Student Voices Across the Spectrum: the Educational Integration Initiatives Project. INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis

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AUTHOR Hartigan, Susan, Ed.; Jabaily, Lisa, Ed.; Kay, Vina, Ed.; Nelson, Lynne, Ed. TITLE Student Voices across the Spectrum: The Educational Integration Initiatives Project. INSTITUTION Minnesota Univ., Minneapolis. Inst. on Race and Poverty. SPONS AGENCY Joyce Foundation, Chicago, IL. PUB DATE 2000-05-00 NOTE 119p. PUB TYPE Reports - Research (143) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC05 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Disadvantaged Youth; *Educational Experience; *High School Students; High Schools; Individual Development; *Minority Groups; *Racial Differences; Racial Integration; *School Desegregation; School Resegregation; Urban Schools

ABSTRACT The Educational Integration Initiatives Project (EIIP) was a multidisciplinary study designed to explore the complexities of the interaction of race and education. The EIIP also evaluated how the environment in which students are educated affects their educational performance and personal development. The study begins with a history ofthe relationship between race and education in the United States including the value of public education and the contention surrounding segregation, desegregation, and integration. An analysis follows of student, teacher, and administrator interviews from the 10 urban schools participating in the EIIP. Between 6 and 12 student interviews were conducted at each school,and interviews were also held with 4 or 5 teachers and administrators from each school. No school that participated in the EIIP was truly integrated asthe researchers defined integration. None of these desegregated schools was providing its students with a truly multicultural education in a learning environment that was inclusive and supportive of various student learning styles and that prepared students of all races to continue to higher education and to interact successfully in a multicultural society. Still, students attending the more desegregated schools enjoyed educational advantages that were not available to the students in the racially isolated schools. Recommendations are made to begin a transformative process toward true integration. (Contains 193 endnotes.)(SLD)

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Student Voices Across the Spectrum: The Educational Integration Initiatives Project

May 2000

415 Law Center 229 South 19th Avenue Minneapolis, MN 55455 (612) 625-8071 [email protected] www.umn.edu/irp

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Points of view or opinions stated in this 2 document do not necessarily represent official OERI position or policy. Student Voices across the Spectrum: The Educational Integration InitiativesProject

May 2000

415 Law Center 229 -19th Avenue South Minneapolis, MN 55455 (612) 625-8071 [email protected] www.umn.edu/irp

In September 1997, the Institute on Race & Poverty received a grantfrom the Joyce Foundation to research and conduct analysis of the underlying causesof persistent racial segregation in American public schools. This interdisciplinaryqualitative project represents the culmination of the Institute's study andincludes discussion and analysis of ten high schools falling on various points of thesegregation/desegregation/integration spectrum. The Institute on Race & Poverty, a strategic research center based atthe University of Minnesota Law School, was created to focus on the dynamics createdby the intersections of race and poverty. The mission of the organization is to address theproblems of low-income people of color, recognizing that race and poverty areintertwined. It was established in 1993 by john a. powell, former national legal director for theAmerican Civil Liberties Union and the Marvin J. Sonosky Professor of Law and PublicPolicy, at the University of Minnesota Law School in Minneapolis. Research for this report was provided by IRP staff, including ExecutiveDirector john a. powell, as well as researchers Meg Hatlen, Vina Kay, Gavin Kearneyand Colleen Walbran.* This report was edited by staff members Susan Hartigan, LisaJabaily, Vina Kay, and Lynn Nelson, with layout and design by Derek Brigham.

*Interviews were conducted by Dr. Sandra Patton. TABLE OF CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTION A. A Brief History of Race and Education in the United States 4 B. The Importance of Public Education 11 C. The Segregation, Desegregation, and Integration Debate 11 1. The Benefits of Desegregation 14 2. Components of Integration 14 a. The Problem of Tracking 14 b. College Attendance 15 c. Class Size 16 d. Teaching Strategies 16 e. Teacher Training 16 D. The Segregation, Desegregation, and Integration Spectrum 18 1. Segregation 18 2. Desegregation 18 3. Integration 19 E. Methodology 19

II. SCHOOLS A. Washington D.C. Schools Context 21 1. Rigoberta Menchu High School 25 2. Dorothy Day High School 29 B. Chicago Schools Context 32 1. Fannie Lou Hamer High School 38 2. Paulo Freire High School 45 C. St. Paul Schools Context 50 1. Oscar Romero High School 55 2. Winona La Duke High School 62 D. Louisville Schools Context 67 1. Leonora O'Reilly High School 71 E. Shaker Heights School Context 78 1. Hiram R. Revels High School 81 F. San Jose Schools Context 89 1. Desmond Tutu High School 90 G. Berkeley School Context 93 1. M.K. Ghandhi High School 98

HI. CONCLUSIONS A. Findings 103 B. Recommendations 106 1. Link Education and Housing, Implement Region-wide Solutions 107 2. Address the Connection Between Race and Poverty 107 3. Improve Teacher Diversity and Training 108 4. Implement Structural, Curricular, and Programmatic Changes 109 C. Continuing Issues 109 Student Voices Across the Spectrum:The Educational Integration InitiativesProject

Because for me, I grew up in education reflect an increasing ambiva- this neighborhood since I lence toward racial integration as a societal was young and, you know, ideal and a decreasing emphasis on itas a '7 strategy for achieving equality Even people call it the ghetto, or organizations that led the integrationist whatever, but that does not movement in the past have expressed mean that I'm a gangbanger varying degrees of disenchantment. For that Igo around doing example, the desirability of integration was drive-bys and I do drugs and all that openly questioned at a recent national other stuff. Because first of all, before meeting of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People I'll even think about doing any- (NAACP). At the same time, numerous thing....I want to be school smart. If I school districts across the country have want to be street smart...I'm gonna be sought an end to court-ordered desegrega- school smart also. tion plans regardless of the racial composition of their schools, and the courts have This quotation is from one of the high largely obliged them. school students interviewed as part of the Educational Integration Initiatives Project Recently, over the objections of parents (EIIP), a multidisciplinary study conducted and administrators, the Charlotte by the Institute on Race and Poverty and Mecklenburg School District was ordered funded by the Joyce Foundation. The to end race-based student busing.' This above quotation represents the impressive order came thirty years after the district level of sophistication students possess was the first to employ integrative busing, regarding the interaction of race and edu- and despite general consensus that the dis- cation in their lives. Student voices also trict had a desegregation plan that was illustrate the complexities surrounding working. Meanwhile, school choice and issues of race, education, and student expe- neighborhood schools, two policies that riences and achievement. The EIIP is often result in higher levels of racial segre- designed to explore these complexities and gation, have received strong backing in to evaluate how the environment in which communities across the country. Most of students, particularly students of color, are the debate regarding busing and neighbor- educatedwhether it is segregated, deseg- hood schools ignores the fact that our regated, or integratedaffects students' neighborhoods are racially and economi- educational performance and personal cally segregated. In the context of segre- development. gated school districts, busing may still be an important tool to provide students of This study is particularly timely because color equal educational and life opportuni- of the contention and confusion surround- ties. When the cost of busing is deemed ing issues of integration today. Public too high, we fail to consider the cost of seg- opinion and policies, and judicial doctrine regation. The release of schools from and decision making regarding race and court-ordered desegregation and the resur- gence of neighborhood schools has result- research is interviews with students of ed in increased racial segregation and iso- varying backgrounds from ten schools in lation. six major metropolitan areas: Chicago, Illinois; Cleveland, Ohio; Louisville, Movement away from desegregation pro- Kentucky; Minneapolis/St. Paul, grams is occurring despite the fact that Minnesota; the San Francisco Bay area, desegregation in public schools has never California and Washington D.C. been achieved on a broad scale and, as will be discussed later, the fact that we have Each of the schools is placed within a never understood nor implemented inte- spectrum that moves from segregation to gration at a national level. Although levels desegregation (schools with a numerical of school segregation did decline during balance of racial groups) to integration the 1970s and 1980s, we have never come (schools that are numerically balanced and close to achieving full educational integra- that have implemented reforms designed tion. Worse still, there has recently been a to ensure true integration in classrooms move toward resegregating schools. Such and throughout the school as a whole). resistance to integration persists despite a Interviews with school personnel and compelling body of research that has found quantitative data on each school were significant educational benefits from racial- examined to measure against the criteria ly integrated school environments. for placement along the spectrum. Situating the schools along the spectrum The EU seeks to inform the discussion provides context to student experiences regarding integration by focusing on those and enables the EIIP to explore critical who are most impacted by it, namely stu- questions related to integration. At its dents. The report captures the experiences core, this project sheds light on whether of students and, to a lesser extent, teachers segregated, desegregated, and integrated and administrators, by relating their expe- environments affect the ability of public riences through their own words. The con- schools to fulfill their vital roles in our soci- text surrounding such experiences is pre- ety: ensuring equality of opportunity sented through an examination of legal his- through preparation for participation in tory, policy background, public discourse the marketplace and society as a whole, in the form of media coverage, school cur- and enhancing personal freedom through ricula, student placement, academic self-realization. achievement, and student demographics. Consistent with the mission of public edu- The study begins with a history of the cation, this project considers the role of relationship between race and education in education expansively and considers not the United States including the value of only student academic achievement and public education and the contention sur- educational attainment, but also personal rounding segregation, desegregation, and development and sense of self in relation integration. This part also defines the to the larger community. The goal of the spectrum of segregation, desegregation, project is to explore whether the racial and integration as applied in the EIIP. An makeup, policies, and practices of the analysis then follows of student, teacher, schools they attend affect the educational and administrator interviews from the ten experiences of students, and particularly schools. We conclude with the study's students of color. This is accomplished findings and recommendations to encour- through a combination of qualitative and age integration in our nation's public quantitative elements. The heart of the schools. The issue of educational integration is provides an invaluable context for explor- more important now than it ever has been ing contemporary issues of race and educa- due to several factors: the failure ofour tion. This national legal and political back- schools to equitably educate children of ground also aids the examination of the color, the changing composition of our individual desegregation histories of the population, and the movement toward various school districts included in this resegregation. For the first time in over a report' decade we are experiencing an increase in overall levels of school segregation at the For the majority of American history, blacks (and other non-whites) have had national level. Undergirding this shift isa skepticism regarding racial integration as a limited rights under United States law. In means to achieve equal educational oppor- the important pre-Civil War case of Dred tunity and the removal of desegregation Scott v. Stanford,' the Court ruled that from our list of societal priorities. blacks were not citizens under the U.S. Constitution, and thus had no rights or Now is a critical time to evaluate educa- privileges under that document. Even tional integration in a way that gives pri- after the Civil War and the abolishment of macy to the impact that the racial and eth- slavery, blacks were still not afforded full nic environment of a school has on educa- citizenship. In the 1896 case of Plessy v. tion quality. The EDP undertakes this eval- Ferguson,' the Court upheld Jim Crow laws uation by examining both quantitative and requiring the segregation of blacks to be qualitative indicators of educational suc- constitutional so long as they met the infa- cess within the context of each school mous "separate but equal" standard. Even whether it is segregated, desegregated,or black scholar Booker T. Washington argued integrated.' that blacks might be better off if they helped themselves in their own separate A. A Brief History of communities. Race and Education in The Supreme Court's landmark 1954 the United States decision in Brown v. Board of Education' sig- naled the beginning of the end of explicit Education plays a key role in providing segregative policymaking. Brown was the equality of opportunity to individuals. As culmination of a long and deliberate strate- a result, it is not surprising that doing gy by challengers of the "separate but away with separate and unequal education equal" standard. Prior to Brown, civil was a central aim of the Civil Rights move- rights advocates engaged in a series of ment in the early to mid-twentieth century. cases challenging the "equal" portion of the The law's central role in maintaining this "separate but equal" standard by arguing separation, coupled with the legal basis for that separate facilities were rarely equal. claims of equality found in the The white reaction to this strategy demon- Constitution, contributed significantly to strated just how much whites were willing the legal framing of school desegregation to pay for segregation. Between 1939 and and integration. Consequently, an under- 1954, when courts began to actively enforce standing of the legal standards by which the equality mandate, funding for black courts have created and overseen desegre- schools in the South increased by 800 gation, as well as the politics that influ- percent.' enced the development of these standards,

