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Soil Formation in Central Spitsbergen – Framework for Process Interaction

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Soil Formation in Central Spitsbergen – Framework for Process Interaction Soil formation in Central Spitsbergen – Framework for process interaction Lomonosovfonna Icesheet "One cannot adequately use soils for any purpose without understanding the processes and factors that control their formation." Birkeland (1974) Draft Research thesis, MSc Earth and Environment Christian de Kleijn 1 Soil formation in Central Spitsbergen – Framework for process interaction Research Thesis Master ‘Earth and Environment’ With the Soil geography and landscape chairgroup Wageningen University and Research Author: Christian M.F.J.J. de Kleijn, BSc WUR (900905-442060) Supervision: Dr. Arnaud J.A.M. Temme Examiner: Prof. dr. Jakob Wallinga Field collegue: W. Marijn van der Meij, Msc Version 8 – April 2016 Cover photos Figure 1: Research area (Petuniabukta and Ebba glacier) (AeroPhoto_1990_UTM33N_WGS84). Figure 2: Polar Station Adam Mickiewicz University (Poznań), built in 2011 on the eastern coast of Petuniabukta (Petuniabukta, Billefjorden in Spitsbergen: Czech−Polish long term ecological and geographical research). 2 Abstract Soil formation in Central Spitsbergen – Framework for process interaction Aim is to identify, characterize and quantify Arctic soil forming processes and their spatial and temporal variation. The coasts of Spitsbergen mainly consist of glaciers and raised marine beaches, developed under the isostatic rebound after the Last Glacial Maximum. A chronosequence of beaches was studied to determine the spatial and temporal variation of soil forming processes in Arctic regions. The soils at 30 random and 14 judgmental locations were described and sampled. Fieldwork was performed on gravelly marine beaches and their surroundings in the Ebba valley, central Spitsbergen, with known ages ranging from 3.000 up to 15.000 years. The dependence of soil forming processes on variables such as time, morphology and vegetation cover was assessed. These processes include aeolian deposition, development of organic rich horizons, dissolution of calcaric material and the formation of calcaric pendants and silt caps. Fluvisols, gleysols, chernozems, kastanozems, phaeozems and calcisols were found besides cryosols. The relative importance of processes per landform is illustrated together with a preliminary temporal quantification. The interaction between soil moisture, vegetation, organic matter, bacterial crusts and aeolian deposition is clarified for A-horizons. For B-horizons the interaction between water, physical and chemical weathering, calcaric nodules and precipitation is described. Silt illuviation in the soil is described in a new method that uses the depth of maximum illuviation instead of horizon thickness. The distance to the river is not important for soil development and the only clay in the area originates in colluvial material. River and colluvial soils are diverse and discussed individually, but a decision tree for soil formation could be developed for marine terrace soils. The main conditions for divergent soil development are morphology, hydrology and age. The goal of quantifying weathering rates without the use of models, proved often impossible due to the large variation and influence of variables. 3 Note to the Reader Every region, every landscape, every soil has a story to tell. It truly was a pleasure to try and discover the story of the Ebba valley. The landscape is very diverse, the nature barely surviving but relatively unspoiled. The glaciers can be unforgiving, the winds were predictable but a true force to be reckoned with, and the sea, or as we called it ‘shower’, could be as intense as it seemed calm. The magnificence of waking up, because a polar bear was knocking on your window, was surreal. The combination of many of these factors created the soils, and the soils sustain complex life. This work, my first MSc degree Thesis (36ECTS), has a broad methodology, integrational approach of many topics and summary of process interactions in the field. The feedbacks sometimes proved to be difficult to quantify or prove, but in many cases I could determine whether the egg, or the chicken, got there first. This research purposely focused on the processes that formed the valley and has a geomorphological and pedogenic view. For a modeling approach and extra information about the area, I suggest to read Marijn’s thesis (van der Meij, 2015). For geology, glaciology, meteorology and other geomorphological aspects, I suggest to find studies by the Adam Mickiewicz University. What made this thesis difficult for me, is that pretty much every sub-topic could be researched even further, but time would not allow, for I have already spent too much on this work. Unfortunately I still tried on too many occasions. For example I now know tremendous amounts about ‘the effects of cyanobacterial communities on water processes in soil crusts in semi-arid areas’, which is not necessarily a popular topic at parties… Secondary, by far my biggest struggle, is writing in a scientific way instead of the proza that I was used to. Passion told me to write everything I know, supervisors asked me ‘Please, keep it short, please’ and ‘This is NOT a book!’. Well, I did my best... Enjoy! Word of Appreciation I would like to thank Marijn and Arnaud for helping to create this opportunity. Marijn for his very valuable help on this topic, and for becoming a friend, partially via many, many games of chess (breaks). Arnaud for very good supervision, promoting my insights and helping to form ideas. I rarely enjoyed such a stimulating collaboration. Thanks to those who survived my distractions during their work in the SGL Thesis room for their advice and humor and games of twister (breaks). Of course I want to thank the Polish team (Grzegorz Rachlewicz, Krzysztof Rymer, Jakub Małecki, Michał Rychlik, Alfred Stach and Tomasz Kurczaba), for their hospitality and knowledge but also beautiful trips and experiences and humor combined with whiskey (breaks). And thanks to my dad for his insights and passion in geology that I inherited, and for Belgium beers (breaks) to stimulate writing capabilities. 4 Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 3 Note to the Reader .................................................................................................................................. 4 Word of Appreciation .............................................................................................................................. 4 List of Figures ........................................................................................................................................... 7 List of Tables ............................................................................................................................................ 8 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Soil research in the arctic .............................................................................................................. 9 1.2 Problem statement...................................................................................................................... 10 1.3 Research objective and questions ............................................................................................... 11 2. Spitsbergen .................................................................................................................................... 12 2.1 Geology ........................................................................................................................................ 13 2.2 Climate......................................................................................................................................... 14 2.3 Soils .............................................................................................................................................. 15 2.4 Soil forming processes ................................................................................................................. 16 2.5 Plant life on Spitsbergen ............................................................................................................. 18 2.6 Influence of humans .................................................................................................................... 18 3. Materials and methods .................................................................................................................. 20 3.1 Choice of locations ...................................................................................................................... 20 3.2 Sampling ...................................................................................................................................... 22 3.3 Laboratory analysis ...................................................................................................................... 22 3.4 Statistics ...................................................................................................................................... 22 3.5 Time scales of soil alteration ....................................................................................................... 23 4. Results ............................................................................................................................................ 25 4.1 Landform characteristics ............................................................................................................
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