The Drama of Conservation Carolyn M. King • D. John Gaukrodger Neville A. Ritchie Editors

The Drama of Conservation The History of Pureora Forest, New Zealand

123 Editors Carolyn M. King Neville A. Ritchie University of Waikato Department of Conservation Hamilton Te Papa Atawhai, Hamilton Office New Zealand Hamilton New Zealand D. John Gaukrodger Thames New Zealand

The original version of the book frontmatter was revised: For detailed information please see Erratum. The Erratum is available at 10.1007/978-3-319-18410-4_16

ISBN 978-3-319-18409-8 ISBN 978-3-319-18410-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-18410-4

Co-published with the New Zealand Department of Conservation NZ ISBN: 978-0-478-15044-5 (soft cover, New Zealand only)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015941145

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Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Preface

The Aims and Scope of this Book

The central North Island of New Zealand is one of the most significant sites of natural and cultural history interest in New Zealand. It has a rich Maori history, followed by a period of well-documented European exploitation of the seemingly inexhaustible resources of high-quality native timber in the mountains west of Lake Taupo. Over time, a vigorous forestry industry established many sawmills handling huge volumes of logs, accompanied by some important early experiments in forestry science, silviculture and selection logging. Forestry has long been a vital source of rural employment and timber products supporting the development history of New Zealand. At the same time, forestry has contributed directly or indirectly to extensive biodiversity loss, in complex and inter-related ways. Conservation of biodiversity in the last remaining tall forests is critical for ensuring fully representative envi- ronmental preservation. In the 1970s, Pureora Forest, the largest remaining area of native forest in the west Taupo region, was the location of a pivotal moment in New Zealand conservation history, focussed on an iconic endemic bird at severe risk of extinction. Since the last of the timber mills was closed in the 1970s and early 1980s, Pureora Forest Park (PFP) has become a nationally important site for experiments in conservation research and management, practical ecological restoration and outdoor recreation.

Development Versus Conservation

Conflicts arising between people and wildlife came into sharp focus in the timber industry at Pureora in 1978, when the rumbling of protests against continued logging of prime conservation habitat suddenly became a roar that the Government could no longer ignore. A series of well-publicised and dramatic tree-sitting demonstrations forced the Minister of Forests to break two binding legal contracts in order to declare a moratorium on logging. The competition for press attention and public sympathy between aggrieved loggers and environmentalists over the next few years was intense,

v vi Preface but PFP was gazetted in 1978, and the moratorium was made permanent in 1981. In 1987, the previously powerful New Zealand Forest Service was itself disbanded, and control of the park passed to the newly created Department of Conservation. The Pureora story is nationally significant because it illustrates in one compact area a fundamental conflict of interests that applies in many other contexts. This book discusses the events that opened up important practical challenges and moral dilemmas associated with the massive historical deforestation of the central North Island forests; the 1978 wildlife conser- vation interventions in forests available for logging; the human consequences of radical decisions on forest conservation; and the dramatic changes in attitudes to conflicts over forest use, leading to the establishment and man- agement of the Forest Park. We begin with the geological history of the area, especially the impact of recent volcanism, and the species of fauna and flora protected within the park. We look at the questions offundamental ecology crucial to developing effective management solutions: the controversies surrounding the establishment of a Recreational Hunting Area on Conservation land, and of pig-hunting with dogs in areas that could still be supporting kiwi; at the increasingly difficult chal- lenges posed by the spread of introduced predators (especially rats and stoats): their impacts on native species, and how to control them. We discuss how a massive effort to understand the behavioural ecology of the introduced Australian brushtail possum has informed the national campaign to minimise the spread of bovine tuberculosis and protect the forests from browsing damage; and how the attitudes and actions of foresters, hunters, urban environmentalists and amenity managers differ with respect to the arguments for and against the use of 1080 poison to achieve effective landscape-scale control of possums and rats. All the factual information we present has been taken from the sources cited in the references, preferably the published literature. We have had access to important unpublished official archives, including the hitherto unknown significant details of the massive compensation packages paid to the timber companies after the moratorium forced the cancellation of their logging contracts. Where necessary, we have also quoted from newspapers because, although we are well aware that non-refereed reports are not always reliable, they are often the only sources of contemporary information about events that were not recorded anywhere else. The text is designed to be easy to dip into by the many, many people—the timber workers and their families, foresters, scientists, hunters, birdwatchers, photographers, mountain bikers and trampers—who have loved, worked in or visited, and/or fought for Pureora over the years. We provide a fascinating background story for educational groups, especially those based at the Pureora Forest Lodge and the Tihoi Venture School, and users of the new Timber Trail for cyclists and walkers. We quote a tiny selection of the hundreds of people-centred stories and historic illustrations known to us. Many more are available from knowl- edgeable local historians Ken Anderson, Ron Cooke, Audrey Walker and their many colleagues. Citations to these invaluable sources often appear here Preface vii