7 In order to attack the "separate" portion in the South attended desegregated of the Plessy doctrine, the plaintiffs in schools. Brown conceded that the segregated edu- Although Brown was a major ideological cational facilities involved were equal. In break from the Jim Crow system, in practi- finding for the plaintiffs, the Court over- cal terms very little change occurred until ruled Plessy and found that segregation after Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act created a psychological stigma that of 1964. Title VI of the Act deals with deprived minority children of equal educa- school segregation and authorizes the U.S. tional opportunities. Chief Justice Warren, Department of Justice (DOJ) to bring suit writing for the Court, found that "to sepa- against school boards to "further the order- rate [children] from others of similar age ly achievement of desegregation." The Act and qualifications solely because of their also brought the U.S. Department of race generates a feeling of inferiority as to Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) into their status in the community that may the fray. In 1965 and 1966, pursuant to the affect their hearts and minds in a way Act, HEW issued tough guidelines for unlikely ever to be undone."8 The Court desegregation that were subsequently used ruled: as a model by federal courts overseeing In the field of public education the desegregation plans. The Act also provid- doctrine of "separate but equal" has ed a new enforcement mechanism to com- plement the court injunctions already in no place. Separate educational facili- use: the cutting off of federal school fund- ties are inherently unequal. Therefore,' ing to districts not in compliance with the we hold that the plaintiffs and others HEW guidelines. The Act was hardly a similarly situated for whom the cure-all, but significant progress was made actions have been brought are, by rea- in its wake. In 1964 only 2.3 percent of southern black children attended desegre- son of the segregation complained of, gated schools, but by 1966 the figure was deprived of the equal protection of the 12 percent.'" laws guaranteed by the Fourteenth In the mid-1960s, the Supreme Court Amendment. began to hear desegregation cases again, The resolve to end segregated schools and the opinions of this period reflected an remained weak, however, even in the judi- increasing impatience and even embarrass- ciary. Despite its sweeping language in ment with how little progress was made Brown I, the following year in Brown v. under the "with all deliberate speed" doc- Board of Education (No. II)? the Court failed trine. In 1964, the Court stated that "the to provide an immediate remedy for segre- time for mere deliberate speed has run gation. Instead, the Court permitted dis- out." In the 1968 case of Green v. County trict courts to individually resolve prob- School Board of New Kent County,'' the Court lems of segregation with the vague man- banned a favorite dilatory tool of Southern date that this be done "with all deliberate school districts: "freedom-of-choice" pro- speed." For the next eight years, the grams that ostensibly allowed students to Supreme Court refused to hear any new choose the schools they would attend but school desegregation cases, even though which resulted in little desegregation. many states resisted desegregation. By Instead, the Court imposed on school dis- 1963, nine years after the first Brown deci- tricts that had operated "dual" (i.e. inten- sion, just over 1 percent of black students tionally segregated) systems an "affirmative duty to take whatever steps necessary a result, within a few years Southern to convert to a unitary system in which schools became less segregated than those racial discrimination would be eliminated in the North." root and branch."° While no single approach was mandated, each school dis- In 1971, the Court decided Swann v. trict bore the burden of "coming forward Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education with a plan that promises realistically to and gave lower federal courts broad work, and promises realistically to work authority to fashion desegregation reme- now."'4 dies, including the use of racial quotas as guidelines, pairing and grouping of non- The Court turned ardent attention to contiguous school zones, and busing of addressing segregation in the mid-1960s. students.'5 Within a few months, conserva- However, in 1969 the White House raised tives in Congress attempted twiceboth strong opposition to significant desegrega- times unsuccessfullyto pass anti-busing tion. In January of 1969, the Nixon admin- legislation. President Nixon, a fervent istration was sworn into office. Contrary opponent of busing, proposed his own to Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, anti-busing bills and even considered pro- Richard Nixon was an opponent of school posing a constitutional amendment ban- desegregation. By the summer of 1969, the ning busing for desegregation but eventu- administration announced that it would no ally abandoned that idea as impracticable.' longer avail itself of the power to enforce desegregation under the Civil Rights Act of Nixon's legislative and administrative 1964, thereby leaving enforcement to the attempts to combat school desegregation courts.° were of limited success. The opportunity to significantly alter the make-up of the In 1969, faced for the first time with the Supreme Court, however, proved more obstructionist tactics of the newly elected effective. Nixon appointed four justices to Nixon administration, the Court reacted the nine-member Supreme Court. His first forcefully. At the request of Nixon's HEW two appointees, Warren Burger in 1969 and Secretary, the Fifth Circuit Court of Harry Blackmun in 1970, appeared willing Appeals had granted thirty Mississippi to go along with the Court's pro-desegre- school districts a four-month delay in sub- gation opinions. However, the resignation mitting school desegregation plans, thus in 1971 of Justices Black and Harlan, and delaying desegregation for another school their replacement with conservative year. The Supreme Court issued a terse Justices Powell and Rehnquist, marked a opinion ordering the Mississippi districts significant turn in the Court's handling of to terminate their dual school systems "at desegregation cases. For seventeen years, once."16 from Brown I through Swann, every major Following the Court's decision in the Supreme Court decision on school segrega- Mississippi case, the Nixon administration tion had been unanimous, and favorable to conceded that desegregation in the South desegregation. With Nixon's changes to could no longer be put off and set about, the composition of the Court, unanimity became a thing of the past and progress however reluctantly, to see that it was achieved peacefully. Meanwhile, lower toward desegregation ground to a halt. courts responded to the Supreme Court's decision by issuing desegregation orders for numerous Southern school districts. As 9 One of the first desegregation cases for tion measures could not be ordered unless the newly composed Court was also the it was shown that all districts involved, in first case in which the Court addressed de addition to the state, had engaged in inten- facto segregation in a northern city. tionally segregative practices. While this Whereas segregation in southern schools decision did not completely rule out met- was often required by law (i.e. de jure), seg- ropolitan-wide desegregation efforts, it set regated northern urban school districts a high standard of proof that has rarely were often a product of policies and prac- been met.22 tices that did not explicitly mandate segre- The legacy of Milliken has been that even gation, but which were driven by segrega- where intentional segregation is proven, tive motives or foreseeably resulted in seg- remedies are severely limited in scope. regation. In Keyes v. School District No. I, Thus, the segregation of a school in a given (Denver, Colorado),2° in 1973, the Court was district is evaluated in relation to the racial faced for the first time with the question of composition of the district only and not the whether the constitution required proof of surrounding metropolitan areas. Similar intent to segregate in order for a violation desegregation orders require that schools to be found. Although the dissent stated be racially balanced in accordance with the that such a distinction did not make sense demographics of the district. With districts in light of our nation's history, the majority that are predominantly minority, as is the adopted the position that in order to pre- case with most central city districts, schools vail, the plaintiffs must prove that the state can be legally desegregated even if they intentionally acted to segregate. By inter- have few or no white students. There is lit- preting "de jure" segregation to include tle to no recourse in the federal court sys- intentionally segregative policies, the tem when whites cross district boundaries Court, in Keyes, extended the duty to to separate themselves from students of desegregate to many northern cities. In so color, nor when segregation in the residen- doing, however, the Court placed the focus tial market creates school segregation. of desegregation cases on what the plain- When the plaintiffs won Milliken, blacks tiffs could prove and rendered the harms made up 63 percent of the district's stu- of segregation to the periphery rather than dents. Today, under the intra-district utilizing the opportunity to take a broad desegregation plan they make up 90 per- strike at segregation as advocated by the cent. The schools are more segregated dissent. today than prior to Milliken. The following year the Court narrowed Another dramatic example of the conser- the scope of desegregation law even fur- vative shift taken by the sharply divided ther. When plaintiffs in Detroit were able Court is the 1973 decision in San Antonio to prove that the state had intentionally School District v. Rodriguez,23 in which the segregated black school students, the dis- Court found no constitutional violation in trict court ordered a remedy that encom- a Texas school financing system that result- passed the central city and 53 suburban ed in large funding disparities between districts. The Supreme Court overturned high and low income areas. In a five-to- this however, in the 1974, five-to-four four decision, with the four Nixon Milliken v. Bradley decision.'' Even though appointees in the majority, the Court held an earlier Court decision stated that school that there is no constitutional right to edu- districts were creatures of the state, the cation. In upholding the funding dispari- Court ruled that cross-district desegrega- ties the Court reasoned that virtually any rationale for unequal funding is permissi- ceived as intra-district segregation. This ble. As a result, there is no federal basis for decision was made in spite of the fact that students to daim the right to equal educa- no suburban students were required to tional funding or quality. attend Kansas City schools. By the 1990s, the Court's earlier vow to A recent report by Gary Orfield and John eliminate discriminatory segregation "root T. Yun of the Harvard Civil Rights Project " and branch" was no longer echoed in its showed that trends in desegregation decisions. In the 1991 Oklahoma City School jurisprudence and policymaking have had Board v. Dowell case, the Court reflected the a significant impact on the racial demo- lower courts' intolerance of protracted liti- graphics of America's schools. Levels of gation and supervision when it ruled that school desegregation increased during the once unitary status is attained, i.e. once the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s for African- remnants of intentional segregation are American students. School desegregation removed, a district may be released from had taken root and most sizable central court-ordered desegregation plans such as cities found themselves subject to court- busing." Thus, even where a removal of ordered desegregation. For example, in the desegregation remedies will result in South only 1 percent of black students immediate resegregation, as was the case attended a majority white school in 1960, in Dowell where desegregation was only but this number increased steadily every maintained by court-ordered busing, the year until 1988 at which time 43.5 percent Court permits the lifting of the order. of black students attended majority white Furthermore, under the doctrine devel- schools. Similarly, on a national level only oped in Keyes, the Court offers no redress 23.4 percent of black students attended for the de facto segregation that ensues. majority white schools during the 1968-69 school year but by 1980-81, 37.1 percent In 1992, the Court made it still easier for did so. While these gains are significant, school districts to resegregate. Rather than they fall far short of full educational inte- requiring school districts to remain under gration. complete court supervision until all aspects of their systems were desegregated, the Since the late 1980s, however, as school Court held that as soon as each aspect of a districts have increasingly been relieved of school system (e.g. student assignments, the duty to desegregate and further court- resource allocation) became "unitary," the ordered desegregation has become unreal- district would be released from court istic, overall levels of school desegregation supervision in that area." have decreased for African Americans. In the period from 1988 to 1994, the number In its most recent decision on this issue, of black students in the South who attend- Missouri v. Jenkins," 1995, the Court ruled ed majority white schools declined from that a district court had exceeded its remedial authority by ordering Missouri to fund 43.5 percent to 36.6 percent. Nationally, the number of black students who attended programs designed to attract white stu- majority white schools also dedined from dents from other districts to schools in the 37.1 percent during the 1980-81 school year largely black, Kansas City School District. to 31.2 percent during the 1996-97 school Relying on Milliken v. Bradley, the Court year." found the programs to be inter-district desegregation measures that were imper- missible means to remedy what it per- 11 While most desegregation efforts have role of public education is to engender in focused on African-American students, students the ability to express themselves Orfield and Yun found that levels of educa- in a democratic arena and instill in them tional segregation for Latino students have societal values that will ensure the preser- been increasing steadily over time, as well. vation of democracy. During the 1968-69 school year, nearly half In fulfilling these obligations, education (45.2 percent) of Latino students attended is charged with developing in students a majority white schools. By the 1996-97 positive self-concept and the ability to school year, however, a mere quarter (25.2 think effectively and objectively."Ideally, percent) of Latino students attended major- education fosters an individual's ability to ity white schools. generate new ideas, pose intelligent questions, create solutions, and develop respect for others and for cultural diversity." As B. The Importance of Dr. King wrote, Public Education "Some of the greatest criminals in society have been men who possessed The public education system performs the power of concentration and reason, several vital functions within our society but they had no morals. Intelligence Education furthers the key democratic plus characterthat is the goal of true ideals of social mobility and equality of education. The complete education opportunity by providing preparation for college and employment. In this sense, gives one not only power of concentra- public education is a key component of a tion, but worthy objectives upon which meritocratic society in which all citizens to concentrate." have the opportunity to succeed based upon their effort and ability, and regardless of their initial station in life. Therefore, assessing the quality of education a school C. The Segregation, provides is, in part, a comparative analysis. Desegregation, and Schools function not only to provide students with a base level of skills and knowl- Integration Debate edge, but also to provide students with an education that is comparable to the educa- Although the goals of public education, tion of those with whom they will compete as articulated above, are relatively non- for future opportunities." controversial, the role that segregation, desegregation, and integration play in The purpose of education, particularly achieving them is heavily contested. For public education, is not merely to prepare many years, the general position of the students for work, however. Public educa- civil rights community was that education- tion is the primary means by which chil- al segregation deprived students of color a dren learn the values of our society and quality education. Much of the research on gain knowledge that will enable them to be the issue supported this position. As artic- positive contributors to society.'" As Amy ulated in Brown, it was believed that segre- Gutmann observed, "Education not only gation not only subjected students of color sets the stage for democratic politics, it to inferior educational resources, but it also plays a central role in it."3'Thus, a third 19 fueled the stereotype that blacks were infe- and social prohibitions. Integration is rior members of society. Thus, desegrega- creative, and is therefore more pro- tion was perceived by some as a necessary found and far-reaching than desegrega- predicate to providing students of color access to equal educational resources and tion. Integration is the positive creating an educational environment that acceptance of desegregation and the would foster citizenship and prepare them welcomed participation of Negroes to fully participate in political and econom- into the total range of human activi- ic arenas. ties. Integration is genuine intergroup, Moreover, many believed that desegrega- interpersonal doing. Desegregation tion alone would not suffice to allow stu- then, rightly, is only a short-range dents of color to achieve their full potential goal. Integration is the ultimate goal and to prepare all students, including whites, to participate fully in our increas- of our national community. Thus, as ingly multi-racial and multi-ethnic society. America pursues the important task of They felt that to fulfill the full mandate of respecting the 'letter of the law,' i.e., public education, educational institutions compliance with desegregation deci- would need to move beyond desegregation sions, she must be equally concerned to integration. That is, institutions would with the 'spirit of the law,' i.e., com- have to transform themselves into systems that valued and incorporated the variety of mitment to the democratic dream of perspectives and identities that exist in a integration." " desegregated environment. In 1962, Dr. King articulated this distinction between Desegregation and integration have desegregation and integration: always had detractors, even within communities of color. Recently a growing "Although the terms desegregation number of people have begun to suggest and integration are often used inter- that the mission of public education can be changeably, there is a great deal of dif- better achieved in racially homogenous settings, as evidenced by the Charlotte- ference between the two. In the context Mecklenburg case, among others. Whereas of what our national community needs, segregation was once thought to deprive desegregation alone is empty and shal- students of color of a quality education low. We must always be aware of the due to material deprivation and stigmati- fact that our ultimate goal is integra- zation, today many argue just the opposite. Such opponents of integration are sincerely tion, and that desegregation is only a interested in the educational fortunes of first step on the road to the good socie- minority children and assert that segregated schools only need an infusion of adequate resources. The word segregation represents a system that is prohibitive; it denies the It is desegregation, they assert, that stig- Negro equal access to schools, parks, matizes students of color by telling them that the only good schools are white restaurants, libraries and the like. schools and that they cannot learn without Desegregation is eliminative and nega- white students in their classes. They argue tive, for it simply removes these legal that vibrant schools populated primarily 13 by blacks, Latinos, and other minority Social norms favoring cross-ethnic groups empower students by instilling in contact them a strong sense of identity and self- Equal-status contact among esteem. This serves, they believe, the edu- all students. cational mission of preparing students to participate in economic and political The relevance of Allport's work has been realms by convincing students that they applauded." Other studies also report the can succeed in these areas. Moreover, benefits of increased interracial contact, these opponents of desegregation argue provided students are brought together that allowing students to attend schools in under conditions of equal status with an their home neighborhoods will allow par- emphasis on common goals, rather than on ents to be more actively involved in their individual and intergroup competition." children's education, thus enhancing stu- Curriculum also has an enormous dent achievement. impact. Schools that teach Euro-centric Despite these well-intentioned argu- rather than culturally inclusive curricula ments, the EIIP is driven by strong evi- present only a small portion of the knowl- dence revealing that the most common edge pie. Additionally, these schools fail to outcome of segregation for students of make learning materials relevant to all stu- color is racial isolation and concentrated dents, discourage shared learning, rein- poverty." These two conditions create force minority student isolation, and do lit- overwhelming obstacles to quality academ- tle to develop positive relationships." ic and social education, and to access to life Schools can foster greater integration, not opportunities. Therefore, it is imperative only by creating culturally diverse curricu- to debunk the myths that fuel resegrega- la, but also by promoting extracurricular tive movements and to refocus efforts on activities that encourage equitable interra- the original, and thus far unmet, goal of cial contact.4' creating a truly integrated educational sys- Through an examination of research, con- tem in the United States. textual studies of the chosen school dis- Significant research supports the need to tricts, and insights gained from the inter- move beyond desegregation to truly inte- views, the EIIP has found that in order for grate schools. Researchers have found that schools to become truly integrated, they integrated schools offer profound personal must move through a transformative and academic advantages to all students. process that implements a variety of struc- They are careful to point out that white tural and curricular changes. Although it students, as well as students of color, bene- is important to continually move in the fit from integrated environments. Allport's direction of desegregation, achieving inte- contact theory' suggests that integration gration requires engaging in a transforma- in schools cannot be accomplished unless tive process of the school system. EDP the following key components are research, including the student and staff included: interviews, has revealed a number of reform concerns that schools must con- Personal interaction among sciously address as they continue to deseg- all students regate and integrate. Student involvement in cooperative action to achieve mutual goals 1. The Benefits of instance, the gap in student achievement and educational attainment between Desegregation minority and white students lessened demonstrably.' When compared to In this climate of resegregation, educators minority graduates of segregated schools, and policymakers must reexamine the students who attended desegregated value of desegregation and focus their schools were more likely to receive higher efforts on implementing desegregation scholastic achievement scores, less likely to strategies that address current educational drop out, and more likely to attend pre- conditions and student needs. The basic dominantly white universities, complete findings articulated in Brown remain true, more years of education, and earn higher and the experiences of desegregation over degrees and higher incomes. Desegregated the years continue to reinforce this truth. schools also foster positive interactions in a A large body of research supports the tra- variety of contexts later in life, such as liv- ditional position that racial segregation ing in desegregated housing and having adversely affects educational opportunities integrated social and professional net- of children of color. Numerous studies works." have shown that there are stark differences among segregated schools in terms of available resources, teacher training, and 2. Components of teacher turnover." Integration Furthermore, research has found that poor student achievement at segregated schools is a function of more than a. The Problem resources and staff." A federally sponsored of Tracking study of education found that student achievement was greatly influenced by the background of fellow students, especially At the same time, other studies have sup- the degree to which poor children are sur- ported Dr. King's assertion that desegrega- rounded by other poor children; teacher tion is not enough. Where desegregation and facility quality; and curricula.' Several exists, schools often attempt to assimilate researchers have reported that segregation students of color into existing, Euro-centric and prejudicial attitudes are perpetuated structures. Many schools resegregate stu- throughout life if students do not have dents within the school through curricular early, sustained desegregation experi- choices, assessment and placement, alloca- ences." Research demonstrates that minor- tion of resources, provision of student serv- ity students in segregated schools underes- ices, discipline policies, and extra curricu- timate their ability to compete and succeed lar activities. Desegregated schools com- in school and the market place, which monly utilize some form of ability-group results in severely limited career opportu- "tracking" in which students of color are nities." disproportionately placed in low-level tracks." More specifically, tracking refers At the peak of the desegregation move- to differentiated curricula and opportuni- ment from the 1970s to the mid-1980s, ties and serves to resegregate students researchers documented several positive within the school walls even if students are changes within desegregated schools. For attending schools that meet federal deseg- 15 regation standards. The most typical uation. This report found that family tracks are college preparatory, vocational, income and parental education levels were and general. This system of tracking stu- the most direct indicators of whether students according to their perceived ability dents would attend college. Within two or past achievement has evolved into poli- years of their high school graduation, 64 cy that systematically segregates students percent of low-income high school gradu- within a school and is highly correlated ates, 79 percent of middle income students, with race and dass.93 and 93 percent of high-income students attended either two or four-year colleges or Educational researcher Jeannie Oakes universities. Low-income students who found that, "education policy makers applied for college and whose academic acknowledge that students who are rele- records and admission test scores qualified gated to the lower and midlevel tracks are them for college attended college at the not held to high enough standards to pre- same rate as similarly qualified middle- pare them for college or the transition to income students. However, low-income work."' There is a considerable amount of students were less likely to be academical- evidence that non-white students excel in a ly qualified and to take the necessary steps positive environment with high expecta- for college admission. High-income stu- tions. However, that type of environment dents and those with college-educated par- is not the norm in low-track classes where ents were more likely to have expectations low expectations coupled with ability of going to college when they began high group placement combine to perpetuate school. Students who as eighth-graders low achievement. This phenomenon had expected to attend college did in fact almost assures that students initially attend college at higher-than-average rates. placed in low groups remain there. In effect, through ability grouping and track- White and Asian American students were ing, schools have created an education sys- more likely to attend college than black tem based on the premise of separate and and Hispanic students, but when the statis- unequal. Research indicates that such cate- tics were adjusted for family income and gorization produces long-term negative parental education level, the proportion of effects that contribute to decreased satisfac- students in post-secondary education was tion in school, lower self-esteem, higher equalized among the races. More than half dropout rates, and lower educational aspi- of the black and Hispanic students came rations." from families with incomes below $25,000, compared to one-third of the Asian b. College Attendance American students and one-fifth of the white students. White and Asian students were also substantially more likely to have One of the goals of education, to prepare college-educated parents than black and students adequately and equitably to go on Hispanic students. These findings rein- to higher education, is stopped in its tracks force the significance of poverty as it inter- when schools are not truly integrated. A sects with race in determining college report done by the National Center for attendance. Exposure to the possibility of Education Statistics, using data from the college is limited when students attend National Education Longitudinal Study of school and live in neighborhoods with 1988, examined access to post-secondary extremely high levels of poverty. education of 1992 high school graduates within two years of their high school grad- c. Class Size dents to develop social skills while concurrently reaping academic rewards. Students Although somewhat controversial, class are able to meet their individual needs size has been found by many researchers to (both social and academic) and experience have a marked impact on the educational improved self-concept resulting from con- experiences of students and teachers. tributing to the success of the group. Indicators suggest that not only do students Students of diverse racial and ethnic back- tend to exhibit better academic perform- grounds show an improvement in interper- ance but students also benefit from an sonal and group relationships. Creating improved outlook on school as a whole. conditions of equal status among group Minority students experience greater aca- members reduces racial prejudice. Students demic achievement in smaller classrooms, experience a higher level of learning as do students from economically or social- through exchanging information and they ly disadvantaged families. Students as demonstrate increased abilities in critical young as grades K-3 see notable increases thinking, reasoning, creativity, oral expres- in academic achievement-- with the great- sion, conflict resolution, attentiveness, est gains in reading and mathematics. The retention, and comprehension. advantages gained during grades K-3 have Additionally, students are better able to been found to wane, unless small class size transfer knowledge from one application to is maintained throughout elementary and another. Student attitudes and motivation secondary schooling. Students benefit from improve when undertaking challenges and an increase in the amount of time during their expectations of achievement increase.' which they receive individual attention from teachers and demonstrate improvements in attitude and attention. e. Teacher Training Additionally, teachers attribute a variety of improvements to reduced class size, includ- As the racial and cultural diversity of the ing fewer discipline problems. Teachers country's public school student population report a reduction in stress and an increase increases, the need for multicultural train- in morale among faculty.9 Class size is a ing of teachers has become more and more function of the resources of a school and apparent. Another factor contributing to the school district. Achieving smaller lass- the call for teacher training in multicultural es with greater teacher interaction is often education is the reduction in the number of impossible in schools in poor neighbor- minorityspecifically African-American hoods with high levels of poverty. teachers in recent years. America's increasingly diverse student population is being taught by an ever more homogenous facul- d. Cooperative Teaching ty. Over the last three decades, researchers in this area have advocated comprehensive Strategy diversity training for teachers, both pre- service and in-service. Most teacher-train- Research on cooperative groups within ing proposals emphasize the need to the field of education has revealed a myriad change the total school environment. These of benefits to academic achievement, stu- programs begin with the development of a dent interaction, and student and teacher teacher's sense of her or his own cultural satisfaction. Cooperative groups allow stu- identity. They then progress through the study of the histories of various racial and the impact of segregation on today's chil- ethnic groups, education about the dynam- dren and tomorrow's society, and deter- ics of privilege and prejudice, learning mine the best means to mobilize our styles of various groups and individuals, schools to become truly integrated educa- and training in adapting classroom instructional systems. tion to accommodate student cultural The EIIP, while unique in its approach, is resources. not alone in its goal of refocusing and Many colleges and universities have regrouping efforts toward integration. The implemented programs to prepare prestigious National Task Force on prospective teachers to educate diverse Minority High Achievement, created by student populations, but few programs the College Board, is investigating academ- infuse multiculturalism and attention to ic achievement gaps among various racial diversity throughout their training. In and ethnic student populations.' It is pub- other words, a truly integrated education is lishing a series of reports addressing such as rare for teachers as it is for their stu- issues as underlying causes of achievement dents. Even now, some teacher education disparities, methods to help more minority programs neither require nor offer courses students reach high levels of achievement, in multicultural education and, of course, and ideas for families and communities to older teachers are less likely to have been aid in the cause. exposed to such courses." Colleges and In another effort, Dr. Allan Alson of universities must help teachers integrate Evanston Township High School, in their multicultural training and experience Evanston, Illinois, has formed "The into their classrooms so that all students Minority Student Achievement Network." benefit from a higher level of cultural The Network is composed of 14 school dis- awareness and appreciation. tricts throughout the country and will be There is compelling evidence of the long- addressing the issues of minority achieve- lasting detrimental impacts of segregated ment on a large scale. The Network had its school environments, the advantages of first conference in June of 1999 and has desegregated schools, and the encompass- recently received funding to begin its ing benefits of a truly integrated school research. Dr. Alson has said initial plans system. The debates surrounding the were to create a compendium of minority issues are complex and impassioned. The achievement programs being conducted desegregation movement was thwarted by throughout the country and to develop a oppositional legislation, misconceptions, database.57 The common thread of the EDP and entrenched racist practices. As a and these other initiatives is an awareness result, its original mission to desegregate of the continued and growing need to schools and integrate systems was never transform our educational system in order accomplished. Valid concerns about track- to meet our educational responsibility to ing and low self-esteem for students of all students. Legislation, policies, and color in desegregated schools have dis- practices continue to deprive students of couraged school systems from pursuing color of equitable education and life oppor- the greater goal of integration. However, tunities and to limit the depth and breadth the increasing diversity and changing com- of education for white students. position of our society calls for a resur- gence of the desegregation movement. We must strive for a deeper understanding of D. The Segregation, same as segregation in a less diverse setting, such as the midwestern metropolitan Desegregation, and areas. In some of the cities included in our Integration Spectrum project, schools with minority populations around 50 percent are racially balanced relative to the population of the metropolitan Although this study will not end the area and afford students the potential for debate over segregation and desegregation, interaction with a significant number of the EIIP will contribute to the discourse by students from different racial and econom- providing a detailed portrait of the dynamic backgrounds. Nevertheless, this oppor- ics of race and education and the way in tunity diminishes significantly as the which race, student experiences, and stu- minority population increases above 50 dent achievement interact. As mentioned percent, and few schools that are 70, 80 earlier, the EIIP evaluates how the qualita- and 90 percent minority have substantial tive experiences of students of color vary middle-class populations and racial and in different racial environments, and exam- ethnic diversity ines quantitative indicators of academic achievement for these students. The goal of the project is to explore whether the racial makeup, policies, and practices of 2. Desegregation the schools they attend affect the educational experiences of students of color. For the purposes of the EIIP, "desegregated" schools are those with racially and Each of the schools in the EDP is placed socioeconomically balanced populations, along a continuum that runs from segre- meaning that a school's population reflects gated, to desegregated, to integrated. the racial make-up of the larger population Although these concepts do not lend them- of school-aged students. This definition selves to precise quantitative definition, varies from the legal definition of desegre- they can be defined in general and in rela- gation, which refers to schools that have tion to one another. Below, we define the successfully completed desegregation terms as they relate to and are used by this plans. The legacy of Milliken v. Bradley study. means that these plans are intra-district in scope, limiting the ability of schools to reflect the true population of a metropoli- 1. Segregation tan area. As the discussion of the legal history of desegregation above illustrates, the "Segregated" schools are those with a legal definition of desegregation addresses high percentage of students of color and a only de jure segregation, and thus many high percentage of students from low- schools that are legally "desegregated" income families. Although some quantita- have extremely high percentages of minor- tive studies have defined any school that is ity students. Although the FITP takes a less than half white as segregated, the EIIP broader view of desegregation, the limita- does not employ such a rigid categoriza- tions of Milliken are considered. As the tion. One reason for this is that "segregat- discussion of the schools will illustrate, ed" is a somewhat relative concept. What achieving desegregation is not possible constitutes segregation in a very multicul- when districts are severely segregated. tural setting like the Bay Area is not the 19 Thus, school policies, multicultural cur- 3. Integration ricula, ethnic clubs, and interracial activities and friendships are characteristics used As suggested earlier, desegregation must by the DIP to determine a school's degree take place before integration can occur. A of integration. school cannot be both segregated and integrated. Desegregation is not equivalent to integration, however. Rather, integration transforms the existing system to meet the E. Methodology needs of all students instead of assimilat- The research methods utilized for this ing students into a traditional, white-cen- project are multi - disciplinary. Conducting tered structure. Integrated schools achieve qualitative research within school settings diversity and inclusion throughout the resulted in highly informative interviews school and its curricula, rather than with a diverse representation of high attempting to assimilate minority students school students. These interviews form the into a pre-existing educational environ- core of the EIIP's research and explore sev- ment or to present multicultural materials eral areas, including experiences with seg- only as an occasional supplement to Euro- regation, desegregation, integration and centric curricula. racial attitudes; and the effect of these A school placed within the integrated experiences on students' perceptions, end of the spectrum incorporates the his- actions, achievement and plans. These torical, intellectual, and cultural contribu- findings are supplemented by interviews tions of all ethnic groups into the daily with teachers and administrators. lives of its students. An integrated school Data and background information on employs teaching techniques that address each school system add a critical element, the multitude of student learning styles, providing a context in which to under- and utilizes learning materials created by stand the interviews, as well as further evi- and about people of diverse racial and eth- dence of the degree to which the schools nic backgrounds. Additionally, an integrat- included are fulfilling their educational ed school creates an inclusive, supportive mission. Wherever possible, we include atmosphere to improve student self-esteem data from the 1998-99 school year, when and motivation, and encourage positive the interviews were conducted. However, interactions both in the school and beyond. due to a lack of standardized data collec- The goal of integrated schools goes beyond tion and dissemination, some data are from educating students in an inclusive and the 1997-98 school year. Additionally, multicultural environment; the desired some information was listed for a single result is to integrate the minds of students, year rather than the span of a school year. to prepare them to prosper in a pluralistic Given comparisons of data between years, society. An integrated school recognizes we feel confident that numbers from 1997- that cultures are not static but are constant- 98 or 1999 offer an accurate estimate of the ly evolving. In order to assess the degree conditions in schools during the time the to which schools have accomplished inte- interviews took place. Wherever possible, gration, a host of characteristics must be we also provide data regarding student examined. test scores. Where the information is available, we report the proportion of students receiving free or reduced lunches, which is t the best indication of the number of ments. Through its multi-site and multi- impoverished students attending a school. disciplinary approach to understanding It is important to note the startling lack of experiences with desegregation, the EIIP is information available regarding the charac- attentive to both context and patterns. The teristics and conditions of our schools and results prove valuable to both evaluation students. This information is vital in order and policy-making. to research and improve our education system. Below are the analyses of the legal history, public policy, public discourse, demo- We conducted qualitative interviews dur- graphics and interview data of each school ing the 1998-99 academic year at schools in the EIIP. We begin each school conver- located in six large metropolitan areas in sation with a discussion of its contextual the United States. Consistent with the mis- surroundings and then give voice to stu- sion of the Joyce Foundation, five of the dent and staff experiences. schools are located in the Midwest. Of the five remaining schools, two are located on the West Coast, two on the East Coast, and Parents of the student inter- one in the South. We chose cities in consultation with the Joyce Project Advisory viewees signed consent forms, Board; considerations in selecting the cities and we have taken steps to included ensuring a sufficient diversity of assure the confidentiality schools to meet the goals of the project and anonymity of and the practical concerns of access and participants, including the availability. use of pseudonyms in place We conducted on-site research at each of the schools' names. school for one to two weeks. Between six The photos are representative and 12 student interviews were conducted of high school students in gen- at each school with both individuals and eral, not the study participants. small groups. We also interviewed four or five teachers and administrators from each school. We selected students to be interviewed with the aid of suggestions from administrators, informational posters, and solicitation of volunteers in classrooms. Self-selection of subjects is not ideal in any interview-based study, and we did exert some control over the selections to ensure that the students interviewed represented different racial groups within the schools. We obtained statistical data for schools and districts from a variety of sources including school and district Internet sites. The combination of quantitative data and interviews provides a depth of insight into student, teacher, and administrator experiences within their specific school environ- 21 overcrowding, class sizes, availability of A. Washington, D.C. special education programs, and facilities." Schools Context Prior to the lawsuit that would desegregate the Washington, D.C. schools, the During the first half of the century, the school district had already taken small Washington, D.C. schools were formally steps toward ending formal segregation. segregated. Growth in the population of The Board of Education approved a publi- African Americans in the D.C. area was not cation entitled the "Handbook on matched by expansion of school facilities Intergroup Education," which advocated for black students; this created a school for the social mingling of students of dif- system composed of increasingly under- ferent races, and in 1952 provided lesson populated white schools, and overcrowd- plans to science teachers to debunk biologi- ed, under-funded schools for African- cally based misconceptions of race. Also in American students. As a result of these 1952, public hearings were held to solicit disparate conditions, many African- recommendations on the mechanics of the American students were forced to attend integration process, some of which were school in shifts. Washington, D.C. was incorporated into the superintendent's ini- desegregated concurrently with Brown, but tial plan for desegregation, called the much litigation and policy reform over the Corning Plan. Many African-American subsequent decades resulted in few gains and white students were prepped for for African-American students. At present, desegregated classrooms by watching tele- Washington, D.C. is characterized by orga- vised classes taught and attended by teach- nizational, financial and facilities crises. ers and students of the respectively oppo- The Washington, D.C. schools must over- site race. Between 1952 and 1955, 35,000 come many barriers before the majority elementary students participated in this African-American student population will program." be adequately served by the system. The District of Columbia is an organism In the decade immediately prior to the distinct from states and is controlled by the adoption of the school desegregation poli- federal government. In Bolling v. Sharpe,6° cy in 1954, the school district responded to a companion case to Brown, the Supreme changing patterns of housing segregation Court held that the Fifth Amendment oper- and increases in the African-American ates much like the Equal Protection clause population. Small numbers of white stu- to make school segregation unconstitution- dents from the changing neighborhoods al in Washington, D.C. Thus the court were transferred to the nearest white-dom- ordered that the Washington, D.C. schools inated schools, essentially consolidating be desegregated much like schools in them, and populating the remaining empty states. schools with African-American students. Correspondent with the Supreme Court Then-assistant superintendent Carl Hansen decision, the district adopted a desegrega- wrote of that period, "There was one policy tion policy that was implemented in 1954. in the District schools prior to the desegre- This policy provided for the creation of gation programalthough it had two neighborhood schools, merit-based sides: Keep [black] and white students sep- employment policies, color-blind pupil arate. Do everything possible to equalize." treatment, the delineation of attendance The segregated schools were unequal in zones, a prohibition on the maintenance of many respects but particularly in terms of data on student racial composition, anda lobbying to end the system of tracking plan to eliminate disparities in the alloca- tudents occurred throughout the 1965 leg- tion and use of facilities 61 Demonstrations islative session. That session closed with were held on the first day of school, but the House Committee on Education and the protests subsided quickly. Labor recommending the abolition of Because the district was then composed tracking; however, no action was taken to of over 60 percent African-American stu- effectuate this endorsement.62 dents, and because of heavy residential By 1959, three out of 60 formerly white segregation, neighborhood schools resulted schools remained so. Eleven of the 55 for- in most students remaining in heavilyseg- merly African-American schools remained regated schools, but under the desegrega- segregated. However, race-based teacher tion policy, some white students would assignments decreased in frequency during have been forced into predominantly black this period.° schools. The Board of Education reacted to In Hobson v. Hansen ,6I the federal district the concerns of whites in severalways. First, the board allowed white students court found in 1967, that numerous poli- already enrolled at the time of Bolling to cies, including tracking, were pursued and stay in that school until graduation. had the effect of perpetuating segregation Second, the board created "optional zones." in Washington, D.C.'s schools. The court Optional zones allowed students to choose also found that white schools in the district between two different school zones so that were receiving more funding than black they could select different schools. These schools, and that there was segregation optional zones were created in areas where among teachers and staff. Further, the there were white enclaves, but were not set court found extreme segregation in kinder- up in exclusively black neighborhoods. garten opportunities. Kindergarten was optional and children were placed in Tracking, a further impediment to inte- kindergarten programs to the extent that gration, segregated students within facilities existed for these classes. The schools. The tracking system divided high court found that all white elementary school students into groups based on mul- schools had space for enrolling kinder- tiple indicators of predicted performance. garten children, while black schools had Specifically, students were categorized long waiting lists. Finally, the court held based on past teacher evaluations, levels of that the tracking system employed in the motivation, and intelligence quotient test schools was racialized. The court noted scores. Following this assessment, stu- that the tracking system was implemented dents were placed into one of four tracks: in 1956, two years after the Bolling deci- honors, college preparatory, generalor sion, and that black students were relegat- basic. Early on, it was apparent that the ed to lower tracks at far higher rates than tracks were racially isolating, with thegen- white students. eral and basic tracks composed predominantly of African-American students. In As a result of these findings, the court 1959, a similar system was installed at the held that de facto segregation existed in the elementary and junior high school levels in school system and that this segregatedsys- Washington, D.C.; the program differed in tem, along with the tracking system, was that students were assigned into three unconstitutional. The court ordered deseg- tracks, and motivation was not a compo- regation of the schools, termination of the nent of the assessment procedure. Much racialized system of tracking, and desegregation of staff and teachers. Following the percent black. The court rejected the suit, busing became the primary means of defendants' contention that these statistics desegregation until 1975. were random and unrelated to race. It ordered that per pupil expenditures and In 1968, the school board filed a plan teachers salaries and benefits in with the court, which changed some of the Washington, D.C. elementary schools not school zones or dusters to increase racial deviate except for adequate justification by and socioeconomic integration in the more than five percent for mean per pupil school system. In 1970, at the behest of expenditure and for teachers salaries and white parents, the board amended its plan. benefits in all the district's schools. The amended plan allowed children from two predominantly white elementary The final education case came to the schools to attend an already over-crowded, Washington, D.C. court in 1972, but did not predominantly white junior high school, result in any gains for desegregation. The rather than attend the under-crowded but court found that the suit merely implicated less white school to which they were origi- congressional discretion in funding certain nally assigned. In a suit brought by white programs and not others." Congress set parents whose children remained assigned up regulations that did not allow expendi- to the under-crowded schools, the district tures for transportation for black children court struck down the amendment and to go to schools in Maryland. Congress ordered the board to implement its original did, however, authorize expenditures for plan.66 transporting children for other reasons, including busing to special education pro- Also in 1970, the district constructed a grams for handicapped children. The new school in a white neighborhood and plaintiff challenged the legislation assert- drew the boundary lines for the school in a ing that the decision to fund transportation way that effectively cut off a poor black for some groups but not for black children neighborhood. Poor blacks were assigned was a violation of equal protection. The to an old overcrowded school, while mid- court held that Congress had the authority dle-class whites were assigned to attend to determine where to allot funds and that this new school, only a block away from the determination to authorize transport the black neighborhood. The court held for some groups does not mean that that the drawing of school zone boundaries Congress must authorize funds for all in this way was unconstitutional, where an groups. alternate plan was available. The court directed the board to reconsider its assign- The 1960s and '70s were a time of cre- ment plan.° ative reform and localization at the sub- district level in D.C. In June 1964, the The court revisited the Hobson case in Cardozo Model School Division was estab- 1971, when the plaintiffs sought greater lished. In 1968 and 1969, local school desegregation measures. The plaintiffs boards were created to oversee the produced data showing that Washington, Morgan, Adams, and Anacostia D.C. schools remained unequal. Schools Community schools. In the mid-'70s, a with 74 percent white students had about cluster of schools called the Six Schools 15 percent smaller pupil-teacher ratios, Complex, was created to protect local almost 10 percent greater average teacher schools from closing due to dwindling costs, and almost 27 percent greater teacher population. This proved to be a successful expenditure than schools that were over 98 model for desegregation, presaging the

