedi- chosen heads of the chosen nation. ence, direct their worship, govern their Like Moses before him, Joshua’s call private affairs, and demonstrate their dis- experience gathers themes from the past tinctiveness as God’s holy people. With- in order to explain the nation’s future. He out it they have no life (cf. Dt 8:3, 32:47). must take the people forward so that the Third, the story stresses the physical promises to the “fathers,” to the patri- goal toward which the nation is headed. archs, will come true (1:1-6). He must Israel wants to possess the land their an- meditate on the received word of God cestors believed would belong to their 20 descendants. Walter Kaiser links the pa- the old principles they have learned in triarchs’ faith and the land by noting that the past to their new situation. They have the promised land was the place where what they need to succeed. No novel the- the promise of Israel being a blessing to ologies or battle plans are necessary. all nations could come true. Certainly this As they did in Numbers 13, the Israel- place is Israel’s inheritance, a fact ites send spies to determine the nature of Deuteronomy stresses twenty-five times, their objective (2:1). Almost captured, the but if the chosen people live as God in- spies are delivered by a prostitute named tends the holy land will also be the place Rahab (2:2-7). This Canaanite woman bar- of blessing for all nations.43 Fourth, the gains for her life, yet does so based on account also highlights the spiritual goal theological convictions. She says that for the people, which is to “rest” in the Israel’s earlier victories over the Egyptians land after the long travels and travails and the Amorites have become known, they have endured (1:15; cf. Dt 3:20, 12:9- and that this knowledge has led to terror 10, 25:19). Trent Butler comments, “It [rest] in Jericho (2:8-10). Why? Because they re- represents freedom from enemy oppres- alize God’s role in these events, and rea- sion and deadly war. It represents life son that Yahweh is Lord of heaven and of lived with God by the gift of God.”44 Ironi- earth (2:11). In other words, there is no cally, though, he continues, the people place where an enemy of Yahweh would must wage war so that the rest may come be safe. Yahweh is not confinable in Egypt, to them.45 the desert, or in Canaan. This God crosses Fifth, the means by which the goals all boundaries and shatters limited con- will be achieved are also explained. There ceptions of deity. In the mouth of a non- is one God who reveals himself to Joshua, Israelite, this speech is all the more and this is the same God whose self-rev- impressive. Her foreignness also empha- elation as the self-existent God of the pa- sizes the theme of Israel’s relationship triarchs spurred Moses to confront with God blessing peoples beyond their Pharaoh. This God is the Lord of the ethnic group (cf. Ge 12:1-9). When the men whole earth, since Yahweh pledges to be conclude their agreement to spare Rahab with Joshua wherever he goes, a unique and her family they return to Joshua, cer- promise in a theological milieu that be- tain Israel will triumph because God has lieved individual gods of the nations prepared the way (2:15-24). Their opti- were landlocked to their adherents’ geo- mism puts the fear expressed in Numbers graphical boundaries. God created the 13-14 to shame. heavens and earth, and thus is able to Thus emboldened, Joshua leads Israel accompany the chosen people to any lo- across the Jordan River, a barrier that has cation necessary to give them victory. come to transcend mere physical bound- This is the God who promises to fight for ary (3:1). God has brought them to the Israel. God gives the land because the promised land. They are no longer “be- land belongs to God (cf. Lv 25:23). Hav- yond the Jordan” (Dt 1:1), no longer in ing prepared the leader for what will fol- the place of punishment. Gray writes, low, Yahweh proceeds to prepare the “Theologically and in its present context people as well. The chief lesson for the the crossing of the Jordan marks a deci- people to absorb is that they must apply sive juncture, heralding the consumma- 21 tion of God’s gracious acts in the fulfill- dition begun by Abraham in Genesis 17:9- ment of the promise of settlement, or 14 that highlights Israel’s covenant with ‘rest’ in the Deuteronomistic idiom.”46 As the Lord. This specific ritual occasion also in the miracle at the Red Sea, the people signals that the men who disobeyed in are privileged to pass over on dry Numbers 13-14 have all died and the army ground, a miracle that links the exodus may now move forward with the con- to the current historical situation. God’s quest (5:2-5; cf. Dt 2:16).48 God has re- work continues in a similar way in a new newed the nation and readied them for and distinct setting. Indeed, Soggin states the new task in the new land. that the similarities between the Red Sea Second, the people celebrate Passover and miracle and this situation “take noth- (5:10), which links them to their deliver- ing away from the miracle itself, which ance from Egypt. Moses carefully ex- is reduced neither to a normal phenom- plained in Deuteronomy that every event enon nor to a ‘routine’, but on the con- in Israel’s past has the impact of things trary is effectively given a setting in that happened to them, and that the cov- history, outside the whole mythical enant made at Sinai was truly made with sphere.”47 Yahweh is with the people as this generation of Israelites (cf. Dt 5:3). powerfully as in the past in real strategic This observance of Passover affirms such historical moments. teaching. What God did for them in Egypt Israel marks the event by the piling of God does for them in Canaan. Their sense twelve stones at Gilgal, where they set up of history thereby informs their activities their headquarters (4:9, 20). Beyond the in the present. After Passover the manna miraculous nature of this event, there are ceases (5:10-12). Yahweh’s provision now two practical theological reasons for its switches from the miraculous manna to memorializing. One is that the people the miracle of living off the bounty of the might remember to follow Joshua (4:14). promised land. They receive the fruit of The other is that Israel and the people of the land as a prelude to receiving the cit- Canaan might know and fear the Lord ies of the land.49 God’s people surely (4:24). As with Rahab’s confession of faith, know now that they have experienced a the text emphasizes God’s reputation new beginning, a fresh opportunity to be here. No issue in the conquest matters the Lord’s holy nation.50 more than the glorification of the creator As if all the previous preparatory before the peoples of the earth, so once events were not sufficient to express God’s again Israel’s obligation to bless others intention to give Joshua the land, a final rises to the surface. revelatory meeting occurs. Joshua has al- Israel’s enemies are terrified of news of ready been called to replace Moses in a the miraculous Jordan crossing (5:1), yet Moses-like call experience. Now the the Lord does not send the army into leader of God’s armies meets with the battle immediately. Instead, two more pre- head of Yahweh’s army, an encounter that paratory events are ordered, both of the text says requires Joshua to remove his which, like the dry-shod crossing into the sandals due to its occurrence on “holy land, tie the nation to the best days of its ground” (5:15), an unmistakable reference relationship with Yahweh. First, God com- to Exodus 3:1-6. God is truly with him as mands that the men be circumcised, a tra- he was with Moses (cf. 1:1-9). Having led 22 his charges in every covenantal obser- whole community punishes the offenders vance relevant to their situation, Joshua demonstrates the solidarity of their repen- receives God’s full approval and affirma- tance and desire for renewed relationship tion of his obedience. The holy nation is with the Lord.53 Once the covenant rela- ready for holy war. tionship is restored, Ai falls (8:1-29). Scenes and situations change from ac- Joshua freely acknowledges Israel’s count to account in Joshua 6-12, but one dependence on God by observing the principle remains constant: God fights for ritual on Mt. Ebal and Mt. Gerizim that Israel as long as the people are obedient Moses commands in Deuteronomy 27 to the covenant. Jericho falls because of (8:30-35). The memorial stones are put in faith in divine power, not because of a long place and the covenant blessings and and successful siege against a fortified curses read. Israel is living the covenant. city.51 Because of her faith, Rahab and her They have experienced both its promises family are spared death due to the com- and its consequences by now, particularly mand of God (6:17), a privilege no one else in the Ai episode. By recognizing in the city receives. Canaan’s judgment, Yahweh’s sovereignty in battle, Joshua’s predicted in Genesis 15:16, now begins. obedience is complete (8:35). The Lord’s Israel’s role as instrument of divine pun- faithfulness is likewise complete. ishment is accentuated by its commitment Israel missteps by making a treaty with to take no spoil, but rather to place all cap- the Gibeonites, a Canaanite country they tured wealth in the “treasury of the Lord” mistake for foreigners, but even that mis- (6:18-19). This is not an excursion meant hap leads to a great victory (9:1-10:14). to enhance Israel’s financial standing. Indeed God fights for the people to the This unifying principle is illustrated extent of making the sun stand still so that when Israel fails to take their next objec- victory over the enemy could be achieved tive, Ai, a relatively easy target. One fam- (10:14). Eventually Yahweh wages war ily has kept spoil from Jericho, an offense effectively enough to give Israel the south- that violates the holy war concept, and it ern sector of the land (10:42). The text is not until they are executed that the na- gives Yahweh credit for triumphs in the tion can once again expect victory (7:1-26). north as well (11:1-9; cf. 11:8), and praises Clearly, if Yahweh does not fight for the Joshua for carrying out everything that the people they have no chance for success. Lord commanded through Moses (11:15). This war is about glory for the Lord, about As was the case with Pharaoh, God hard- promise keeping, and about covenantal ens the heart of the enemy kings to wage fidelity, not about whose army is particu- futile wars against Israel so that their pun- larly large or effective. Just as clearly, the ishment might be complete (11:20). Again, entire nation stands or falls together be- the conquest does more than reward Is- cause the covenant was made with the rael, for it fulfills all the promises of judg- whole nation. They are a community of ment the canon has unveiled over time. faith as much as a collection of individu- God’s fighting is completed. Canaan als who believe in and follow the Lord. has been subdued, giving Israel a place in Selfishness, disregard for Yahweh’s com- the promised land (11:23-12:24). Israel has mands, and covering up sin therefore work to do to possess the land, but God harms the entire group.52 The fact that the has done as promised. The fact that Israel 23 will have to expend some effort to control nent place in the exodus accounts (cf. Ex their inheritance has been evident since 3:8, 6:4, 13:5, etc). Much of the legislation Deuteronomy 7:22, where Moses says the in Exodus, Leviticus, and Deuteronomy conquest will not occur all at once so that anticipates a settled culture dwelling per- the land will not become a vast haunt for manently in Canaan. Still, the wonder of thistles and beasts. Israel’s periodic re- this event must be clung to, cherished as a turns to a set camp at Gilgal also point to remarkable monument to the fact that the this eventuality (cf. 10:15). Lord keeps all promises. This promise Joshua’s life work, and in a very real asked for faith, yet also generated faith, for way Moses’ as well, has also been it was based on Yahweh’s trustworthy achieved. Every promise offered in character.55 This promise’s fulfillment gives Joshua 1:1-18 has been kept, and the hope that all God’s pledges are kept, re- people are no longer a nation without a gardless of how long it takes. homeland.54 Moses’ longing look at the It must be noted, though, that the ful- land in Deuteronomy 34 has become fillment of the land promise does not cease more than a look. It has developed into a with the conquest. The power of God’s promise kept by the God who made it. word must guide the people’s actions. Joshua and Moses’ commitment to God’s Deuteronomy 28:15-68 has graphically il- word has been vindicated as well, as has lustrated the truth that the land may be Joshua and Caleb’s belief that the land forfeited by hardened covenant breaking, could have been theirs forty years sooner. at least until the nation turns from its sin. Also, the second generation’s determina- Judges, Samuel, and Kings state convinc- tion to keep covenant and follow Joshua’s ingly that when Israel breaks the Mosaic leadership has been rewarded. They have covenant they suffer the consequences. set a high standard for future generations Second Kings 17 says that the exiles of 722 in faith as well as in warfare. All this is B.C. and 587 B.C. occurred due to cov- true because the Lord has fought for the enant unfaithfulness. Isaiah, Jeremiah, chosen people. Ezekiel, and the Twelve call Israel to re- pent and return to the Lord, with Jeremiah Canonical Synthesis: leading the way with 111 usages of the God-given Rest in the Land word “repent.” Clearly, only a nation that Canonical references to the conquest of understands that they cannot live by Canaan focus on the fulfillment of prom- bread alone, but must draw sustenance ises to Abraham, the grace of God, the from God’s word (Dt 8:3), can survive. power of God, the law as the word of God, Only a people that believe the word is and the concept of rest as a future blessing their life (Dt 32:47) will continue on in the for God’s faithful. After the long canonical holy place. buildup to the fulfillment of the land prom- Both the land and God’s covenant are ise, the conquest texts are almost an anti- evidences of God’s grace. Moses takes climax. After all, readers have known since great care to tell the people that God’s love Genesis 12:1-9 that the Lord intended (Dt 4:37-38), not Israel’s power (Dt 8:17) Abraham’s descendants to have the land. or righteousness (Dt 9:6), secures the in- The promise was repeated to Isaac (Ge 26:3) heritance. As creator, Yahweh owns the and Jacob (Ge 28:4, 13), and held a promi- world and gives Canaan to Israel as a sa- 24 cred trust (Lv 25:23). As God’s stewards, poet claims God “brought” Israel to “His they are under the creator’s protection, holy land” and “drove out the nations” safe from their enemies.56 Only a lack of (78:54-55). Psalms 104-106 present a theo- covenant fidelity can sever this security, logical summary of Yahweh’s work from so several psalms celebrate the blessing creation to the exile. Included in the Lord’s of possessing the Law. Psalm 19:7-14 mighty acts is the giving of the land as an stresses the Law’s perfection and conse- inheritance (105:11, 44). Again, God’s power quent ability to help human beings iden- achieves the victory, and Israel has only to tify and remove hidden sins that accept the blessing and live by the covenant. jeopardize the precious relationship with In both the Prophets and the Psalms, the Lord. Psalm 119 heightens these twin the power of God evidenced in the con- benefits of the Law and conveys a strong quest is juxtaposed with Israel’s unfaith- sense of joy in obeying standards that fulness. God’s power has worked for their keep one close to the creator. Nehemiah good, but they reject the gift and the one 8:1-18 portrays a scene in which a post- who gave it. Such ingratitude seems es- exilic Jerusalem community uses the Law pecially foolish in light of the Lord’s abil- to rejuvenate their commitment to the ity to cause the sinful great pain. In Lord.57 Clearly, God’s grace extends to forgetting God’s grace Israel has also for- every area of life necessary to keep the gotten God’s power. people safe in the land. Over time, “rest in the land” takes on Besides Yahweh’s grace, the conquest significance far beyond nationhood or demonstrates God’s undeniable power. geography. Of course, resting from en- Particularly as the Lord fights for Israel emies and wilderness journeying can in ways human beings can only consider hardly be overestimated.59 Still, as time miraculous this strength becomes as in- went on and their messages went un- herent as the loving grace already de- heeded, the prophets looked to an era scribed. Jeremiah 2:7 states near the when the exiled peoples would return to beginning of a long treatise (2:1-6:30) on the land.60 Isaiah 44:24-28 predicts a re- Israel’s covenant infidelity that God turn to the land in Cyrus’ time (c. 539 B.C.), brought the people to a good land, only and Isaiah 49:14-21 says the return will to see them defile it through idolatry. prove God’s love for Israel. Jeremiah 31 Ezekiel claims that Yahweh took Israel out views a return to the land as a prelude to of Egypt, gave them the covenant, and a new covenant with Israel that will mark gave them the land, only to have them all covenant persons as faithful followers serve idols (Ez 20:12-17). Once again it is of God (31:1-34). As in Isaiah, security in God’s powerful hand that made the con- the land will demonstrate divine love quest possible. Amos 2:10 agrees that (31:35-40). Ezekiel 28:25-26 claims this Israel’s possession of Canaan was God’s new security will make God’s greatness work, not the nation’s. evident to the nations. In these texts, then, Some of the psalms are even more ex- the restored rest will result in a new plicit on the subject.58 For example, Psalm chance in the land, in new experiences of 44:1-3 states that God’s might, not Israel’s, God’s love, in a new covenant, and in a won the victory. In Psalm 78, one of new opportunity to bless all nations by scripture’s most God-centered psalms, the exalting Yahweh before them. The proph- 25 ets expect these events to occur sometime problem have been offered, but the issue in the future, so these visions give the is also a theological one. God fights for faithful hope in dark times. Israel in chapters 1-12, then exhorts the people to fight in chapters 13-21. Joshua The God Who Divides the leads Israel into battle in the first section, Inheritance: Joshua 13-21 taking every objective he attacks, then Israel’s mere presence in the land does exhorts them to finish the work them- not complete God’s plans for the nation. selves in the second section. Major cities Moses’ detailed plans for settling the have been taken and serious alliances bro- people in specific areas, for setting aside ken, but individual places are left for each Levitical cities, and for establishing cities tribe to win. Just as Israel’s obedience to of refuge have been outlined in God’s revelation completes the covenant, Deuteronomy 1:38 and 3:28, as well as in so Israel’s response to Yahweh’s victories Numbers 27:18-23, 32:17, and 34:17.61 Di- completes the conquest. The human effort viding the land remains the one part of must cooperate with the divine initiative. Joshua’s calling that has not been accom- Obedience must accompany miracle. plished (cf. Jos 1:6; Dt 31:7).62 Thus, it is Inserted between the land lists are three necessary for God’s, Moses’, and Joshua’s accounts that demonstrate that in this set- purposes that the inheritance Yahweh ting obedience can only be displayed by gives Israel be divided between the heirs. the showing of courage in battle. Caleb, Completion of the conquest will also Joshua’s contemporary in age and faith, mean the holy people have done their part demands the opportunity to fight for the in fulfilling the covenant. These chapters most hard-to-take territory (14:6-15). All the depict this completion process by describ- people need his spirit. Joseph’s tribe com- ing general tribal divisions of land, spe- plains about not having enough space, only cial allotments of land, and instances to be told by Joshua to attack difficult en- where the people are or are not anxious emy positions (17:14-18). Again, determi- to do their part in finishing the military nation and courage are expected. Similarly, task. As the book unfolds significant Joshua tells seven tribes they have waited themes emerge, such as the importance of long enough to secure their inheritance obedience to God’s plans, courage in (18:1-10). God gives the people the land fighting the Canaanites, the equality of (18:10), but they must grasp the inheritance each tribe, the concept of the land as in- in a Caleb-like manner. heritance, and the grounding of canoni- Special allotments made to Joshua cal theology in history. (19:49-51), for cities of refuge (20:1-9), and God assigns Joshua the task of divid- to the Levites (21:1-8) highlight the nature ing the promised land (13:1-8), so obedi- of the land as divine inheritance. God owns ence is an issue from the start. the land (Lv 25:23), and thus may divide Commentators have long puzzled over it. The division of holy ground calls Israel 13:1, which seems to contradict 11:23. The to respect the land, neither selling it at will former passage speaks of the whole land nor acting however they wish in it. Hav- having been taken, while the latter indi- ing a portion in God’s land requires rever- cates land remains unconquered. Many ence for its purpose and value.63 Giving possible source-critical solutions to this specific allotments shows respect for the 26 covenant’s explicit statements regarding realms, but in life and death struggles, in cities of refuge and the Levites (cf. Nu 35:6- mundane affairs, in the real events of his- 34; Dt 4:41-43, 19:1-14; Nu 35:1-5). Allow- tory. Even the miracles are set in specific ing Joshua a particular piece of ground occurrences at specific times. They do not recognizes his position as God’s chosen happen in a vacuum or in a mythological leader. Even the casting of lots to determine world. Still, it is difficult to express ad- where each tribe will live (e.g. 18:10-11) equately how miracles and the “normal” reflects a belief that God may be trusted to course of human events intersect. T. S. put each family in its appropriate place. Eliot captures the truth in this dilemma How the land is divided tribe-by-tribe when writing about the incarnation in indicates an inherent equality in the na- “Choruses from `The Rock’”: tion as a whole. This belief in the right to equality grows out of the conviction that Then came, at a predetermined mo- ment, a moment in time and of God created the whole earth and elected time,/A moment not out of time, but Israel to be the holy nation that would re- in time, what we call history: ceive an inheritance of holy land. Paul transecting, bisecting the world of time, a moment in time but not like Hanson explains that a moment of time, /A moment in time but time was made through This was a right based not merely that moment: for without the mean- upon a social ideal, but on the ing there is no time, and that mo- Yahwistic confession that every Is- ment of time gave meaning.67 raelite was the child of the same par- ents, a heavenly Parent to whom The conquest happens in moments of time belonged the whole earth, who had chosen Israel as an inheritance out whose meaning transcends normal hap- of all the families of the earth (Deut. penings, yet does happen, in ways that 32:8-9; 9:26, 29; Ps. 28:9, 79:1; Jer make readers consider and believe, yet 10:16), and who now distributed, with even-handed fairness, the land wonder at their magnificence. among the people.64 Canonical Synthesis: Israel’s system precludes the sort of op- Faithfulness in the Land pression seen in other ancient lands where Three canonical usages of Joshua 13-21 royalty or large land owners could con- deserve mention. First, the author of He- 65 trol most of a country’s property. In brews 4:1-13 links sabbath rest (Ge 2:2), other words, it negated the slavery sys- Israel’s failure to enter Canaan the first tem the people had experienced in Egypt. time (Nu 13-14; cf. Ps 95:11), and Joshua’s Finally, the conquest and division work in an effort to exhort God’s people grounds Israel’s theology in historical re- to strive to receive God’s offer of final rest. ality. Martens asserts, “Land is real. Earth He warns that rest takes faith, obedience, is spatially definable. Life with Yahweh and diligence, all of which he clearly be- takes place here and now. The quality of lieves the Israelites lacked. No diligence that life is all-embracing—it relates to means no rest in his view, and Joshua cer- 66 Yahweh, to neighbor, to environment.” tainly says basically the same thing to the It is also true that war is real, Canaanites tribes who tarry in taking their inheritance are real, and cities are real. Israel’s theol- (cf. 17:14-18:10). Second, Israel’s full pos- ogy does not occur in mythological session of Canaan does not occur until 27 David’s victories in 2 Samuel 8:1-14. Is- own, for their God transcends geographi- rael does not do its share of the work un- cal and tribal boundaries (22:1-34), physi- til centuries after God places them in the cal obstacles (23:1-16), and generational land. The promise has, then, both a fixed passage of time (24:1-33). Only covenant re- and continuous nature. newal on Israel’s part allows them to “keep Third, the prophets chastise Israel for up with” a deity without physical or tem- abuses of the principle of equality. Slavery, poral limits. Only ongoing commitment to oppression, and using the land to gain un- an exclusive relationship with Yahweh al- fair financial advantage are inherently lows them to avoid mixing their faith with wrong based on the covenantal concept of Canaanite fertility-dominated polytheism inheritance. Hanson claims, or rejecting the Lord altogether.70 Once he deems the land suitably “at When Amos, Micah, and Isaiah in- rest,” Joshua releases the Reubenites, veighed against those who bought Gadites, and Manassehites who were and sold property and amassed real estate at the expense of the impover- given an inheritance east of the Jordan by ished, they were appealing to the Moses in Numbers 32:1-43, yet who were early Yahwistic notion of equal dis- tribution to which the right of the charged with helping their fellow tribes nahal [inheritance] gave social form.68 conquer the land (22:1-4). Joshua com- mends these warriors, charges them with The same may be said for Elijah’s de- keeping the Mosaic covenant, blesses nouncing of Ahab for Jezebel’s killing them, and sends them to their homes Naboth for not selling his land, his “in- (22:5-6). On the way home, however, they heritance” (1 Ki 21:3), to Ahab.69 Before erect an altar, thus causing the other Isra- God, kings and paupers have the same elite tribes to fear another Achan incident status as they dwell together in the land (22:13-20; cf. 7:1-26). Yahweh gives both as a gift (cf. Dt 17:14- Theological reflection settles the prob- 20). Both live on inherited property, and lem. On the one hand, the troubled tribes neither merits the gift, so one oppressing fear a breach of the one altar law (22:16; the other is condemned. cf. Dt 12:13-32), which would in turn in- cite a Baal-Peor or Achan-type judgment The God Who Requires Ongoing from God (22:17-20; cf. Nu 25:1-18; Jos 7:1- Commitment: Joshua 22-24 26). Without question, their concerns are This section reveals that Joshua and the covenantally based and canonically or- generation he leads understand that con- dered. The tribes living east of the Jordan quering Canaan hardly concludes the cov- counter with covenantal issues of their enant. Rather, the God who has had a own. This altar, like the stones gathered relationship with them since Abraham is a by Jacob and Laban in Genesis 31:48, is “a living God who loves and relates to succes- witness” in this case of their unity with sive generations (cf. Ex 3:13-15). Therefore, the other tribes, and is not a place of sac- it is necessary that they serve Yahweh ac- rifice. They are in full agreement with cording to Mosaic principles regardless of Deuteronomy 12:13-32 (22:29). Their con- whether their inheritance is east or west of cern is to preserve the covenantal one-ness the Jordan River. It is necessary for each between themselves, their children, their generation to embrace the covenant as its God, and their nation (22:28-29). They 28 want to give a witness to future genera- period (24:7b; cf. Nu 13-14). He concludes tions of their faith so that it can never be by mentioning the early military victories said they have “no portion” (22:27), no (24:8; cf. Nu 21:21-35), the Balaam incident inheritance in the land. (24:9-10; cf. Nu 22-24), and finally the con- Their explanation satisfies those con- quest itself (24:11-13; Jos 1-12). Only the cerned (22:30-34). It also indicates that covenant is not mentioned, but he has al- God’s covenant people may relate to ready mentioned it in 23:6, 16. All these Yahweh and to one another regardless of events constitute the basis for Israel’s re- geographical separation. If God could take lationship with and obedience to Yahweh. Israel from Egypt to Canaan, then God can Theologically interpreted events should dwell among all the people at all times create the impetus for the nation’s future. wherever they may be. This fact becomes Three responses are expected to flow crucial when Israel actually suffers exile from this relationship: fear of the Lord, and has to deal with exercising faith out- service of the Lord, and rejection of all side the promised land. other gods (24:14). These impulses were The book’s final chapters depict evident in Exodus 19:1-20:17, for the Joshua’s last two speeches to the people. people respected the Lord’s awesome His initial oration reminds his audience presence on the mountain (Ex 19:7-25), of truths derived from Deuteronomy 4:25- agreed to do God’s will (Ex 19:8), and re- 26 and 6:13-15, Joshua 1:1-18, and Joshua ceived the monotheistic ten commands 2-12. Thus, like its predecessor, this chap- (Ex 20:3-17). God’s work on their behalf ter contains serious theological thought. stood behind these elements (Ex 20:1-2). Because God has fought for Israel (23:1-5; Israel agrees to the covenant in Exodus cf. chs. 1-12), which has brought to pass 24:1-4. Joshua asks for a similar response all Yahweh’s promises (23:14; cf. 1:1-18), now, yet warns the people that God can- the people must obey “the book of the law not be fooled. Monotheism alone pleases of Moses” (23:6; cf. 1:1-9) by rejecting other Yahweh (24:15-20). Gerhard von Rad ob- gods and eschewing marriage to their serves, “As far as we can see, this cultic adherents (23:7-13; cf. Dt 6:13-15). Failure intolerance is something unique in the to obey will result in loss of land (23:16; history of religion.”71 Israel agrees to the cf. Dt 4:25-26, 28:15-68). This speech as- covenant renewal, and Joshua writes their serts that God has overcome all military pledge “in the book of God’s law” (24:27). obstacles to Israel’s life in the land. Israel Joshua’s warnings are part exhortation has “only” to overcome covenantal ob- and part suspicion. Moses predicted in stacles to continue to enjoy the benefits of Deuteronomy 31:16, 29 that the people God’s victories. would break the covenant someday, so Joshua’s concluding speech presents a Joshua knows each generation must re- canonical and theological summary that new its love for Yahweh. As Christoph summons the tribes to covenant renewal. Barth says Beginning in 24:2, he charts the past, not- ing Abraham’s polytheistic beginnings Human beings cannot keep a vow of this kind faithfully for generation (Ge 11:26-32), the patriarchs’ journeys after generation. What happened at (24:3-4; cf. Ge 12:1-50:26), the Red Sea vic- Shechem was only a beginning. tory (24:5-7a; cf. Ex 15), and the desert Time and again Israel would in fact forget, violate, and deny the 29 Shechem oath. Israel had to be re- divine election, divine power, and one minded and rebuked by divine judg- ments. God would not himself faithful human generation. But readers forget. He would keep, lead, call and can hardly think the human race’s sin teach Israel, repeatedly reminding it problem has been solved or that all na- of its commitment.72 tions have been sufficiently blessed. Moses’ dire predictions preclude such Another way of stating Barth’s com- delusions. New details soon emerge that ment is, “Faith is not genetic. It must be demonstrate how right Moses was in exercised by each new person and gen- Deuteronomy 31:16, 29, yet also how right eration.” For this reason Moses com- he was in Genesis 3:15, 12:1-9, 15:1-6, mands intergenerational teaching (Dt Leviticus 16:21-22, and Deuteronomy 6:1-9), and Joshua’s last act as Israel’s 18:15-22. An uneasy peace settles over the leader is to insure faithfulness in his time, canon even as the Israelites bury Joshua, even though he knows Moses’ words will Joseph, and Eleazar (24:32-33). come true at some point in the future. For now, however, it is pleasant to read that ENDNOTES Israel served God during Joshua’s time 1For a fuller discussion of these five de- (24:29-31) and that Joseph’s bones are fi- tails, see Paul R. House, 1, 2 Kings, New nally laid to rest in the land of promise American Commentary 8 (Nashville: (24:32; cf. Ge 50:25; Ex 13:19). Broadman, 1995) 54-58. Many canonical connections have al- 2One such factor is the appearance of the ready been noted, but one more should phrase “until this day” (1 Ki 8:8, 9:13, 9:21, be included. Just as Moses’ call story 12:19; 2 Ki 2:22, 8:22, 10:27, 14:7, 16:6, serves as the model for future call ac- 17:23, 17:34, 17:41), which, taken at face counts, so does Joshua’s covenant renewal value, could mean that the situation de- set the standard for later similar obser- scribed existed when the books were vances, rare as they are in Israel’s history. composed. It is likely, though, that the Samuel leads covenant renewal in c. 1050 phrase states what was true when the B.C. when Saul becomes king (1 Sa 12:1- source being used was written. Cf. 25). Josiah renews the covenant c. 622 B.C. Brevard S. Childs, “A Study of the For- (2 Ki 23:1-3), as do Ezra and Nehemiah (c. mula, ‘Until This Day,’” Journal of Biblical 440 B.C.) (cf. Ne 9:1-38). Sadly, these in- Literature 82 (1963) 279-292. stances are separated by years, genera- 3This conclusion reflects the latest possible tions at times, of covenant breaking such date for the conquest. Some scholars as that foreseen by Moses. Still, Joshua sets place the Exodus itself as early as c. 1440 a standard that removed all excuses from B.C., while others believe the event oc- the lips of the unfaithful. He places life curred c. 1290 B.C. and death before the people as only a man 4Charles F. Kraft, “Jashar, Book of,” in who experienced slavery, Sinai, desert, Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Vol. 2, and conquest could do. ed. George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville: Abingdon, 1962) 803. Conclusion 5Cf. John Skinner, 1-2 Kings, rev. ed., Cen- Joshua seems like the closing act and a tury Bible (London and Edinburgh: T.C. notice of future acts at the same time. & E.C. Jack, 1904) 23. God’s promises have materialized due to 30 6Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the 1969) 726. 19Hans Walter Wolff, “The Kerygma History of Ancient Israel. 1878. Rpt. 10Cf. John Bright, A History of Israel, of the Deuteronomic Historical (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1983). 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster, Work,” trans. Frederick C. Prussner, 7For example Otto Eissfeldt con- 1972) 127ff. in The Vitality of Old Testament Tra- cluded that J, E, and an older lay (L) 11Martin Noth, The Deuteronomistic ditions, ed. Walter A. Brueggemann source are evident in Genesis-Kings History, trans. David Orton, JSOTSup and Hans Walter Wolff (Atlanta: (The Old Testament, an Introduction 15 (Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield Aca- John Knox, 1975) 83-100. Note including the Apocrypha and Pseudo- demic Press, 1981). Wolff’s summary of the historian’s pigrapha, and also Similar Types from 12Ibid., 4. Indeed, Noth believed the main theological points on p. 98. Qumran: The History of the Formation “Deuteronomist” wrote Deuteron- 20Cf. Dennis J. McCarthy, “II Samuel 7 of the Old Testament, trans. Peter R. omy 1-4 as an introduction to the and the Structure of the Deu- Ackroyd, 3rd ed. [New York: Harper then-existing book of Deuteronomy, teronomic History,” Journal of Bibli- and Row, 1965] 241-248, 297-299). which then served as an introduc- cal Literature 84 (1965) 131-138, for an Cf. Immanuel Benzinger, “Jahwist tion to the history as a whole (see analysis of both the positive and und Elohist in den Königsbüchern,” ibid., 14-17). negative aspects of God’s promise to in Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die altes- 13Noth says, “Dtr. was not merely an David within 1-2 Samuel and 1-2 tamentliche Wissenschaft II/2 (Berlin- editor but the author of a history Kings. See Helen A. Kenik, Design for Stuttgart-Leipzig: Töpelmann, which brought together material Kingship: The Deuteronomistic Narra- 1921); Gustav Hölscher, “Das Buch from highly varied traditions and tive Technique in 1 Kings 3:4-15, Soci- der Könige, seine Quellen und seine arranged it according to a carefully ety of Biblical Literature Dissertation Redaktion,” in Eucharisterion conceived plan. In general Dtr. sim- Series 69 (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, Hermann Gunkel zum 60 Geburstag, ply reproduced the literary sources 1983) for a representative work on Forschungen zur Religion und available to him and merely pro- how the “deuteronomist” shaped Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testa- vided a connecting narrative for iso- important speeches. ments 36 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck lated passages. We can prove, 21R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the und Ruprecht, 1927); and Rudolph however, that in places he made a Old Testament, 732. Smend, “JE in den geschichtlichen deliberate selection from the mate- 22Ibid. For significant arguments in Büchern des Alten Testament, rial at his disposal” (see ibid., 10). favor of Mosaic authorship of herausgegeben von H. Holzinger,” 14Cf. ibid., 9, for a discussion of how Deuteronomy, see Meredith G. in Zeitschrift für die altestamentliche the author created transitions be- Kline, Treaty of the Great King: The Wissenschaft 39 (1921) 204-215 for tween books, and ibid., 5, for Noth’s Covenant Structure of Deuteronomy variations of the J and E theory. opinions about the role of the key (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963) 24- 8Prominent proponents of this type speeches in the history. 69; and R. K. Harrison, Introduction of analysis include S. R. Driver, An 15Ibid., 99. to the Old Testament, 495-541, 637- Introduction to the Literature of the Old 16Ibid., 90-92. 662. Testament. 1892. Rpt. (Gloucester, 17Gerhard von Rad, Studies in 23Harrison, Introduction to the Old Tes- MA: Peter Smith, 1972) 188-189, Deuteronomy, trans. David Muir tament, 673. who adds prophetic and temple Gibson Stalker, Studies in Biblical 24M. H. Woudstra, The Book of Joshua, sources to the three stated sources; Theology 9 (London: SCM, 1963) New International Commentary on and Skinner, 1-2 Kings, 23-33, who 74-91. Von Rad thinks that 2 Samuel the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: also adds prophetic, priestly, politi- 7:13 is the first and greatest of Eerdmans, 1981) 12-13; Gleason Ar- cal, and succession sources. eleven prophetic promises in the cher Jr., A Survey of Old Testament 9R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old “deuteronomistic” history. Introduction, rev. ed. (Chicago: Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 18Ibid., 90-91. Moody, 1974) 264-265. 31 25Cf. Abraham Kuenen, Historisch- three-editor theory in “Die 32Burke O’Connor Long, 1 Kings, with Kritische einleitung in die Bücher des ‘deuteronomistischen’ Beur- an Introduction to Historical Litera- Alten Testaments: Vol. 1, ed. T. Weber, teilungen der Könige von Israel und ture, The Forms of the Old Testa- trans. Philip Henry Wicksteed, 3 vols. Juda und das Problem der ment Literature 9 (Grand Rapids: (Leipzig, Germany: Otto Schulze, Redaktion der Königsbücher,” Eerdmans, 1984) 16-21. 1886-1894); Julius Wellhausen, Die Biblica 53 (1972) 301-339. Weippert 33Cf. Jones, 1 and 2 Kings: Vol. One, 44; Composition des Hexateuchs und der thinks that a first edition appeared and Nelson, The Double Redaction of historischen Bücher des Alten Testaments at the time of Samaria’s destruction the Deuteronomistic History, 43-98. (Berlin: G. Reimer, 1889); and (722 B.C.), a second near Josiah’s era 34For two thorough analyses of the Wellhausen, Prolegomena. For an out- (640-609 B.C.), and a third after role of the land motif in the standing summary of these and other Jerusalem’s fall. Pentateuch, see David J. A. Clines, multi-redactional theories, see Rich- 28 Gwilym H. Jones, 1 and 2 Kings: Vol. The Theme of the Pentateuch, JSOTSup ard D. Nelson, The Double Redaction One, New Century Bible (Grand 10 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic of the Deuteronomistic History, Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984) 43-44. Press, 1978); and, especially, John JSOTSup 18 (Sheffield, U.K.: Sheffield 29Ibid., 44. Herbert Sailhammer, The Pentateuch Academic Press, 1981). 30Cf. Frank Moore Cross, “The as Narrative: A Biblical-Theological 26Alfred Jepsen, Die Quellen der Themes of the Book of Kings and the Commentary (Grand Rapids: Zon- Königsbuches (Halle, Germany: Structure of the Deuteronomistic dervan, 1992). Niemeyer, 1953). History,” in Canaanite Myth and He- 35For an extensive survey of these is- 27Cf. Rudolf Smend, “Das Gesetz und brew Epic: Essays in the History of the sues consult Trent C. Butler, Joshua, die Völker: Ein Beitrag zur deute- Religion of Israel (Cambridge, MA: Word Biblical Commentary 7 (Waco, ronomistischen Redaktionsges- Harvard Univ. Press, 1973) 274-289; TX: Word Books, 1983), xx-xlii; and chichte,” in Probleme Biblischer and Richard D. Nelson, The Double Robert G. Boling and George Ernest Theologie: Gerhard von Rad zum 70. Redaction of the Deuteronomistic His- Wright, Joshua: A New Translation Geburstag, ed. Hans Walter Wolff tory. John Gray also claims there with Introduction, Notes, and Com- (Munich: C. Kaiser, 1971) 494-509; were two redactions, one c. 597 B.C. mentary, Anchor Bible 6 (Garden and Rudolph Smend, Die Enstehung and one after 587 B.C., in I and II City, NY: Doubleday, 1982) 37-80. des Alten Testaments (Stuttgart: Kings, Old Testament Library (Phila- 36This conclusion applies to Judges, Kohlhammer, 1978) 110-125. delphia: Westminster, 1963) 38. In 1 Samuel and Kings as well. Smend’s ideas were adopted and Kings, Word Biblical Commentary 37Cf. John Gray, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, adapted by Walter Dietrich in 12 (Waco, TX: Word, 1985), Simon New Century Bible (Grand Rapids: Dietrich, Prophetic und Geschichte: John De Vries says that a first edi- Eerdmans, 1986) 9-34. Eine redaktionsgeschichtliche tion was written by “a contempo- 38Scholars differ a great deal in what Unterschung zum deuteronomis- rary of King Josiah” (xlii) and was they mean by “reliable,” of course, tischen Geschichtswerk, Forschungen “revised by a member of the same but Marten H. Woudstra is perhaps zur Religion und Literatur des Alten school living during the Babylonian the strongest recent proponent of und Neuen Testaments 108 exile, c. 550 B.C.” (xliii). Joshua’s historicity. Less traditional (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und 31Though I do not share Nelson’s pref- commentators at least agree with Ruprecht, 1972); and Timo Veijola in erence for the double redaction Gerhard von Rad’s comment that Veijola, Das Königtum in der theory, his book is careful, balanced, the author of Joshua “was certainly Beurteilung der deuteronomistischen and quick to point out the weaknesses no historian in the modern sense of Historiographie (Helsinki: Suo- of other multiple author positions (see the term. Nevertheless, the way in malainen Tieddeakatemia, 1977). Nelson, The Double Redaction of the which he uses his sources is not for Helga Weippert suggests another Deuteronomistic History). all that as naïve as it appears to be…. 32 And for the very reason that he in- Eerdmans, 1991) 178-179. corporated documents nearly con- 56Elmer A. Martens, God’s Design: A temporary with himself, his account Focus on Old Testament Theology was given reality for its own time” (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1981) 104-105. (Old Testament Theology: Vol. 1, trans. 57For an analysis of how the whole David Muir Gibson Stalker [New canon views the law as a gift, con- York: Harper and Row, 1962] 303). sult Elmer A. Martens, “Embracing 39Cf. Harrison, Introduction to the Old the Law: A Biblical Theological Per- Testament, 325-334. spective,” Bulletin for Biblical Re- 40Cf. Boling and Wright, Joshua, 74- search 2 (1992) 1-28. 88 for an analysis of “What Archae- 58Cf. Boling and Wright, Joshua, 13-27. ology Can and Cannot Do.” 59Martens, God’s Design, 107-108. 41For solid analyses of God’s por- 60Brevard S. Childs, Biblical Theology trayal as warrior in the Old Testa- of the Old and New Testaments: Theo- ment consult ibid., 27-37. logical Reflection on the Christian Bible 42E. John Hamlin, Inheriting the Land: (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992) 147. A Commentary on the Book of Joshua, 61Gray, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 123. International Theological Commen- 62Madvig, “Joshua,” 316. tary (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 63Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 1983) 4. 299-300. 43Walter C. Kaiser, Jr., Toward an Old 64Paul D. Hanson, The People Called: Testament Theology (Grand Rapids: The Growth of Community in the Bible Eerdmans, 1978) 124-127. (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 44Butler, Joshua, 22. 1987) 64. 45Ibid. 65Hamlin, Inheriting the Land, 110. 46Gray, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 68. 66Martens, God’s Design, 115. 47J. Alberto Soggin, Joshua, trans. R. 67T. S. Eliot, The Complete Poems and Plays, A. Wilson, Old Testament Library 1909-1950 (New York: Harcourt, Brace (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1972) & World, 1971) 107. 61. 68Hanson, The People Called, 65. 48Boling and Wright, Joshua, 188. 69Ibid. 49Butler, Joshua, 103. 70Von Rad, Old Testament Theology, 22. 50Woudstra, The Book of Joshua, 103. 71Ibid., 26. 51Donald Harold Madvig, “Joshua,” 72Barth, God with Us, 182. Expositor’s Bible Commentary: Vol. 3 (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1992) 277-278. 52Hamlin, Inheriting the Land, 57-62. 53Gray, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 91. 54Butler, Joshua, 130. 55Christoph Barth, God with Us: A Theological Introduction to the Old Tes- tament, ed. and trans. Geoffrey Wil- liam Bromiley (Grand Rapids: 33