and will lead interested readers to masses of further information held in public libraries. We aim to inform the academic community by providing all the necessary references, but have not attempted to provide a comprehensive review of biodiversity conservation in native forest generally. Rather, we aim to demonstrate how ecological study, often long-term, combined with a respect for people and for natural history, plus a flexible, interdisciplinary approach to current scientific priorities, can be welded into a consistently effective strategy to answer the pressing forest-ecology questions of our time.

Place Names

This book is about the eastern half of the King Country centred on Pureora Mountain. Pureora Forest village lies in the northern half of PFP, between the northern Hauhungaroa Range and the southern Rangitoto Range (Fig. 0.1). Place names used both by Maori and by Pakeha (Europeans) usually reflect the perspectives of their authors. Originally, only the southern half of the Hauhungaroa Range was given that name, and the northern part was called Hurakia (and is so-called on many old maps and records). The two ranges meet at the central watershed, Weraroa. In Pakeha times, the entire range has taken the name Hauhungaroa, and the name Hurakia has been reserved for some of the westerly ridges making up the former Hurakia State Forest. When the North Island Main Trunk Railway was being constructed, Europeans referred to the Pureora area as the Rangitoto-Tuhua country, since those were the ranges most visible from the railway route. Later, Auckland timber interests called it the Mangapehi bush, because that was the origin of the timber being cut by the mills at Mangapehi and sent to Auckland on the railway, whereas southern timber interests called it the Taumarunui bush or the Tuhua country, which was closer to Wellington. Looked at from the Lake Taupo side, it became the west Taupo ranges, and the Forest Research Institute at Rotorua thought of it as the west Taupo forest. All these names refer to the subject of the book, home of one of the largest blocks of con- tinuous North Island forest remaining after 1900. To everyone who knows it, Pureora is a very special place, and its story is well worth the telling.

Glossary and Abbreviations

For a note on our use of the Maori language, a General and Maori glossary, and lists of abbreviations and of scientific names of animals and plants mentioned in the text, please refer to the Appendices. viii Preface

Fig. 0.1 Location of Pureora and the surrounding country, central North Island, New Zealand. The boundaries of forest areas (native and exotic), Pureora Forest Park, Tongariro Forest Kiwi Sanctuary and Tongariro National Park, roads (with their State Highway numbers) and the North Island Main Trunk Railway are shown, plus prominent ranges, peaks and rivers. Settlements mentioned in the text are marked here or on later, larger scale maps. All details shown as of 2014. Max Oulton Acknowledgements

The authors and editors gratefully acknowledge the many people and organisations who have helped them in the following ways. Principal funding: Department of Conservation, Hamilton NZ Lottery Grants Board, Environment and Heritage Fund Warwick Silvester, Tane’s Tree Trust University of Waikato, Dean of the Faculty of Science and Engineering University of Waikato, Earth Sciences Programme Original archive and taped interviews: The late Owen Wilkes, Department of Conservation Contributors: Tony Beveridge, former NZ Forest Service Rod Hay, Department of Conservation John Innes, Landcare Research John Leathwick, Conservation Planning & Management Consultant David J. Lowe, University of Waikato Graham Nugent, Landcare Research Tom Roa, University of Waikato Mark Smale, Landcare Research Cartography: Max Oulton, University of Waikato Artists and cartoonists: Priscilla Barrett, Bob Brockie, Mark Garlick, Eric Heath, Pauline Morse, Burton Silver Librarians and IT: Ellen Clarkson, Dave Clements, Neil Fitzgerald, John Laurie, Bruce Patty, Cheryl Ward Page references to 19th Century books are given to the online digitised versions, accessible from the University of Auckland Libraries and Learning Services and The Early New Zealand Books Collection, in the care of John Laurie