4+4 development of magnet schools in the dis- at nearly every level of administration; a trict. Six schools were transformed into reduction in principals' terms from three four specialized schools and one learn- years to one year; and the increase in the ing/resource center. Though the goal of administration of standardized exams to furthering integration was undermined by twice-yearly. A shift in the focus of the cur- an attendance policy that favored neigh- ricula under the current leadership is one borhood children, by 1980 it had effectively towards basic skills and performance out- retained a larger population of white stu- comes. With changes in administration dents than other public schools. At the came a radical approach to teacher same time, a federally funded project accountability and a push for greater merged two high schools in order to autonomy in administration. Race has increase integration. Called TWO-W, after largely been left out of recent school Western and Wilson high schools, this reforms, with the exception of the creation school emphasized quality and the need to of two entities that have been charged with attract black and white middle-class fami- nurturing racial tolerance: the Office of lies to the public schools. A third innova- Multicultural Affairs and the Diversity tive school model was the Capitol Hill Task Force. Cluster, established in 1985, which in many respects replicated the Six Schools Cluster.° Decentralisation of the school district has been carried out, in part, by the adoption Near this time high schools in the district of the Weighted Student Formula for allo- became specialized and open to citywide cating resources. The district explained enrollment. These induded a school for that before the reform, per-pupil funding the performing arts, a math and science was not accessible to the public and creat- concentration school, and a school without ed great disparities within the district. walls.7° Currently, the district is made up They argued that the new funding formula of magnet schools, magnet programs with- makes allocation public and sets a baseline in schools, school within school charter figure for per-pupil expenditures. programs, and alternative instruction pro- Allocation of funds above this baseline is grams. made on the basis of student need and the budget, which is designed by the principal The schools in Washington D.C. are now of each individual school. This gives overseen by a nine-member board estab- schools far greater control over resources, lished in 1996, called the Emergency with approximately 85 percent of non-per- Transitional Education Board of Trustees, sonnel resources within the first year of which is in turn overseen by a CEO. reform. More money is allocated to According to the first annual report made schools that have been targeted by the dis- by the emergency board in 1997, initial trict as low achieving, having a higher per- reform measures included an overhaul of centage of students from low-income fami- teachers and staff, the abolishment of social lies, or supporting more English language promotion, major facilities improvement, proficiency courses. Budgets submitted by the dosing of several schools, and the hiring of 70 bilingual teachers. These moves principals are approved by a vote of the emergency board. were characterized as triage. The past several years have seen delays More accountability-oriented reforms under the emergency board have included in school openings, facilities problems, in- the adoption of new leadership structures school violence, high per-pupil expenditures, and poor student performance. "The D.C. public schools spend more than 1. Rigoberta Menchu $10,000 per student, highest in the nation, with deplorable results," stated Mike Rosen High School in a 1998 editorial submitted to The Washington, D.C. Gazette. A frequently cited statistic is that 85 percent of district students who go on to attend the University of the District of With a student population composed Columbia have to take remedial courses." almost entirely of students of color, These are indicators of a troubled district Rigoberta Menchu High School was the faced with many challenges. most segregated school examined in the SIP. During the 1998-99 school year, Several approaches to improving the Rigoberta Menchu had a student popula- schools have been implemented or put on tion of roughly 1,000 and was primarily the table. One such measure is the training composed of African-American students of parents to spur parental involvement. (97.0 percent). Roughly 2 percent of its stu- Parents are taught to be advocates for edu- dents were white and there was one cation and charged with the mission of Hispanic student. Students at Rigoberta reaching out to other parents in their com- Menchu scored poorly on the Stanford 9 munity in order to increase investment. Standardized Test in the spring of 1999, Another measure that has received much with most students scoring below the basic attention is the creation of a voucher sys- level in math and reading. Only 6.5 per- tem that would enable low-income stu- cent of Menchu students scored at or above dents, predominantly students of color, to the basic level on the math test, as com- attend private and parochial schools. pared to 52 percent of 11th-graders district- Highly contentious, the voucher program wide. Only 29.6 percent of Menchu stu- has received support from the African- dents scored at or above basic level on the American community in Washington, D.C., reading test, compared to 25 percent of but the White House has articulated resist- llth-graders district-wide. No Menchu ance to the proposal. In the words of one students had advanced scores in math and White House representative, "Establishing only 0.2 percent of students had advanced a private-school voucher system in the scores in reading. Concentrated poverty is nation's capital would set a dangerous overwhelming at Menchu, where 94 per- precedent for using federal taxpayer funds cent of students were eligible for free or for schools that are not accountable to the reduced lunches. Only 0.4 percent of stu- public."' Similar to its role as one of the dents were enrolled in English as Second schools in the first generation of desegrega- Language (ESL) classes and 13.6 percent of tion efforts, Washington, D.C. is considered students were enrolled in Special a laboratory for the nation in the voucher Education courses73 experiment. The area surrounding Rigoberta Menchu High School had a high incidence of crime, which affected the school and caused the administration to install metal detectors. Despite this harmful environment for students, the primary concern voiced by students and staff was the school's position in the district with respect to funding and achievement status. One student spoke for it's on me." Parents and caregivers demon- most when he said, 'The school district strated concern for their students, but does not provide enough money for the expected them to negotiate the day-to-day D.C. public schools, therefore, we have old obstacles and successes of school on their books. We need up-to-date materials." own. This points to a critical national problem high levels of funding do not necessarily One student said about his mother, translate into quality resources in our class- "She'll let me figure out what I'm supposed rooms or schools. Washington, D.C. to do in order to make it better." While schools have the highest school expendi- some students saw this lack of support as tures in the country, yet inadequate positive by making them more independ- instructional materials and facilities stand ent, most saw it as an impediment. The as roadblocks to achievement for these limited involvement from parents and urban, primarily minority students. In caregivers also had a negative impact on order to provide students in segregated, the school itself. The school was particu- racially isolated, and socioeconomically larly hurt by the absence of an outspoken depressed areas with an equitable educa- group of parents to press the district tion, schools must be allotted high levels of administration for funding and other con- funding that go directly to classroom cerns. An administrator said that the resources, including curricular materials school's funding from the district was low and teacher pay. and felt that one of the reasons was that parents did not lobby at the district's door Although some high-poverty schools are as much as parents from other schools. able to maintain parental involvement, According to one teacher, often these schools, especially those in high poverty neighborhoods, have low parental "We don't get nearly the kind of sup- involvement. Resources focus on providing port these days from the community for families, as opposed to more affluent that we used to get. We have PTA parents who have the ability to spend meetingsthese days if I see five par- more time and money supporting their ents from, not just my homeroom but children's education. Rigoberta Menchu reflected this norm, as it had very low classes as well, if I see a total of five parental involvement. Due to the concen- homerooms plus classes, I'm [almost] trated poverty of the area, parents were surprised. Whereas twenty years ago, unable to heavily participate in their chil- if we had a PTA meeting, we had it in dren's education. An administrator said, the cafeteria which has a seating "[Parents] that live on the other side [of capacity from six to seven hundred." town] usually have more education, know how to work the system better. And so In reaction to the low parental involve- their children benefit from that. They're ment, the school implemented workshops they actively support their child. They to boost support. The principal comment- speak loud and clear." Most students in ed, "[The] workshops [are] for the parents the school experienced a lack of support so that they become familiar with what's for their education. They were more likely happening at the school so that, you know, to live in non-traditional families and you erase that fear, if there is any, about many were required to tend to all of their schools. A lot of times, the language that school responsibilities on their own. "Like, teachers speak...is a little above some of the parents." "From our senior class, we have a lot of people that plan on going. But I don't Rigoberta Menchu students suffered from think they're going to make it." Students low academic achievement, particularly as wanting to attend college had a mountain measured by the Stanford 9 standardized of obstacles to overcome, including the exams. Students, teachers, and administra- high poverty and isolation of their school tors were very aware of this problem. and community. Despite their lack of Students recognized the school's lack of resources and positive exposure to college resources as a major impediment. "Like, education, these students seemed acutely they [are] always talking about how our aware of the difficulties ahead. standardized test scores are really low. [But], they don't give us the resources we Students who were not successful at really need to actually learn those things Rigoberta Menchu were not deemed fail- that we need to know to do good on the ures by the staff. Instead, they felt that the test." school staff needed to try harder and that the responsibility for inadequate perform- While low test scores inspired some to ance rested with the school. An adminis- push for reforms and increases in funding, trator said, "We haven't found their learn- it discouraged others. One student ing styles. And then, when we find their expressed exhaustion with the negative learning styles, we tap into that once we attention from the media, stating that he find success. And then, you just move on disliked, "the continued publicity of nega- to the others." When asked what made a tive news about our school. All the time "good" student, the assistant principal com- you hear things about our school that real- mented that a good student was "someone ly aren't true." However, an administrator with self-esteem." She continued, found that the low Stanford 9 scores incit- ed students to work harder. "The students "IA good student is] someone who were real focused, it changed their whole has enough confidence in himself, perspective on what they need to do. I've enough self-esteem to realize that never seen them that focused before." because I fail does not make me a bad Students planned to attend college and person. So I can go out and I try, and I predicted a wide variety of careers for will do the best I can...I will be happy themselves. However, they expressed con- with my best. I will go out. I will try. cern regarding the school's inability to provide an adequate number of counselors to And therefore, I will succeed....Then, guide them through the decisions and coming along with good folks, or to logistics involved in applying to college. your staff, teachers who are going to One student said, "We don't have the help nurture you and help you and give you here at [Rigoberta Menchu]. I mean, if you all that they could possibly give, you go into any other high school in the city, they have everything you need. At to see that you are successful. People [Rigoberta Menchu] ... we don't have a in your family who go to support you, good college resource center where we can [also]." get help to find college information and stuff like that." Students felt the lack of While factors such as community and guidance was a substantial barrier to suc- family affect students, one teacher com- cess in college. Another student remarked, mented on the impact the schools have on students compared to outside influences. predominantly black, so we kinda get a well-rounded education because we get There are clearly [other] institutions in the education from the books that were the community that have to play a bigger written by Caucasians, and we get educa- role but to the extent that we have these tion from our teachers of what the real young folks as a captive audience seven world is like." hours a day, I think there is probably more that we could do to make our young folks Students and administrators reported lit- feel better about themselves. tle racial tension in the school. The staff consisted of numerous races and ethnici- For the most part, students felt that some ties, which was greatly appreciated by both course curricula included a variety of cul- administrators and students. Student tures and races. The principal commented, interactions with teachers and one another "I don't think there's an emphasis placed were viewed as positive and tension-free. on one culture or the other [in the curricu- An administrator stated that the small la], but a smorgasbord, if you will, of all minority of non-black students generally cultures. So, in that regard, we're pretty had few social or academic difficulties. liberal with that. You should learn all of One student described his sense of the col- them ...so [students will] be well-bal- lective student approach to diversity, "[W]e anced." Students valued learning about all decide that they are different cultures. their own and other cultures, finding it And we learn things from them, just like important for personal growth, increased they learn different things from us. See, understanding amongst individuals, and we kinda cooperate." as preparation for employment in a diverse workplace. One student felt it was impor- One female student commented on the tant to read literature written by authors of racial dynamics in the nearly all-black color, "to support them." Students school by stating, expressed a desire for exposure to more literature written by and about Hispanics. 'The kids here are not prejudiced, but it's Despite having a student population of 97 just that they've only been exposed to a percent African-American, some students certain amount of things, and... [once] felt the curricula were still Euro-centric. you've done something for so long, you There was a need for a more pronounced become used to it, whatever, it's hard to departure from Western, Euro-centric make a change. So, a lot of the schools materials and a move toward curricula that here in the D.C. Public Schools area are reflected student diversity on a daily basis. predominantly black, 'cause D.C. is predominantly black." Yet, most textbooks were outdated, indicating that the curricula were, in part, the Despite the amiable relationships among result of resource deficiencies, in addition students, some students tended to segre- to teacher and administrator attitudes and gate themselves into cliques during practices. Many teachers took steps to unstructured times. "People in the school, counter inadequate resources by supple- they hang with their little friends. menting materials. A student said, Everybody got their different little groups "I'm not trying to be racist or anything, like." Students felt that this was due to but [books are] kind of from a Caucasian neighborhood ties. One student stated, point of view....Working with teachers 'When another person from another neighborhood will come to their group it's like, here at [Rigoberta Menchu][they are] you can't get along with them because you're from some other neighborhood." dents, slightly less than one-fourth were Students called these groups "crews" as African-American (23.0 percent), 12.4 per- opposed to gangs, because their interaction cent were Asian American, 0.4 percent never reached a violent level. In addition were Caucasian, and 0.1 percent were to neighborhood ties, students divided Native American. Dorothy Day enjoyed a themselves along interest lines. small but diverse population of students Participants in activities such as music or from countries including Ethiopia, Latin sports developed friendships with one America, and China. another based on shared knowledge and The majority of students had limited experiences unique to those activities. English proficiency (68.8 percent). Even though Rigoberta Menchu fell at Students scored poorly on the Stanford 9 the far end of the spectrum due to its racial standardized exams in the spring of 1999. isolation and low socioeconomic level, the Only 45.9 percent of Day students scored policies and practices implemented by the at or above the basic level in math (similar school attempted to provide students with to the 52 percent of district-wide llth- many aspects of an integrated school envi- graders), while 48.9 percent of Day stu- ronment, including multicultural and dents scored at or above the basic level in inclusive programs and curricula. These reading (compared to 25 percent of district- efforts did not go unnoticed by students. wide 11th-graders). Only 1.1 percent of Things such as supplemental multicultural Day students had advanced scores in math materials, teacher diversity, parental out- and no students had advance scores in reach, and teacher caring and enthusiasm reading. These poor scores qualified the were appreciated by students and school for targeted assistance and put it appeared to positively impact their educa- under a mandate to revise its curricula. tional experience. Tragically, such efforts Despite the mandate, the school received could not overcome the tremendous disad- high praise for its curricular and program- vantages of racial isolation and concentrat- matic emphasis on multiculturalism. ed poverty due to the wholly segregated Unfortunately such programmatic efforts student population. As a result, student were countered by racial isolation and achievement was low and college atten- debilitating poverty, as nearly all students dance was unlikely. (97.6 percent) qualified for free or reduced lunches." 2. Dorothy Day Students and teachers were grouped into High School dusters: business; multilingual communi- Washington, D.C. cation in the arts; and the math, engineer- ing, science, and health cluster. The school offered AP classes, and special education Almost exclusively minority and students were mainstreamed. Students, wracked with high poverty, Dorothy Day teachers, and administrators felt that the High School lies at the segregated end of small scale of the school and the intimacy the spectrum. A smaller school than most of the cluster groups resulted in strong others in its Washington, D.C. district, interactions among students of differing Dorothy Day had approximately 675 stu- races and first languages. One student dents during the 1998-1999 academic year. spoke for many when she said, "It's small The majority of students were of Hispanic and the teachers pay more attention to origin (64.0 percent). Of the remaining stu- you." Another student said, "I like the teachers; they give you a lot of confidence." dents felt obligated to interact with stu- Teachers and administrators expressed dents of other races because of the multi- respect and admiration for students. 'The cultural identity of the school. students are amazing. When you get to Students valued the relatively inclusive know them you find out they've had these curricula and heightened cultural aware- incredibly difficult experiences. But ness at Dorothy Day. They felt that their they're still coming to school and they're books, particularly in combination with still trying and they're relatively motivat- other culturally oriented programs, con- ed." Students, in turn, thought highly of tributed to a greater understanding among their teachers. "We got some good teach- students and promoted a better life outside ers; they really want to help you learn of school. One Latina student said of the things, if you wanna really learn." relevance of inclusive texts and programs, An administrator cited the importance of "Not only our people were here. It was a having a diverse staff in addition to the lot of others that were here. Learning, trying to struggle for their own race, too." A multicultural curricular focus. "Because a teacher said, "We do pretty well [with lot of times, you may have a lot of ethnic a backgrounds in the, school student popula- multicultural curricula]. We have a really diverse we have a very diverse facul- tion, but the staff may not be as diverse as the students. We have a good balance and ty....And that, I think, reflects in the work I think that trickles down right to the stu- that they choose to do with the students." dents." A Hispanic student said, "Teachers A teacher at Dorothy Day had previously are, you know, you can get along more conducted a survey of students to deter- with teachers. They, like, sort of under- mine whether diversity was a priority for stand me. I like [trusting] people that them. The teacher asked students if they understand me. And theyand, and, I would rather attend a school that had the understand them, you know, and it's more best equipment, the best facilities, andwas Spanish people, you knowit's better, I well maintained, or a school that lacked like it." those things but had a diverse student Students and teachers alike felt that stu- population. The teacher said, dents interacted and were friends with "Overwhelmingly kids chose to say that members of other racial groups. In making they would choose a multiracial school." this assessment, teachers and students Students felt that language was a barrier were aware of volatility outside the school to better student interaction. In one class, environment. An administrator said, "Out students documented for one week the [there] in the world, [people are] not get- racial and language composition of tables ting along as good as we are in here." in a cafeteria across the street from the Second only to receiving individual atten- school. They found that language was the tion from teachers, students cited the dominant segregating factor. Similarly, diversity of the school as one of its most students and teachers found that the racial valued characteristics. However, some stu- segregation in their lunchroom and other dents initially said that they were friends sites was almost exclusively the product of with "everybody." But, as conversations language differences. 'The main issue's progressed, they qualified those statements the language, you know....You want to by saying they were closer to friends of speak your own language, you know, other their own race. A small number of stu- than theirs." A teacher added, "In thispar- ticular school, in order to have a conversa- our culture and us learning about tion with a person from a different group, Hispanic[s] so we don't feel left out [and] you have to have enough English to sit so they can learn more about us." there comfortably for 45 minutes to an Unlike many other schools, most hour and converse in English. That elimi- Dorothy Day parents were relatively active nates one-third of the school right there." in their students' education. A small number of students felt that lan- "We have good parent involvement. guage was occasionally used to deliberately exclude others. In addition to language, It's not great, but it's good. And I students cited familiarity as a common rea- think one of the reasons it's good is son for their chosen segregation. "There's because of, one we have a parent like a magnet pulling us, you know what coordinator who is,who has been, I'm saying? 'Cause we all have different very helpful in assisting with the par- cultures, soand like, it's all different. They have their own, we have our own." ents and rallying them and getting them together and giving them infor- Although students generally expressed mation." that they found little racism, some students felt that there was a lack of understanding An administrator expressed his view of between African-American and Latino stu- the school's greatest challenge. dents, and that some kids turned to stereotypes to explain the unknown. Students "In an urban school system it feels who did occasionally make such comments like we're constantly under crisis man- attempted to excuse their mindset by not- agement. We never have a chance to ing that they learned their racism from plan ahead effectively. ...The planning their parents. "What I hear is, 'My dad,'or ahead isn't done well, or it isn't 'My mom, is why I'm racist." However, done....Scheduling is one example of it. even in light of these concerns students maintained that there was little to no racial Others are curricular issues. We don't tension at the school and reiterated the have a clear scope and sequence for all value of the various racial and ethnic back- the classes we're teaching. We don't grounds of students. They were also have a strong sense of what students aware of the positive value of a culturally are learning in ninth [grade] English and racially diverse school. that then prepares them for 10th grade Racial segregation was found in sports English, that then prepares them for teams and clubs. The soccer team was pre- 11th or 12th [grade] English. District- dominantly Latino and the basketball team, African-American. Clubs were wide that isn't provided and within the homogeneous as well, especially organiza- school we haven't done it....There's tions such as the Asian American club. this high level of frustration among a Some students found the racial segregation lot of staff about some things. But an of other clubs to be very troubling and equal level of resistance to change." hoped that, given the multicultural focus of the school, an inter-cultural or international club would be established. "We could have other students learning about 32 Students made gains in test scores while and valued these efforts. Although parent at Dorothy Day. "But I think that [Dorothy involvement, resources and a move toward Day] scores very well in terms of testing. more inclusive curricula helped in creating Especially in terms of improvement[s] that a supportive, multicultural atmosphere at [we've] made with [our] population." All Dorothy Day, actual student outcomes had students planned to attend college and not yet improved. While such practices most were well informed about schools contributed to creating a more positive and the admissions process. However, educational experience, it was difficult for some students experienced racial discrimi- students to overcome the obstacles created nation from the counselors. One student by a largely poor, segregated environment. felt lost but did not receive help from busy The isolated student population and con- and discriminating counselors because she centrated poverty had a strong negative was not Hispanic. When applying for impact on student achievement and oppor- scholarships, one African-American girl tunities that will extend beyond high found, "getting your stuff done, like getting school. your transcripts, getting information....I see my Hispanic friends getting help, but when we go ask them, they don't have it anymore." B. Chicago Schools Context An administrator feared that students faced great obstacles to successfully completing college, despite high hopes to do Chicago, like many urban school districts so. He discussed two schools in particular, was limited in its desegregation efforts "The University of the District of because of the ruling in Milliken. Prior to Columbia, and Montgomery Community that, in the early 1960s, school segregation College in Maryland. And those are two was the focus of Chicago's nascent Civil schools that a lot of our students have gone Rights movement. Segregationist school to and not successfully completed. They superintendent Benjamin Willis, with his get caught in a remediation cycle at those adamant rejection of even modest requests schools where they arrive, they test, they of blacks for access to better schools, are evaluated as needing four more years became for many the personification of the of ESL classes or two more years of ESL racially segregated social order fostered by classes. They enter a cyde of English as a then mayor Richard J. Daley. Chicago Second Language for remediation courses school authorities refused to allow black in math and English and then get two students to transfer to empty white class- years worth of debt, achieve no real college rooms, instead purchasing expensive credit, and then they drop out of school mobile classrooms that were used to keep without completing." black children in the crowded segregated schools?' Although hopes were high and relationships among students were generally posi- The use of mobile classroomscalled tive, the future academic achievement of "Willis wagons" by detractorswas one of students is questionable due to the nega- the practices challenged by black parents tive influences of racial segregation and in a lawsuit filed in 1961. In Webb v. Board economics. The school instituted many of Education of Chicago, black parents reforms to counter the impediments their alleged that several policies and practices students faced. Students were sensitive to of the neighborhood school system were part of a deliberate scheme to segregate integrated schools. In 1983, the federal dis- schools in Chicago. Allegations included trict court presiding over the lawsuit that the gerrymandering of district lines, the finally resulted in a comprehensive deseg- selection of new school sites to ensure regation plan for Chicago, chastised the racial homogeneity; and overcrowding of NAACP, the Urban League, and other black schools while space was underuti- desegregation proponents for failing to lized in white schools. The suit was settled press the issue in court before the 1980s, by out of court, but it had important conse- which time the Chicago school system had quences. It provided segregation oppo- become more than 80 percent black and nents with both a focal point, and a list of Hispanic." The Supreme Court's Milliken specific complaints against Willis and the decision, exduding suburban school dis- board of education. Also, as part of the tricts from plans to desegregate urban dis- settlement agreement, the school board tricts, prevented the parties to the Chicago committed to establishing the Advisory suit from arriving at an effective remedy Panel on Integration." for the segregation in the Chicago schools. A 1964 report by the Advisory Panel doc- One pre-1980 suit brought by parents did umented that 84 percent of Chicago's black not directly challenge segregation, but students attended segregated schools, and alleged that the school district's funding that newer schools were the most segregat- scheme was discriminatory against stu- ed. Most black schools were over-crowd- dents of color and low-income students. ed; white schools were six times as likely to The court relied on the Supreme Court's have unused space. Dissemination of this ruling in Rodriguez,79 that education is not information bolstered the campaign a fundamental constitutional right. against segregation, which remained Because there was no fundamental right focused on Willis. When Willis threatened involved, and low-income students are not to resign rather than enforce a limited a group entitled to special constitutional transfer program for a small number of protection, the court in deciding the wealth black students, the board refused to accept discrimination claim held the state only to his resignation, and rescinded the policy to the lenient standard of showing a rational which he had objected. This led to school basis for the disparities in funding. boycotts in October 1963 and February However, since racial groups are entitled to 1964. Again in 1965 the school board special constitutional protection against demonstrated its continuing support of the discrimination, the court required Chicago controversial Willis by extending his con- to put forth a compelling state interest for tract beyond his anticipated retirement racially discriminatory disparities in fund- date. This sparked a summer of protests, ing. Applying these differing standards, including a march to the Chicago city hall the court found that the school-funding led by Martin Luther King, Jr.' scheme did unconstitutionally discriminate against students of color, but not against Willis finally retired in 1966, but even low-income students. However, the court after his departure little progress was declined to order relief, finding that the made in desegregating Chicago's schools. board of education was already making Meanwhile, demographic changes in the efforts to equalize funding.s° city, combined with private school attendance by white students, resulted in ever- decreasing percentages of white students, thus lessening the possibilities for truly In an unusual case, white parents school board to develop a plan to desegre- claimed in Lawler v. Board of Education of gate the city's schools. HEW also referred Chicago that redistricting and other poli- the matter to the DOJ for investigation and cies leading to increased enrollment of possible litigation. The DOJ threatened that black students in previously white schools unless significant progress was made in was effectively forcing white students out. negotiating a desegregation plan, it would The case was dismissed for failure to state bring suit against the board for operating a claim of unconstitutional discrimination. segregated schools in violation of the Although it was unsuccessful, this lawsuit Fourteenth Amendment, Title IV, and Title prompted the school board to implement a VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The racial quota program, called the "Racial board, in turn, threatened to bring a count- Stabilization Plan." The Plan, which limited er-suit demanding ESAA funding. A board the percentage of minority students to be desegregation committee negotiated with admitted to two Chicago high schools, was the DOJ and eventually they reached a challenged in federal court by parents of consent decree, containing a set of general students of color. The Circuit Court held principles to guide the development of a that in an area where there are rapid demo- desegregation plan. In order to get court graphic changes, such as white flight, approval of the consent decree, the United resulting in newly segregated schools, a States filed a complaint against the voluntary plan imposing racial quotas Chicago board of education on September might be constitutional, if it creates a 24, 1980, and simultaneously filed the con- meaningful opportunity for students to sent decree, which the court signed that attend integrated schools. The court found same day.83 that the promotion of integrated schools is The consent decree outlined a compelling governmental interest that three objectives: could justify racial quotas!' The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, and the Achievement of stable desegregation in Court consolidated it with the Department as many schools as possible (Because of Justice case against the Board of of the racial demographics of Chicago Education of Chicago, the city's primary studentsIn the 1981-82 school year desegregation lawsuit!' the student population was 60.7 per- The primary desegregation suit in cent black, 17.2 percent white, and 19.6 percent Hispanic Chicago grew out of a confrontation immediate desegregation of every public school was between the Department of Health, determined to be impossible.) Education, and Welfare (HEW), the Department of Justice (DOJ), and the Provision of compensatory educational Chicago board of education. HEW exam- and related programs in black and ined racial demographic records for the Hispanic racially isolated schools Chicago schools and determined that the district was ineligible for federal desegre- Creation of a program that fairly allo- gation funding under the Emergency cated the burden of desegregation School Aid Act (ESAA) because Chicago among the various racial groups. was in violation of a provision of the ESAA that prohibited desegregation policies that disproportionately burdened minority children. In 1979, HEW directed the Chicago 35 The board of education had to formulate Four years into the suit, the Seventh a desegregation plan aimed at meeting Circuit Court of Appeals, reviewing the these objectives, and submit it for approval case for the third time, chastised the parties by the court. The NAACP and the Urban for their rigid positions, and strongly sug- League asked the board to implement a gested that the consent decree was unlikely mandatory racial quota system. However, ever to achieve its purpose. Early in the the board's position was that, in order to opinion, the court expressed its exaspera- achieve stable desegregation and prevent tion: "This litigation has now reached a further white flight, participation in the point where we must abandon any percep- desegregation program should be volun- tion that the case is proceeding along on a tary. Analyzing the racial composition of proper course." The court went on to say, the public schools, the board defined as "(t)he story of school desegregation in "naturally integrated" all schools with at Chicago can best be described as ironic: lit- least 30 percent white and at least 30 per- igation concerning the meaning of a con- cent non-white students. In order to inte- sent decree that was designed to avoid grate as many of the remaining schools as protracted litigation continues six years possible, the board instituted several poli- after the decree was approved by the dis- cies, including integration-enhancing trict court." The court ordered the parties boundary changes that did not increase the to exercise good faith in arriving at a suit- schools' busing areas, and a magnet school able funding arrangement, and warned system designed to create high quality that if they failed to do so, the court would educational institutions, to attract volun- vacate the consent decree.a5 The funding tary transfers. The federal district court dispute was finally settled in 1987 when approved this plan.84 Congress passed the Yates Bill, which allocated $83 million over five years for the Unfortunately, implementation of the desegregation plan in Chicago. At best, consent decree did not proceed smoothly. Chicago would be faced with limited pos- For several years in the mid-1980s, a law- sibilities even under the consent decree. suit regarding federal funding under the consent decree bounced back and forth Concurrently with the implementation of between the federal district court and the the magnet-school-based desegregation circuit court of appeals. The Reagan program, city and state officials have tried administration, whose policy was to various approaches to improving reduce the role of the federal government Chicago's schools. In 1988, the Illinois leg- in state and local education decisions, was islature passed the School Reform Act, decreasing federal funding for education which decentralized control of Chicago's and for desegregation plans in particular. schools by creating elective local councils The Chicago board of education responded for each school. The councils, each consist- by filing a suit claiming that the federal ing of six parents, two teachers and two government was bound to assist in fund- community members, were given exten- ing Chicago's desegregation plan by sec- sive powers to institute educational tion 15.1 of the consent decree, which stat- reforms and remove poorly performing ed: "Each party is obligated to make every teachers. However, the School Reform good faith effort to find and provide every Act's call for substantial improvement in available form of financial resources ade- attendance, graduation rates and learning quate for implementation of the desegrega- was largely unfulfilled. Early enthusiasm tion plan." for the local councils reflected in good voter turnout and numbers of candidates Recently the Chico-Vallas reforms have for council positions, but fell off within a appeared to be having some success. few years. Test scores and other indicators Student test scores have been on the rise, of school quality showed little albeit gradually, for the last four years, and improvement.86 are now at the highest level in a decade. The system's poorest performing schools When the five-year trial period for the local school councils ended those placed on academic probation or reconstitutedare also getting on track. 4 in 1995, the Illinois legislature fed up with the district's chronic Eighty percent of those schools posted gains in standardized test scores in 1998, failuresgave Chicago Mayor and 26 were removed from the probation . i Richard Daley emergency powers list due to rising test scores. Chief to run the city's schools for four Education Officer, Cozette Buckney, said years, directing him to overhaul this year, "our after-school programs and the district's fiscal and academic policies. The mayor appointed his chief of staff, academic-support initiatives are clearly paying dividends."" Gery Chico, president of the reform school board, and named his budget director, Paul In step with numerous other urban Val las as chief executive officer of the school districts, Chicago is moving away school districts" from desegregation and toward neighborhood schools and other reforms. The By making aggressive use of the unusual- desegregation debate has been replaced, to ly broad powers given them by the legislature, the Chico-Vallas team has won high a considerable degree, with discussions of achievement and school choice. Changes marks for revitalization of the school system. One of their first crusades was to threaten to weaken or even abrogate the purge the system of corruption and ineffi- consent decree, and the district's obligation to desegregate gets less and less attention ciency. They found a good deal of both, even as the city remains starkly segregated. including misuse of funds for personal use by the Monitoring Commission for "Busing," often used as a synonym for Desegregation Implementation. Other mandatory desegregation plans, has long reforms have included balancing of the been a lightning rod for the storm of con- school district's budget; trimming of the troversy surrounding desegregation. Even bureaucracy; and intervening at founder- in Chicago, where busing to magnet ing schools. The interventions include tak- schools is voluntary, it has become a con- ing over non-functioning local school venient target of desegregation opponents councils, placing schools on probation if in recent years. Because free bus trans- less than 15 percent of the students are per- portation is an integral part of the magnet forming at grade level in math and read- school program initiated under the consent ing, and "reconstitution" of schools by fir- decree, many Chicago students are bused ing ineffective teachers and administrators. voluntarily to schools outside their neigh- The district has also banned social promo- borhoods. tions of students, and started a summer school programcalled the Summer But busing has become a target for the Bridge programgeared toward preparing new budget-minded regime. When Vallas struggling students to advance to the next took over the budget in 1996, he said bus- grade level." ing was "a privilege, not an entitlement."" A "bus pairing" program initiated in 1998 37 to save money by changing school sched- schools as citywide desegregation centers, ules so that two schools could share one and toward a preference for neighborhood bus, prompted the Chicago Sun-Times to schools. The ramifications of this ideologi- urge the school board to "move even more cal shift have become particularly obvious aggressively to sharply reduce or even with the recent openings of new elite mag- eliminate" busing. The Sun-Times editorial net and college preparatory schools in called busing "an empty and obsolete exer- affluentand mostly whitesections of cise in a city where total school enrollment the city. is overwhelmingly minority." In In 1997, school district CEO Vallas pro- response, the president of the Chicago posed setting aside thirty percent of place- Urban League, James Compton, wrote a ments in the city's magnet schools for letter to the editor defending busing, and neighborhood students, and limiting mag- arguing that opponents had overstated its net-school busing to students living within costs. While acknowledging the impossibil- a six-mile radius of each school. Parents ity of desegregating every school in a dis- who lived near the magnet schools trict that has barely more than 10 percent applauded the proposal, but critics viewed white students, Compton argued: the changes as demonstrative of a reduced "As we move to embrace a global commitment to desegregation, arguing that society, it is imperative that we learn the neighborhood set-aside program was designed to reserve coveted magnet school to appreciate different races and ethnic- spaces for children from affluent families ities, both here and abroad. What bet- living in the predominantly white neigh- ter time to begin building bridges of borhoods where new magnet schools are understanding than at the elementary opening. District officials and others school level? Our commitment must claimed that tailoring programs and atten- ensure that our children will be able to dance policies to draw more affluent whites was necessary for diversity's sake. compete in a global economy. Therefore, is it empty to try to limit Vallas also defended the six-mile busing limitation, saying, "this change is being racial isolation in our public schools made because excessively long bus rides through non-mandatory busing are not in the best interests of the options? Is it obsolete for students and children.' A compromise reached by the their families to voluntarily choose to school board and the Chicago public attend a non-neighborhood school schools' Monitoring Commission for because they believe they will receive a Desegregation Implementation was praised for its moderation in a Chicago better education somewhere else? We Sun-Times editorial in October 1997, think not.'"' despite the fact that it put off full implementation of the Vallas proposals for only The promotion and maintenance of one year. The compromise reserved 15 desegregation and diversity are still listed percent of magnet school slots in the 1998- among the objectives of magnet school 99 school year for neighborhood students, assignments in the school board's magnet with an increase to 30 percent postponed school policies." But in the past few years, student assignment policies have manifest- until the fall of 1999." ed a shift away from the concept of magnet 33 The controversy surrounding the recently constructed Northside College Prep, which 1. Fannie Lou Hamer stands to be heavily funded and is located High School in an affluent area of the city, illustrates the Chicago, Illinois strife engendered by the changes in the magnet school system. Particularly troubling to desegregation proponents is the Fannie Lou Hamer is a small high school enrollment policy adopted by this magnet that during the 1998-99 school year was in school. Deviating from the guidelines set its fourth year of existence. Almost all of forth in the consent decree and subsequent Fannie Lou Hamer students were students regulations, Northside College Prep chose of color (98.2 percent) and over three- this year to accept 50 percent white stu- fourths of them came from low-income dents and 50 percent students of color, families (76.3 percent), placing it fully in based on a formula that required white the segregated end of the spectrum. In students to have test scores within the top fact, the district experienced even higher 11 percent of students nationwide, and stu- levels of poverty, with 84.5 percent of students of color to have scores within the top dents being low income, as opposed to 36.1 16 percent. for the state. The school district's primary rationale for This demonstrates an extremely high this is that any other policy would compel level of concentrated poverty for students the admission of students whose grades within the district. During 1999, the and test scores fall too far below those of Hamer student population was almost the white students who applied for enroll- exdusively African-American and ment. The other rationale is that the racial Hispanic, (61.6 percent and 35.5 percent, composition of the students accepted respectively), with a handful of white, reflects the composition of the applicant Asian, and Native American students (1.9 pool." Critics are not persuaded of the percent, 0.8 percent, and 0.3 percent, value of the city's goal of attracting high- respectively). Only 0.8 percent of Hamer achieving students into the public school students had limited English proficiency, system by creating elite schools that are whereas 15.9 percent of district and 6.4 exempted from desegregation rules. James percent of state students fit the same cate- Hammonds, advocacy director of the gory. Hamer experienced a drop-out rate Chicago Association of Local Schools of 6.7, as compared to 15.5 for the district Councils, commented: 'We shouldn't be and 5.9 for the state. Hamer had 50 per- building these isolated schools for certain cent of its students meet or exceed the people in order to encourage them to Illinois Standards Achievement Tests in remain in the city or come back. We should reading, 14 percent in mathematics, and 40 be building better schools that all students percent in writing. The district had 47 per- from all parts of the city would have access cent for reading, 24 percent for math, and to." 41 percent for writing while the state saw 70 percent for reading, 52 percent for math, and 66 percent for writing." The most striking thing about Fannie Lou Hamer High School was the very high concentration of poverty and the subsequent Although students intended to go to col- depressed academic outcome of students lege, some teachers felt that success would as compared to their state counterparts. come only through great struggle for some, Trent has shown that concentrated poverty and others would not make it at all. Lack negatively impacts student outcome more of study skills was one of their primary than racial segregation in many schools, hurdles. and this is evidenced in Fannie Lou "So, it's really difficult to get the Hamer. The school had implemented many effective strategies to combat the material across to them. For instance, poverty of its students and community. the note taking. They wereI was giv- However, the strength of the impact of ing them readings and telling them, poverty meant that despite counter meas- 'You guys take notes. You're gonna get ures, student achievement remained hin- quizzed from it.' And they all failed. dered. You know, their skills aren't [devel- The school was oriented toward hands- oped]. And so it's a big struggle. How on problem solving and, with a cap of 500 far...back should I go in teaching them students, was small enough to allow teachers and students to know one another and these skills?" engage in individualized work. Despite their concerns, teachers encour- Application for admission to the school aged students to attend college, but felt was required, including two letters of rec- that the more independent setting of a uni- ommendation and a parent letter. Students versity would be a stark contrast to the were selected from all over the city of "pampering" they received at Fannie Lou Chicago. One of the goals of admissions Hamer. The principal had arranged an was to create a balance among racial ACT prep class for the junior class. In groups and between genders. Students addition, the school was preparing to help were also screened based on past atten- students with college entrance and scholar- dance and standardized test scores. ship applications. Teaching strategies included loosely structured cooperative groups; project-based, Some teachers proposed taking further hands-on learning; and a required intern- steps to help prepare students for the ship program. added responsibility of college life. On state standardized tests, 50 percent of "I think the majority will [go to col- tenth-grade Hamer students did not meet lege]. I don't know how many of them state learning goals, 80 percent did not will get through their first year of col- meet math goals, and 60 percent did not lege, 'cause I think college is going to meet writing goals. Science scores of 11th- grade students showed some improve- be a shock to them, as it is for every- ment, with 26 percent of students not body....0kay, for these kids, you know, meeting goals and 12 percent not meeting they're use to, 'What do you social science goals. Fannie Lou Hamer's need?'...The freshman dropout rate at drop-out rate was 6.7, slightly higher the university is huge, even among stu- than the state's (5.9), but less than half that of the district (15.5). The district saw a dents who are better prepared. So, I graduation rate of 65.3, while the state saw think it might be an issue about them surviving once they get there, 'cause they're not really understanding the and curators, and I got exposed to workload that kicks in....The another totally different field, which University of Illinois does thisthey really turned me on. So now, I'm kinda have a 'bridge program.' A lot of the caught, because I knew that I wanted bigger universities have a bridge pro- to be a law professor. Now I think I gram where kids that they expect to wanna be a museum curator." have difficulties will come down for The school as a whole enjoyed strong three or four weeks in August and parental involvement. At home, students they'll get those kids trained and better experienced support for working or going adapted to the environmentto the on to college, but faced a lack of parental schoolto the environment early. And support for daily schoolwork, due primari- those kids do succeed better. And I ly to difficult or chaotic home lives. Students and teachers alike recognized this think we'll get our kids into those as a tremendous obstade to academic suc- types of programs....And [college] cess despite student aspirations. retention rates for students of color are "I could go on to family involvement, much lower than for white stu- you know. Because I really think if dents....When they go through the you don't have someone at home say- bridge program the retention rate ing, 'Get on these books. No, you can't shoots right up again. Basically, watch TV,' you're not gonna do well, they're prepared." unless you just have that ingrained in In contrast to the concerns of teachers, yourself. And there's very few students had high aspirations and felt con- teenagers who have that in fident that the attention and encouragement from teachers was preparing them them....Family, and what's going on at for success in college and beyond. "I'm home, is huge, I think. And, I think one going to go to college. And, study nursing, of the things that's benefiting a lot of yeah, and go to medical school." our Latino students is the fact that Additionally, students sought out pro- they're first generation. And so, I think grams to provide them with experiences that there's this pressure on them to get beyond the classroom. that American dream. And, I think "In seventh or eighth grade, after we another thing is parents, you know. took the constitution, I was really sure Our Latino parents are so afraid of that I wanted to be a law professor, them becoming like American kids that 'cause I love constitutional law. And I they're a lot more strict. They don't, knew it's something, eventually, one you know so that they have to be day, I'll wanna teach. And then last home at a certain time. They're on 'em year, I had [an] internship at [Taylor] a little bit...." Museum of American Art. And I got a Students who said that their parents chance to work in the education pushed them to succeed in school and paid department. And I talked to docents attention to how they were doing, tended to have more concrete plans for college and had higher levels of achievement. their teachers, which was their primary concern. "We don't really care what color "That's one thing our parents have you are, as long as you're teaching us. You stressed, they have made it, 'Well, if could be Barney, as long as you're teaching you don't go to-' they've just made it us." However, some teachers perceived a where they've showed me in growing gap in communication with students. up that education is something that is Feeling it was important for students to have teachers of their own race, the school important in this world and this socie- was trying, with little success, to recruit ty, to function and live in an environ- teachers of color. One teacher said, ment, a situation where you are happy "There are so many different levels that I and you're comfortable...I have that can't communicate with my students on. discipline embedded in me and I know Because, whether I like it or not, when they what my parents expect of me." look at me they see a white woman. And I couldn't have a lot of the experiences Teachers concurred and found a high they've had, and vice versa. You know, level of parental involvement and support just to have somebody that they can identi- for their students, due in part, to the extra fy with, that understands them. I think it's care and effort it took to enroll their stu- very important to be understood, to feel dent in the school. that you're totally understood as a human "And I think a part of that is, I guess being. But, I think especially as an adoles- the achievement level depends a lot cent it's really important. And I think it's important that we make this an issue. on the parent making the choice. You know? There's a choice to go to the Despite the lack of racial diversity, stu- well, the parent could just say, 'I'm not dents expressed positive feelings about the school's racial makeup, while others said gonna really do anything. And the they wished the school were more diverse, school across the street is [Johnson], including more white and Asian American and that's where you're going.' As students. Several students credited the opposed to, 'Well, let's see what else is school with correcting racially stereotyped out there. Oh, there's this school called beliefs. [Fannie Lou Hamer] High School. It's "Coming to this school, we get to not a magnet school, they'll pretty know other cultures. We get to meet much take anybody who really wants new people. Because I know a lot of to go. Let's go there.' So they get the people who have the mentality of just kid out of the neighborhood and go to a what they hear from other people or different school. So the fact that the the TV they assume that all people of parent cares to make the effort just that certain race are just like that. But shows a bit more parent involvement." if you come to this school you meet people who are good and are bad. So Most of the teachers at Fannie Lou Hamer were white, but the non-white stu- it's not all the same. So I see the bene- dents seemed unconcerned. Most felt that fit. You get to see firsthand what peo- they were getting individual attention from ple are like." Another student suggested that interac- "It's something that we have to be tions with others reduced the negative remembering every year, that these kids stereotypes and better prepared students often come from a situation where for life beyond high school. they've never been to school with any- "It's like, a lot of racism out there. body who didn't look like them. And And [at our school, you see that] all we have to realize what that means for people are not like that. All whites are them, in terms of the chance that not like some of the whites that you they're going to take or not take to get have interacted with. And all to know somebody else who's really Mexicans are not like some of the different." Mexicans that you've interacted with. And it's an opportunity for you to get Students did not experience racism or bias from teachers. to knowsee a side of them that you've never seen before. Because "And the way they teach us, it makes when you go out into the workforce, us comfortable...[they teach us] the you're not going to work with all way that we can learnteach our- African Americans. That's just not selves together in the classroom. ...The possible. Your boss might be white. teachers are not one-sided or trying to Your boss might be Mexican. Your boss givelet's say, they talk and they're might be African-American. Your co- used to talking in a certain way, and workers might be a different race than like, [they] give another person a clue you. And it's like, you can't be racist [as to what they mean]....They teach [when] you don't even know them. So, us, like, equally." it's a good opportunity for us." Students believed they benefited from Students who attended Hamer after attending a small school where they devel- being in completely homogeneous elemen- oped relationships with teachers and tary and middle schools appreciated what received individual attention from them. diversity the school had. Even so, the Students said they felt that teachers cared school was undergoing adjustments that about them, wanted them to succeed academically, and were helping them prepare they felt were the growing pains of a new for college. and alternative school. "Since we were the first class, it was kinda new and difficult to "And this school is, like, small. And, get to know other people from outside you know, in the classes it's small so your own little group. It was kind of diffi- the teachers can help you out more cult. But after a while we started commu- nicating with each other, started knowing than if you was in a big class. You each other better, I think." couldn't, you knowa teacher couldn't give you all their attention, just and they help you out a lot. You know, The school principal was sensitive to the they don't wanna see you fail. They difficulties faced by students unaccus- tomed to interacting with people of other wanna see you succeed in life. And, it's races. pretty good, to me." j Much of the class work at Fannie Lou people. But, you won't walk into any Hamer was done in small groups. It was lunch period in this school and see the policy of most teachers to encourage one side Mexican and one side black. interracial interactions by designating You won't see that here. Everybody racially mixed groups for class projects. This practice appeared to be effective in integrates." helping to break down racial isolation. The The separation that did occur was not small student population also seemed to perceived as racist or negative. Teachers facilitate interracial relationships, making it agreed with the students' assessment of easier for students to get to know each their interracial relationships. One teacher other. said he was not aware of any racial ani- "I can say that this school is growing mosity among students, and that students to know each other better. Because worked in the classroom amiably. However, he added that they did separate last year, it was like, a group of themselves by race whenever given the Mexicans would sit all the way in the opportunity and that the school attempted back of the lunchroom. And it's like, to address such issues. mostly blacks would sit close to the "There's a lot of interaction that's front. You walk into the lunchroom really positive. You tend to see Latinos now, today, and it's like, they all mixed hanging out with Latinos or blacks up. Blacks talking to Mexicans, hanging out with blacks, sometimes. Mexicans talking to blacks." But, you see the interaction also. But, Some students characterized themselves you probably see more of the separa- and the student population in general, as tion. And, I think that's because they "color blind." "Everybody sees each other know them and they've known them the same." Other students called the since grammar school. But when you school, "one big happy family." Students found a combination of separation and get them into an interactive environ- mixing of races among students in the ment, there'sI don't see a lot of con- lunchroom, during social times, and in flicts at all. In fact, [we] talk about it, classes with open seating. "It's segregated and [students say], 'You guys are sometime, and sometimes it's not. You crazy.' They think that we bring it up have your set at school there a'mixing and mingling. You have your set and it's, like, and it's not a problem at all." strictly to their race. So, it's a few here and there and everyplace." Another student said,

"Sometimes there are, like, groups of Some students disagreed with the cele- just blacks and Mexicans. Then, you'll bration of Black History Month and see groups of both. It's like, when you Hispanic History Month, seeing it as divi- walk in, you know, just different sive by "bringing racism up." One student expressed, "We don't have any racism here, groups. Whoever are friends with the really. And then they come with, 'Well, lets "Just the basic curriculum that some do Mexican heritage and black her- of the teachers teach [is multicultural]. itage,'....No one cares if it's Black history, The way they teach usthe way they Mexican history, we just history, period. History of the United States, since that's present information. Like, we've been what we are." These students believed learning about immigrants. We've been some teachers tried too hard to be fair, "If learning about the Puritans. We've there is something Hispanic going on, been learning about a whole- we've there has to be something black going on." been consuming a whole lot of infor- To that, another student retorted, "Right. We don't really care, but I guess they think mation about different cultures, differ- we do." ent groups, different lifestyles. And it's something that they're trying to famil- One student felt the treatment of African- American history and literature was super- iarize us with. Because when we get ficial, indicating that the curricula were not out in the real world, something we're multiculturally integrated despite some gonna have to deal with, something school effort. She said, "I was saying how that we're gonna have towe're gonna every year we learn something about have to communicate with people from Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and so on and so on. But, it's like, they don't ever go different walks of life....So they're dig deeper. So people that they never preparing us now, for when we gradu- heard of, or people that did thingsbut ate and go to college, or wherever we it's like, they're not really recognized for decide to go." that." Students demonstrated a remarkable understanding of and sensitivity to their Students differed in their opinions curricula. regarding the importance of diversity in their reading material, although most For the most part, however, students felt found it positive. Some felt that the degree the curricula promoted multiculturalism. of interest a book held was more important They were exposed to materials that had than the diversity of its content or author. broad racial representation. Students per- Others enjoyed learning about various cul- ceived and appreciated that most teachers tures, not because they felt it was impor- wove multiculturalism throughout their tant but because it was interesting. "But learning, rather than it being limited to when you start learning about it, you want Hispanic or Black History Month. to learn more. Because some things that "And that's the only reason why other heritages do, it's interesting." However, still others thought diverse read- [people] learn [about Martin Luther ing material was very important because, King, jr.], is because it's February and "if you're [reading a book from your own it's Black History Month....But, like culture] you kind of get the feeling that, here, it's like, we talk about it all 'Oh, yeah.' But if other people of other through the year. Is no difference if it's races read that book they kind of get the February or not, we're still gonna talk feel of what you're about, or kind of an idea where you're coming from." about usour history." Fannie Lou Hamer students faced obsta- Another student said, cles to high academic achievement and 45 future prospects despite their unique 2. Paulo Freire High school and teacher efforts to provide them with opportunities. Parental involvement School Chicago, in the process of applying to Fannie Lou Illinois Hamer may indicate higher levels of motivation for academic success among students and their families. Teachers prac- Paulo Freire High School lies on the ticed teaching strategies that were benefi- desegregated end of the spectrum. cial to all students, provided special pro- Although only about one-quarter of the gramming, and worked to develop posi- students were white, considering the racial tive relationships with and among stu- composition of the larger area and the dents. The small school and class size was school's low percentage of impoverished noted by staff and students to be a great students, Freire lies closer to the desegre- benefit of the school. The school had gated end of the spectrum. During 1999, implemented many efforts recommended almost half of Freire students were African- by educational researchers, which elevated American (43.8 percent) and nearly one student satisfaction and combated some of quarter (22.9 percent) were white. The the school's disadvantages. remaining one-third of students were Asian American, Hispanic, and Native However, students and teachers per- American (16.6 percent, 16.1 percent, and ceived a number of roadblocks to success, 0.5 percent respectively). The relatively including poor parental support for daily low number of low-income students (35.5 tasks and poor early schooling. The school percent for the school and 84.5 percent for was highly segregated, even compared the district and 36.1 percent for the state) with Chicago's predominantly African- was likely related to the selective admis- American and Latino student population. sions requirement and helped to produce Students scored slightly better than the dis- the high academic achievement among stu- trict which had a smaller minority popula- dents. tion, suggesting that the policies and practices of the school were having a positive All students were required to take an impact on academic achievement. General admissions test to obtain entrance into student satisfaction demonstrates that the Chicago's most academically prestigious school created benefits beyond academics, public high school. Freire had 99 percent such as positive interracial experiences. of 10th-grade students meet or exceed the The school affirmatively addressed racial Illinois Standards Achievement Tests issues by having fairly rich curricula. Most (ISAT) in reading, along with 93 percent in students found the experience very valu- math, and 93 percent in writing. Whereas, able, expressed appreciation for the oppor- the district saw only 47 percent of students tunity to learn about themselves and oth- meet or exceed ISAT in reading, 24 percent ers, and noted little racial tension within in math, and 41 percent in writing and the the school. However, Fannie Lou Hamer state experienced 70 percent in reading, 52 students scored markedly worse than their percent in math, and 66 percent in writ- ingwo desegregated state counterparts, suggesting that the segregated nature of the school The school's African-American principal again had a negative impact significant was acutely aware of Paulo Freire's status enough to counter its positive characteris- as a leader among Chicago schools and of tics. the responsibilities that entailed. "I am an African-American principal actually. And the students really care in a school that is highly visiblein about what they learn. Not only socializ- the fishbowl all of the time. And I ing, like in different schools." Most students said that parents placed a high value have to exude la racially integrated] on education and kept a close eye on their mindset, or this school would not be children's progress in school. [as] successful as it has been. And While sometimes envious of their neigh- we'd have a problem because, I have borhood friends' lack of homework and some very vocal parents, very vocal school pressures, students said they felt students. And if they ever sensed that I sorry for those who attended less rigorous was showing favoritism or prejudice schools. A student said of her friends in towards one groupwe'd have a prob- another school, "If the school doesn't even lem." take their education seriously, they're not either." One student who attended a pre- Students at Paulo Freire planned to dominantly Latino neighborhood elemen- attend and were well prepared for college. tary school before coming to Paulo Freire, Several students expressed the belief that said of his elementary school friends, they and their classmates, regardless of "We're in totally different worlds. race were the "cream of the crop." They felt that the high academic achievement of My world is, I come to school, like, students admitted to their school gave trying to make my grades, go to col- them something in common and made it lege. Their world is, like, hanging out easier for them to see each other as equals. on the street corners. Like, just screw- One student said, "The people that get in ing around. Like, not taking school [to Paulo Freire], you don't view them as a separate race, but instead you view them seriously, not really worrying about as your peers, because they're at an equal where they're going to go." level with you." Such feelings by some Another student felt Paulo Freire did a students suggest elements of Allport's con- better job than other schools of preparing tact theory of integration discussed earlier, students for college. specifically, that students are interacting with one another on a level of equal status. "Some people [will go to] another Some students felt that the restrictive high school for four years and still admissions policy, rather than the quality won't be ready for college. So, I think education they received, made Paulo Freire it's just this atmosphere. It's this a superior college preparatory school. school. It's the way they keep pushing "The only way to have an excellent college us, keep preparing us and telling us, 'If preparatory dass or school is to have the you're going to go to college, this is students that are most motivated to go to college, or most motivated to work with what you're going to do. So, work the program." Others credited student suc- hard and work hard and work hard." cess to concern and attentiveness of teach- The students and teachers at Paulo Freire ers, strict discipline, and challenging curricula. As one student said, "Hike the way spoke highly of each other. A teacher said that all of her students participated fully this school concentrates on learning. And the teachersthey're really good teachers, and enthusiastically in dassroom discus- 4'7 sions. One student said, "Many of the learn a lot and everything is not narrow- teachers here realize, more than anywhere minded. It's broad." Another said, "I think else I've gone, that they're being hired to I learn about other cultures just by going to teach me. Not hired to teach a lesson, but this school." One student felt the school's hired to make sure that I learn the material diversity helped students by, "Not being of the class." Another student described prejudiced against anybody, because you the school as a "nurturing environment." know that they're all the same." Students of all races generally felt that the Students believed that attending a racial- teachers were available to them and treated ly diverse school helped them develop per- them fairly. However, a few students said ceptions of people that were based on they thought certain teachers responded fewer stereotypes than commonly found more positively to students of their own elsewhere. "You might have thought race. "...there was, like, three or four peo- something all your life about somebody ple that were not black. And it was horri- and when you get to know them, it will ble, because he just, like, fixated upon totally change your whole opinion." them." Another student said, Another student said, "I have two [teachers] ...I know it is "When I was going to my old school I [a racial thing[...'cause, like I say, he knew everything about being Puerto doesn't call on me. But he's, like, pick- Rican and Mexican, but all I had was, ing all the other students and they're like, the stereotypical opinions of, like, like, ['He's good.'] [And I say], 'Yeah, blacks, Chinese, Asiansin general, good for you, good for you.' And then other minorities. And then you come one of the black students, like, tries to here, and you realize that those are just answer the same question and he's like, stereotypes, they're not facts." 'Well, we've gotten that covered already.' And then I'm trying to Students, teachers, and administrators agreed that relationships in the school were answer the questionhe doesn't even positive and there was no serious racial pick on me, 'cause, I guess, they all strife. However, most said that the think I'm some stoner, or something. school's racial integration was superficial. It's justI don't like being a part of "I would say, they say they interact more it." than they really do." Most found cordial interaction in the classrooms but segregation by race outside of dass. "When you see people on their lunch periods and when they're walking around in the hall- Students spoke highly of the school's ways and stuff, that's just the way it is. racial diversity. Many students cited diver- And in gym dasses and anytime that they sity as one of the most positive aspects of have the opportunity to segregate them- the school. Students described themselves selves, they usually do." One student said as more "cultured" and open-minded than of her classmates, their friends who attended segregated schools. "You get to learn a lot from other "We have a lot of different ethnic people. You know where they came from backgrounds at the school. But as far or how they came to be. So, you get to asif you go into the lunchrooms you'll see it's very segregated. You'll nous. see the blacks with the blacks, the One factor found to mitigate self-segrega- Hispanics with the Hispanics, the tion was early experiences with diversity. whites with the whites. If you go into Students who attended racially mixed ele- the classroom and the teacher doesn't mentary and middle schools credited those assign seats, it'll also be segregated." early experiences with helping them feel comfortable with interracial relationships. Another student concurred, "If you go to a mixed school from the beginningthe younger you are, the less "This is the most segregated but inte- you look at the colors of skin." Another grated school. We have lots and lots of student said, "you can't really substitute different races. (In some schools] it anything for first-hand experience with would be weird if, like, a black girl and people who are different from you and a white girl were walking down a hall- even more important than [high school diversity] is the diverse elementary school way talking to each other. But here, experience." In contrast, students who it's not that weird. But, I mean, even attended homogeneous elementary and though we interact together, you won't middle schools tended to perpetuate that really see manythey'll talk to you in experience of limited diversity by choosing the hall, but once you get outside it's friends in high school who were similar to their friends in elementary school. like they'll go off to their [clique]." An African-American student who It is not clear that the school addressed attended a homogeneous elementary this issue. One group of students stated school found that along with diversity and that, with the exception of the teachers' opportunity at Paulo Freire came other table, theirs was the only racially integrat- benefits. She found improved discipline ed table in the lunchroom. They try to and fewer fights. She also felt her English diversify everything, but the truth of the usage had improved. Her former class- matter is, it's never going to be as diverse mates and neighborhood friends recog- as we want it to be. There'll always be nized changes in her. cliques and social groups." Students accepted the segregation as natural and "So, I know a lot of rough people. did not attribute it to racism or negative Like, when I come home, you know, I'm feelings. Many agreed that, "You tend to kind of different now. But I used to be relate to people your own race better than rough like that, too. But now I'm just, others." Another student said, "It's not that [students are] mean to each other by pur- kind of, calmed down. And they's like, posely saying, 'I'm not going to go and 'Ooh, you changed so much, hanging hang out with those people because they out with those white people.' I'm like, are this nationality or that.' It's just that 'What? They didn't change me.' It's those are the people that you're drawn to. just that this is a better environment That's just how it ends up." Even students who had school friends of other races said than where I live." that outside of school, their friends were Because of the size of the student body, generally from their neighborhoods and small group activities, either in classes or those friends tended to be racially homoge- in extracurricular activities, were particu-

4 9 larly important as a means for students to One student considered the school one of get acquainted with new people. Several the best places to be for racial diversity. students mentioned that their most signifi- However, he felt the school did not actively cant and positive interactions with those of promote diversity in its curricula and other races were in clubs or organizations expressed an understanding of the need in which smaller groups of students inter- for a truly integrated school environment acted. Two students cited the ROTC pro- rather than ending efforts at desegregation. gram as racially diverse and friendly. "In Students felt that the teachers and adminis- ROTC, everyone's there and it's cool." tration were not doing enough to address Another student agreed, "[there's] no prej- these issues. "Hmmm, I don't know. I udiceand we all hang out together." wanna say yes, but I can't think of anything specific that would but it definitely Despite broad student appreciation for doesn't promote segregation, seemingly. the school's diversity, they did not agree on But, no. I don't think I ever heard any- the importance of multicultural curricula. body in authority talk about multicultural- Some said they enjoyed learning about ism." diverse cultures, and in fact, diversity of reading materials in English classes con- Despite their academic success, students tributed to their enthusiasm for reading. sensed a lack of breadth in their education. However, other students were not interest- They expressed a strong desire to receive a ed in studying their own culture, while still truly integrated educational experience. others lacked interest in the cultures of oth- Students demonstrated a remarkable ers. "I would find it boringanything on understanding of the components of an my heritage 'cause it's all the same." This integrated school, and that many of those ambivalence may in part be due to the way components were lacking in their school. students experience multiculturalismas Despite this, teachers and administrators an optional add-on rather than integrated felt they were providing students with into their daily learning. multicultural curricula in an integrated school setting. The principal considered Several students were critical of the Paulo Freire a success story under school's English and history curricula, Chicago's magnet school based desegrega- finding they lacked integration. A student tion plan. "Symbolic of really what complained that the histories of different [schools] should be." races and cultures were treated separately, with little recognition of their interconnect- However, when she referred to her "inte- edness. He suggested that, rather than grated" school, she was referring to the having a week of Latino history and a numeric desegregation of the school and week of Asian-American history, the teach- the advantages for students attending ers should "put it all together. It'd be bet- school with people of varied races and eth- ter to go just by time and see who was nicities. Administrators and teachers doing what at this time. Like, 1900, 1910. viewed the curricula as multicultural, cit- Like, see what was up then, instead of having the desegregation of the student body ing it so separate, so cut and dried, one and the special add-on classes such as week, one week, one week." Another stu- African-American history. These classes dent concurred, "It's hard to distinguish were not required, therefore only students between history of black people and histo- who were interested took them. Only one ry of history... [they should] just incorpo- class was offered at a time which created a rate it all." "first come, first served" situation and also precluded students with full schedules unbalanced schools. In the 1971-1972 from taking the classes. These special school year, there were 65,201 students in classes were the primary sources for mate- the Minneapolis School District. Of those rials produced by or about people of color. students, 55,735 were white, 6,351 black, The core classes, including English and his- 2,225 American Indian and 890 defined as tory remained predominantly Euro-centric. other ethnic groups. In that year, 55 percent Teachers and administrators demonstrated of black elementary school children attend- a lack of understanding regarding integrated schools that were over 30 percent black, ed multicultural curricula and integrated while 74 percent of white children attend- school settings. ed schools with black enrollments of less than 5 percent. At the junior high level, 68 percent of minority students attended C. St. Paul Schools schools with over 30 percent minority; 63 percent of white students attended schools Context with less than 5 percent minority students. Lincoln Junior High was over 72 percent Minneapolis and St. Paul are referred to minority; Southwest Junior High had only as the "Twin Cities." While possessing dif- five minority students. Two Minneapolis high schools had minority enrollments ferent characteristics, together they represent a reasonable urban core. In setting the over 30 percent minority, while four had context for St. Paul, the report relies on populations of less than 4 percent minority. information about Minneapolis to the In 1972, parents of children attending extent it seems plausible. Minneapolis schools brought a class action St. Paul is unique in its dose proximity to suit alleging that the school district main- Minneapolis; and the two constitute the tained unconstitutionally segregated largest urban area in Minnesota. While the schools.' The plaintiffs alleged that the legal history of desegregation in the Twin neighborhood school system used by the Cities began in the Minneapolis Public district had been created in a city known to Schools, it is ultimately inextricably bound have intentional and widespread discrimi- to the changes in St. Paul. Therefore, nation in housing, and that the probable Minneapolis Public Schools' history of and foreseeable result was segregated desegregation will be examined initially. schools. The federal district court found a From this initial foray into court-ordered pattern of segregative decisions. The court noted that in 1968, in a predominantly desegregation in the early 1970s, both St. Paul and Minneapolis shaped their deseg- black neighborhood, the district built regation policies out of the experience of Bethune Elementary School with a student the other district, the influence of the capacity of 900 instead of the typical 500- courts, and the directives issued by the 600 usually set by the district. The result State Board of Education. was that black children were concentrated at Bethune. To understand the context in which the desegregation of Minneapolis schools was In addition, the court found that the dis- developed through the courts, it is neces- trict added classrooms to black elementary sary to know that, in the early 1970s, the schools rather than transferring black chil- small number of students of color and the dren to available white schools. The court larger body of whites attended racially identified that Washburn High School, which was 97 percent white, was over-

51 enrolled by 600 students while adjacent educational opportunity. The Board of Central High School, which was 23 percent Education in accepting its share of black, was running at 600 below capacity, responsibility will initiate, support yet children were not being transferred. and implement practical and feasible There was also testimony from district administrators that the district allowed ways of eliminating de facto segrega- special transfers more frequently when tion in the schools of St. Paul.'°2 race was a factor in the transfer request. Two years prior and then subsequent to The court also found that the district had the adoption in 1973 of the statewide, never employed black teachers in 11 mandatory policy on desegregation, the St. Minneapolis elementary schools; seven Paul Schools instituted numerous meas- other schools had employed only one black ures to effectuate desegregation, which at teacher throughout their histories and four that time meant having less than 50 per- others had employed only two black teach- cent minority enrollment at any school. ers. Of all black teachers, 61 percent were Pairing, first used experimentally by St. located at schools with over 15 percent Paul in 1971, was one measure used for black enrollment. Finally, the court found this purpose. Pairing involved combining that residential segregation in Minneapolis entire elementary school populations, then was the product of discrimination, and that dividing the students to create two differ- the Minneapolis School District was aware ent schools: one for the lower elementary of discriminatory practices of the Board of grades, the other for the higher. New Realtors. buildings, modified curricula to attract a Based on these findings, the court deter- diverse student population, the creation of mined that the Minneapolis School District open and fundamental-type schools, and consistently drew lines to increase or main- the formation of specialized learning cen- tain segregation. The court ordered the ters were other approaches to non-manda- board to implement a plan to desegregate tory desegregation during this period. students and staff/faculty. The desegrega- The learning centers, unique to St. Paul, tion order required that each school have a were sites of specialized education that limit of 35 percent minority students. purported to desegregate students by min- Prior to the state's adoption of regula- gling them for several hours a week for tions regarding desegregation in 1973, the this purpose off -site: the students traveled St. Paul School Board issued a statement to the learning centers within the school on its position: day.' They were designed in response to the filing of a lawsuit against the district by the St. Paul Commission on Human The Board recognizes the evidence Rights, and were the fruit of a series of that concentration of racial groupings open forums held throughout 1970-71, facilitated by Superintendent Dr. George in schools from whatever causes is one Young." of the factors which inhibits the educational development of the children Within clusters of six or seven schools, students were given the option of volun- involved, and that the existence of de tarily choosing and attending a specialized facto segregation is inconsistent with learning center focused on the environ- the democratic principle of equality of ment, foreign language, social environment, career exploration, or culture and the curricula to conform to the goal of inte- heritage. The culture and heritage learning gration. The Program for Educational centers were: the Black Culture Resource Opportunity stepped into the picture in Center; the American Indian Learning- 1979 and reviewed the curricula for multi- Resource Center; and the Mexican- cultural content. In 1984, a task force was American Cultural Resource Center. While formed with the purpose of developing participation was voluntary, the vast more multicultural curricula as well as majority of students chose to attend a spe- drafting a timeline for implementation of ciali7ed learning center. According to the the changes, with supportive consultation district, at least two of the clusters had 95 from the Program for Educational percent and 98 percent participation, Opportunity. Multicultural curricula respectively, between 1971 and 1974.'5 By gained greater emphasis in the newly 1979, the learning centers were explicitly developing magnet schools.'" not endorsed by the State Board of Education, which mandated that the home Reflective of the specialized, voluntary schools themselves must be desegregated. learning centers available in the cluster system of the 1970s, magnet schools in St. Inter-district transfers began to gain popu- larity during this period as an alternative Paul were established to draw a diverse to learning centers and as a means to population of students with an interest in a desegregate in accordance with the state discrete subject area. The first six of these schools were established in 1984 and directive.m° opened in September 1985. All served first Issues not addressed at this time by the the attendance-area students and then policies and measures adopted in St. Paul those enrolled citywide, as racial balance to comply with the state desegregation reg- or building capacity allowed. By 1991, St. ulations included: staffing patterns regard- Paul had 40 magnet schools and these ing racial composition of schools; quality of schools had become the primary mecha- education as a priority alongside desegre- nism for desegregation."2 gation; and a push for greater parental By the late 1980s, St. Paul school officials school choice.107 recognizrd that school districts themselves In Minneapolis, the desegregation plan within the metro region had become racial- developed out of litigation in the early ly identifiable, which undermined the goal 1970s. In 1978, the Minneapolis School of integration within a metropolitan con- District brought a motion to terminate the text. court's jurisdiction. The court held that full implementation had not yet occurred Also, the cost of administering desegre- because integration of the American Indian gation programs had become too great a student population had not been incorpo- burden on the district. In response to these rated into the plan.106 The Eighth Circuit concerns, but primarily to the financial Court of Appeals upheld this decision.109 concerns, then-superintendent of St. Paul The Supreme Court chose not to review Schools, David Bennett, proposed a plan the case."' The Minneapolis School District that included: increased but voluntary remained under court jurisdiction until cooperation among metropolitan school 1983. districts; creation of a scholarship program; recruitment of teachers of color; state spon- In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the St. sorship of professional development Paul Schools began a process of reforming emphasizing multiculturalism and gender

53 equity; the development of six state-spon- tan area, and 21 different state officials and sored magnet schoolsthree in St. Paul state entities. The NAACP alleged that and three located in the suburbs; and poli- because the Minneapolis schools had dis- cy-making to address the nexus between proportionate numbers of poor and minor- desegregation and housing integation."3 ity students, students were denied their fundamental right to receive an adequate Following this proposal, the state govern- education under the state constitution. ment enacted measures focusing primarily They asserted that the Metropolitan on the metropolitan issue, including Council was liable for making decisions teacher and student exchanges within the that directly affected racial and economic area, legislation for a common school cal- segregation in Minneapolis, and that, with endar, adoption of a plan for curricular their knowledge, in turn affected school reform, funding for interdistrict transfers, segregation. The Metropolitan Council and funding for the recruitment of teachers succeeded in changing the venue of the of color."' But the measures adopted by the lawsuit to federal court. The federal court state fell far short of those requested by the dismissed the charges against the superintendent of the St. Paul schools. Metropolitan Council, finding the action Subsequent litigation in Minnesota void by res judicata (meaning that an earli- addressed the funding of schools. In 1988, er decision by the court on this matter had parents of children in Minnesota schools resolved the issue and a new suit on the brought an action alleging that the state same issue could not be brought).18 financing system failed to establish "a gen- An earlier suit had been brought against eral and uniform system of public schools" the council asserting that it had failed to and failed to "secure a thorough and effi- approve funding for low income housing cient system of public schools throughout in the suburbs and had made decisions the state." Both items were requirements that accelerated the "polarization of the of the State Constitution of Minnesota. metro area by income and race." The more The plaintiffs alleged that the financing recent suit's decision was appealed to the system of the state created serious dispari- Supreme Court, which remanded the case ties in funding between districts. In 1989, for further consideration. However, the 24 higher tax base school districts were Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals again held allowed to intervene as defendants in the that the claims against the Metropolitan case. The district court held that, although Council should properly be heard in feder- education was a fundamental right under al court."' A second request for hearing by the state constitution, the legislature had the Supreme Court was denied."8 The made efforts to equalize funding in public allegations against the other state entities education to all extents possible and thus remain, and the case is pending.' any disparities that existed did not violate the state constitution."' In the mid-1990s, the NAACP brought a Shortly after the Minneapolis suit was new lawsuit against the state of Minnesota, filed, the St. Paul school board filed suit this time asserting that the Minneapolis against the state. The suit charged that the schools were illegally segregated under the state segregated the students by racial and state constitution. The NAACP also sued socioeconomic status. The suit was even- the Metropolitan Council, an administra- tually voluntarily dismissed. tive agency that coordinates planning and The mid-1990s saw the development of development in the Twin Cities metropoli- multiple new desegregation rules pro- f"' A `11 posed by the state Department of Children, Assistant Director, Student Evaluation and Families, and Learning. This rule under- Information Services. Despite this claim of went numerous revisions, responsive to success, little progress has been made with the concerns of policy-makers, education respect to achievement. In 1995, more than stakeholders, and the public. The 1993 half of all minority students in grades 2 to proposed rule was harshly criticized for its 8 received below-average scores on the lack of implementation and enforcement Metropolitan Achievement Tests, Seventh mechanisms; the stated goals of the rule Edition (MATT). About one in four white were to promote integration and diversity, students received below-average scores.' but these lofty goals weren't buttressed by any provision of steps that districts should This emphasis on choice is also designed take to achieve them. As Matthew Little, to increase parental involvement, and therefore higher student achievement. St. then-recently retired president of the Paul currently offers the choice of neigh- Minnesota NAACP stated: "The revised borhood, magnet, tri-district, interdistrict, policy declares 'Diversity is the foundation and alternative learning schools. Included of our society'... yetthe new draft proposal does nothing to implement the thesis in the list of questions asked prior to the of that policy."'" choosing a school for the student, a parent is asked whether "the school nurture(s) and In 1999, the state adopted a voluntary enhance(s) cultural diversity." St. Paul desegregation rule that is cognizant only of assigns students to schools "based on a intentional segregation, not de facto segre- variety of factors, including parental gation, or segregation resulting from choice, state-required racial balance in the demographic shifts. The adoption of the schools, transportation, space availability, voluntary rule can be interpreted in part as and district guidelines." Transfers are per- responsive to community sentiment; 55 mitted, both outside the neighborhood at percent of metropolitan residents were the elementary school level and outside the found more likely to oppose a mandatory district at the secondary level, if the neces- desegregation plan over a voluntary deseg- sary racial balance is maintained. regation plan in 1995. Subsequent to the adoption of this rule, which has disap- Most recently, St. Paul has experimented with several initiatives to further diversify pointed many participants in the rule drafting process because of its multiple the student population. One initiative, the Teachers of Color Urban Collaborative, weaknesses, St. Paul has accessed funding to establish a new magnet school that funded with the support of private grants, draws students from surrounding subur- is built around the goal of increasing the ban districts, including nearby Roseville percentage of teachers of color to more and the North St. Paul-Maplewood- dosely reflect the student racial composi- Oakdale districts. tion in the district. At the time of the program's inception in 1997, 60 percent of St. St. Paul schools have, during this period, Paul students were students of color, while maintained voluntary desegregation with only 10 percent of their teachers were non- open enrollment that emphasizes choice white. To remedy this, the program focus- for parents and students. "We've been es on recruitment, preparation of teachers more successful than most districts at of color, support, and retention. It involves maintaining an integrated atmosphere, and a partnership with local universities, and we've done it through school choice, not provides support for students of color forced busing," said Steve Schellenberg, within the district interested in becoming

JJ teachers. of 1,029 students during the 1998-1999 school year. Just over one-third of students A second initiative that has recently been were white (31.8 percent), with 23.7 percent developed, the Five-District Integration Asian American students, 23.6 percent Partnership, is a summer enrichment pro- Hispanic students, 18.9 percent African- gram built around the subject areas of his- American students, and 2.0 percent Native tory, art, and the environment. The pro- American students. Students eligible for gram links stakeholders in the St. Paul free or reduced lunches totaled 67.6 per- schools with surrounding districts. cent, and 36.6 percent were considered According to the program literature, the Limited English Proficient. In January of voluntary partnership is "working to bring 1999, Romero had 49 percent of students together students, parents, and teachers score at or above average on the Grade 10 across racial, cultural, socioeconomic, geo- Basic Skills test in writing.' graphic, and district boundaries." Oscar Romero students planned to attend college but were worried about the cost. A high-ranking student wanted to go to a 1. Oscar Romero High local university, but said she might go to a School St. Paul, community college because it was more affordable. "I was kinda looking at, maybe, Minnesota St. Thomas but I'm not looking at aI need money...But my parents would be Oscar Romero High School is a racially fine if I went to community college too." and ethnically diverse school. