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INFORMATION TO USERS This manuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had tobe removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand corner and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each original is also photographed in one exposure and is included in reduced form at the back of the book. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. U·M·I Uruversity Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information Company 300 North Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor. MI 48106-1346 USA 313/761-4700 800/521-0600 Order Number 9129689 Ban yatra: A bio-cultural survey of sacred forests in Kathmandu Valley Mansberger, Joe Robert, Ph.D. University of Hawaii, 1991 Copyright @1991 by Mansberger, Joe Robert. All rights reserved. V·M·I 300N.ZeebRd. AnnArbor, MI48106 BAN YATRA: A BIO-CULTURAL SURVEY OF SACRED FORESTS IN KATHMANDU VALLEY A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Division of the University of Hawaii in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for ~he Degree of i Doctor of Philosophy in Geography MetY 1991 By Joe R. Mansberger Dissertation Committee: Brian Murton. Chairman Leslie Sponsel Sheila Conant Murray Chapman Jon Goss ~ Copyright by Joe R. Hansberger 1991 All Rights Reserved ACK NOW LED G MEN TS Along the way many people have contributed to this study. The unflagging support of Professor Brian Hurton throughout, as well as that of the Committee, has been the mainstay of the work. Also, the Venerable Tenga Rimpoche and Dr. Mana Bajracharya have guided the spirit of it. The people of Kathmandu Valley who graciously imparted their knowledge on the subject at hand are heartily acknowledged. Ram Sharma, loyal guide and companion in the field, participated in the exploration of site and soul. Mr. Hemanta Bhandary and Mr. Khagendra Sangroula gave translational assistance, and many other indefatigable scholars of the Nepalese intellectual tradition provided helpful insight. The u.S. Educational Foundation in Nepal, the FUlbright Commission, and the American Embassy were the sponsoring agencies of the fieldwork. Additional research and writing was made possible by a grant from the East-West Center. Ganesh Studios of Kathmandu assisted in the development of the photographs herein, and Mr. Jimmy Sin Ching-Yin is responsible for the cartographic illustrations. Laura, Jaya and Kai Hansberger rendered patience and enthusiasm. iv ABST RAe T This study documents and interprets the collective store of traditional knowledge concerning the manifestation. protection and preservation of sacred forests in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. It essentially investigates the phenomenon of "sacred forests" through a cognitive study of its associated cultural tradition and religious belief system. A biological examination of natural components in the light of cultural findings provides a bio-cultural perspective of the subject. Oral interviews and on-site observations at 45 selected sacred forest sites form the basis of collected data. A combined historico-cultural/religio-geographic approach. documenting oral tradition. iconographical and ethno botanical evidence, contributes to an analysis of sacred forests as bio-cultural landscape units representing a religio-cultural tradition of nature preservation. Present preservation attitudes and initiatives, along with circum stantial evidence of the physical condition of sacred forest sites, are considered in the analysis of the present status of sacred forest preservation and the relative importance of traditional prohibitions, values and beliefs. The combined evidence suggests that the sacred forests of Kathmandu Valley are bio-cultural landscape units of biological, cultural. religious and historical significance. v TAB LEO F CON TEN TS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iv ABSTRACT v LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . x PREFACE . xiii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION 1 Objectives of the Study 3 Organization 3 Field Methods 9 On-site Taped Interviews . 11 Participant Observation 12 CHAPTER II. ANTECEDENTS .. 15 Aranya and Vana 16 Arama .... 20 Caitya .... 24 Paradise Lost . 25 Biophysical Realities 30 Sacred Groves of India . 32 Holy Hills of China 35 Shrine Forests of Japan 37 Sacred Groves and Forest Temples of Thailand ........ 38 Sacred Forests of Nepal 39 Cultural Realities 41 CHAPTER III. MANIFESTATIONS 43 Identification 43 Biophysical Subtypes 44 Area ........ 47 Topographical Location 48 Boundaries 55 Oral Testimony ... 57 Map Records 60 Visual Inspection 61 Sacred Landscape 72 Viewscapes ..... 77 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) CHAPTER IV. BIO-DATA 82 Systematic Botany of Nepal 82 Local Botanical Systems . 83 Gardens of the Gods ... 95 Sacred Flowers ..... 96 The Fruit of Paradise .. 106 The Apothecary's Garden. 107 Sacred Nature .... 108 Sacred Trees . 109 Sacred Refugia 117 CHAPTER V. LEGENDS . 125 Personality of Sacred Place . 126 Protective Deities . 132 Bandevi ..... 142 Living Legends .... 147 Lakeshore Horizons . 150 Epico-Puranic Forests 153 Forest Sanctuaries . 155 The Power of Place 159 CHAPTER VI. HISTORI CO-CULTURAL ROOTS 164 Historical Roots 166 Cultural Roots 177 Recent Changes 185 Forest Change 186 Construction . 190 Landscape Change 194 Other Significant Changes 196 CHAPTER VII. PROHIBITIONS 198 The Inner Sanctum 199 The Sacred Environs 204 Exceptions ..... 207 Divine Retribution 209 Temporal Retribution 210 Signs ......... 214 Official Perceptions of Ownership and Management ...... 214 Forestry Legislation 218 Guthi Legislation .... 222 Archeological Legislation 225 Popular Perceptions of Ownership and Management ........... 226 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued) The Role of the Pujari . 229 The Role of the Guthi 231 The Role of Government . 233 The Role of the Community 236 CHAPTER VIII. PRESERVATION 238 Perceptions of the Future State of Sacred Forests ..... 238 Popular Preservation Attitudes 241 Present Preservation Status: Circumstantial Evidence .... 248 Official Preservation Initiatives . 260 A View From the Outside 266 CHAPTER IX. CONCLUSION 277 What Are They? 279 Where Are They? 283 Why Are They There? 291 What Do They Mean? 296 Symbolic Resource 299 Preservation Options 301 APPENDIX 1 Interview Questions .. 306 APPENDIX 2 Checklist of Key Features 307 LITERATURE CITED 310 viii LIS T 0 F TAB LES Table 1. Known Locations of Present-day Sacred Forests 32 Table 2. Biophysical Subtypes ....... 46 Table 3. Location of Sacred Forests 49 Table 4. Topography of Sacred Forests ..... 51 Table 5. Sacred Forest Flora: Nomenclature 85 Table 6. Features of Sacred Forest Flora. .... 97 Table 7. Ornamental Flowers of Sacred Forests .. .. 102 Table 8. Sacred Forest Place-name Derivation 128 Table 9. Sources of Sacred Forest Legends 149 Table 10. Estimated Age of Sacred Forest Sites .... 169 Table 11. Existing Structures in Sacred Forests 192 Table 12. Jurisdictional Location of Sacred Forests 219 Table 13. Popular Perception of Ownership & Management 227 Table 14. Perceptions of Future State of Sacred Forests 239 Table 15. Attitudes of Sacred Forest Preservation 243 Table 16. Observed Violations in Sacred Forests 249 Table 17. Estimated Tree Maturity Class. ... 253 Table 18. Soil Cover Estimates of Sacred Forests . .. 258 Table 19. Estimates of Crown Density and Cover Type 259 Table 20. Present Preservation Status of Sacred Forests 261 Table 21. Protective Measures Needed at Sites. .... 271 ix LIS T 0 F ILL UST RAT ION S Figure 1. Known Locations of Sacred Forests ..... 50 Figure 2. The Tar Lands and the 1400m High Watermark 54 Figure 3. Mhenpi and Nanakmath: Surrounding Landuse 62 Figure 4. Landuse of Kathmandu Valley 64 Figure 5. Sanu Hatiban Sacred Forest 65 Figure 6. Dakshinbarahi Sacred Forest 66 Figure 7. Santaneswarmahadev Sacred Forest 67 Figure 8. Bajra Barahi Sacred Forest . 69 Figure 9. Walled and Unwalled Borders 70 Figure 10. Adeshwar Sacred Forest 71 Figure 11. Natural Icon. 73 Figure 12. Natural Icon. .. 74 Figure 13. Saraswati Kunda ... 78 Figure 14. Isolated and Remote Sacred Forests 79 Figure 15. Nanakmath Sacred Forest 81 Figure 16. Rural Sacred Tree 111 Figure 17. Suburban Sacred Tree 112 Figure 18. Sacred Tree 113 Figure 19. Sacred Tree 114 Figure 20. Sacred Tree 115 Figure 21. Sacred Tree 116 Figure 22. Ancient Tree 118 Figure 23. Natural Vegetation 119 Figure 24. Protective Deity. 134 x LIST 0 F ILL UST RAT I o NS (continued) Figure 25. Protective Deity · ·· ·· 135 Figure 26. Protective Deity · ··· . 136 Figure 27. Protective Deity · 137 Figure 28. Protective Deity 138 Figure 29. Kuldevata . · . · 140 Figure 30. Mother Goddess 141 Figure 3l. Bandevi 145 Figure 32. Site of Spiritual Genius · 157 Figure