ix x Acknowledgements

Loans of University theses: Universities of Auckland and Canterbury Victoria University of Wellington Other information: Bob Brockie, Marie Brown, Stacey Foster, Stephen King, Barry Murphy, Adrian Pittari, Guy Salmon, Kevin Tregoweth, Kerry-Jane Wilson Barryville Historical Society (Graeme and Jenifer Reinhardt), Department of Conservation (Jo Burnard, Dave Smith, Ray Scrimgeour, Tertia Thurley, Owen Wilkes), Fletcher Trust Archive (Dorothy Neilson), Hamilton City Library (Perry Rice and Mark Caunter), SCION (Tracey Fenton and Tiena Jordan), Putaruru Timber Museum (Graham Hall); elders of Tūhourangi Ngāti Wāhiao of Te Pakira Marae, Whakarewarewa, Rotorua Reviewers: Peter Archer, Ken Ayers, Bruce Clarkson, Rob Guest, Ray Harlow, Stephen King*, John Leathwick, Andy Leigh, Chris Lusk, John Mason, Ray Scrimgeour, Dave Smith, Clare Veltman, Corrine Watts *Not related to any other contributors with the same surname Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of material cited, but a few could not be found. Readers who can offer information leading to confirmed corrections or inclusion of missing acknowledge- ments are invited to contact us. Contents

1 A Dramatic Landscape ...... 1 D.J. Lowe and C.M. King Introduction...... 1 The Taupo Eruption ...... 2 Geological History of the West Taupo Area ...... 4 Pureora and Titiraupenga...... 11 Rivers and Valleys ...... 14 How Geography Helps Determine History...... 15 References...... 15

2 Forests and Native Wildlife ...... 19 C.M. King, J.R. Hay, M.C. Smale, J.R. Leathwick and A.E. Beveridge Early European Descriptions ...... 19 The Forests Today ...... 21 The Mires ...... 25 The Buried Forest ...... 25 Dating the Taupo Eruption ...... 28 The Volcanic Succession Debate ...... 29 Interactions Within the Forest Community...... 31 Forest Regeneration ...... 32 Native Wildlife ...... 33 Extinct Vertebrate Species ...... 33 Living Species of Land Vertebrates...... 34 Invertebrates...... 38 References...... 40

3 The Maori of the Central North Island Before 1860 ...... 43 C.M. King and T. Roa Tribal Boundaries...... 43 Maori Values...... 45 Myths and Facts...... 47 Origins of the Central North Island Maori ...... 47 Exploration and Settlement...... 47 Fire...... 50 Food Resources ...... 51 Moa...... 51 Kuri ...... 51

xi xii Contents

Rats ...... 52 Birds...... 56 Kumara ...... 59 Pigs ...... 60 Potatoes and Other European Vegetables ...... 61 Kainga ...... 62 Horses ...... 63 The Great Feast of 1856 ...... 63 References...... 65

4 The European Impact: Exploration to Conflict, 1840–1890 ...... 67 C.M. King and N.A. Ritchie Travellers’ Tales ...... 68 Bidwill, Dieffenbach and Ensign Best ...... 70 Angas ...... 72 Smith ...... 74 Hochstetter...... 75 Kerry-Nicholls ...... 79 Te Heuheu Iwikau and the King Movement...... 80 War...... 81 Te Rohe Potae ...... 84 Te Kooti ...... 85 The Beginnings of European Settlement ...... 86 References...... 87

5 Opening the Way for Logging, 1880–1945 ...... 89 C.M. King and N.A. Ritchie Negotiations ...... 89 Tongariro National Park ...... 92 The North Island Main Trunk Railway ...... 93 Rabbits ...... 97 The First Timber Mills ...... 99 Hauling the Logs to the Mills ...... 99 Logging Along the Margins of the Future Pureora Forest Park ...... 103 Tiroa and Maraeroa C...... 104 A3B2 ...... 107 Coal Rides the Timber Tramway ...... 107 References...... 109

6 Management of Native Forests in the Central North Island, 1919–1977 ...... 111 C.M. King, A.E. Beveridge and M.C. Smale Origin of the New Zealand Forest Service ...... 112 Policy Developments 1946–1977 ...... 115 Beveridge’sReview...... 116 Selection Logging ...... 117 The 1977 Management Policy: The End of Clearfelling . . . . . 122 Contents xiii

Growing Pains: The Transition to Exotic Timber ...... 124 The Pureora Nurseries...... 125 Coping with the Transition to Exotics...... 128 References...... 129

7 The Pureora Project 1940–78 ...... 131 D.J. Gaukrodger, N.A. Ritchie and C.M. King Origin of the Pureora Project ...... 131 Pureora State Forest 96 ...... 132 Post Splitting ...... 132 The Pureora Working Circle...... 133 Logging and Sawmilling at Pureora ...... 134 The 1968 and 1970 15-Year Contracts ...... 141 Logging Operations in the Bush...... 143 Cruising...... 143 Scarfing and Felling ...... 145 Logging Arches ...... 146 Bulldozers and Tractors ...... 148 Trucks...... 150 Safety Gear ...... 151 At the Mill ...... 152 Mill Closures Before 1978 ...... 156 References...... 157

8 Pureora Forest Village and Its Community, 1945–87 ..... 159 D.J. Gaukrodger, N.A. Ritchie and C.M. King Construction of the Village ...... 160 Location and Isolation...... 161 Telephones...... 162 Roads and Buses ...... 162 Housing ...... 163 Collecting the Pay ...... 165 Workshop ...... 166 NZFS Officers in Charge ...... 166 Staff ...... 169 Pureora Forest School...... 171 The Post Office and General Store ...... 172 The Volunteer Fire Brigade ...... 174 Prohibition ...... 175 The Football Club ...... 177 The Football Club Bar ...... 179 Other Sports ...... 180 Medical Care and the Pureora Ambulance ...... 181 References...... 183

9 Conflict: Protest Words to Action in the Forest 1970–78 ...... 185 C.M. King, D.J. Gaukrodger and J.R. Hay Wildlife Service Surveys and Recommendations ...... 187 xiv Contents

The Reasoned Case for Stopping the Logging ...... 190 The 1978 Protests...... 191 Crunchpoint: Sitting in the Tree Tops ...... 193 The Taupo Seminar ...... 197 References...... 200

10 The Moratorium and Afterwards, 1978–87 ...... 203 C.M. King and D.J. Gaukrodger Arguments and Submissions ...... 203 The Otago Business Development Report ...... 206 The Economic Model ...... 208 Critiques of the OBDC ...... 209 High Tension in the Villages ...... 210 A Shock Announcement ...... 210 Awaiting Developments...... 211 Consequences ...... 212 Compensation...... 214 Goodbye Barryville...... 217 Pureora Forest Village Redesigned ...... 219 The Grazing Co-op ...... 222 Postscript ...... 223 References...... 224

11 Rethinking Forest Administration, 1978–87 ...... 227 D.J. Gaukrodger and C.M. King Institutional Schizophrenia...... 227 The New Economics...... 230 TheEndofNZFS...... 231 The Ministerial Brief ...... 232 Pureora as a State Forest Park, 1978–87...... 234 The Titiraupenga Track and the B9B Dispute ...... 236 Pureora as a Conservation Park, Since 1987 ...... 238 Long-Term Consequences ...... 239 Pureora as a Field Lab ...... 241 Ecological Reserves ...... 241 References...... 243

12 Protecting the Forest from Introduced Herbivores ...... 245 C.M. King, J.G. Innes, M.C. Smale and G. Nugent Introduced Browsing Animals ...... 246 Feral Cattle ...... 246 Feral Goats ...... 247 Deer ...... 248 Possums ...... 248 Monitoring Browsing Damage ...... 251 Deer: Commercial Hunting ...... 255 Deer: The Short-Lived Live Capture Boom ...... 257 Feral Goats and Mohair Farming ...... 258 Possums: Bounties and Fur ...... 260 Contents xv

Possums: Bovine TB and the Threat to Pastoral Farming . . . . 261 Aerial Control Operations ...... 262 Can Trappers Help? ...... 264 The 1080 Dilemma...... 265 1080 and Birds...... 267 Kaka and Blue Duck...... 267 Robins and Tomtits...... 268 1080 and Non-target Pest Mammals ...... 269 References...... 271

13 Protecting the Wildlife from Introduced Predators ...... 275 C.M. King, J.G. Innes and J.R. Hay Understanding Predators ...... 275 Norway Rats ...... 277 Ship Rats...... 279 Mice ...... 280 Hedgehogs...... 281 Mustelids...... 281 Cats ...... 282 Possums ...... 283 Why Are New Zealand Birds so Vulnerable?...... 283 Protecting the Kokako ...... 285 Phase One: The Forest Bird Research Group, 1978–81.... 287 Phase Two: Pikiariki, 1982/83 ...... 291 Phase Three: Research by Management, 1989–97...... 293 Other Native Wildlife ...... 297 Complications: Mesopredator Release ...... 298 The Waipapa/Pikiariki Restoration Project ...... 300 Robins and Tomtits...... 302 Kaka ...... 303 References...... 304

14 Recreation in Pureora Forest Park ...... 307 D.J. Gaukrodger, N.A. Ritchie and C.M. King Hunting ...... 308 New Zealand Pigeons ...... 308 Feral Pigs ...... 310 Feral Cattle ...... 312 Deer ...... 312 The Recreational Hunting Area ...... 313 The Pureora Hunting Competition...... 317 The Game Animal Council ...... 317 Dogs in PFP ...... 318 The Pureora Forest Park Lodge and Outdoor Education Centre ...... 318 The Observation Tower...... 319 Walking Tracks ...... 319 Huts and Campsites ...... 321 xvi Contents

Family Recreation ...... 322 Tracks for Off-Road Vehicles and Mountain Bikes...... 323 The Timber Trail ...... 323 Development of the Timber Trail ...... 323 The Ongarue Tramway ...... 325 Recreational Values of the Timber Trail ...... 327 References...... 328

15 Conclusions ...... 331 C.M. King, D.J. Gaukrodger and N.A. Ritchie Why Pureora Forest? ...... 331 A Message for the Future ...... 332

Erratum: The Drama of Conservation ...... E1 C.M. King, D.J. Gaukrodger and N.A. Ritchie

Erratum: The Maori of the Central North Island Before 1860...... E2 C.M. King and T. Roa

Erratum: The European Impact: Exploration to Conflict, 1840–1890 ...... E3 C.M. King and N.A. Ritchie

Appendices ...... 333

A Note About Maori Language ...... 333

A Glossary of Maori Terms Mentioned in the Text ...... 334

General Glossary and Abbreviations Mentioned in the Text . . . 337

List of Scientific Names of Biota Mentioned in the Text ...... 339

Index to Persons ...... 345

Index to Places ...... 351

Index to Species...... 355 Contributors

A.E. Beveridge Auckland, New Zealand D.J. Gaukrodger Thames, New Zealand J.R. Hay Department of Conservation, Te Papa Atawhai, Christchurch, New Zealand J.G. Innes Landcare Research NZ Ltd., Hamilton, New Zealand C.M. King School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand J.R. Leathwick Hamilton, New Zealand D.J. Lowe School of Science, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand G. Nugent Landcare Research NZ Ltd., Lincoln, New Zealand N.A. Ritchie Department of Conservation, Te Papa Atawhai, Hamilton Office, Hamilton, New Zealand T. Roa School of Maori and Pacific Development, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand M.C. Smale Landcare Research NZ Ltd., Hamilton, New Zealand

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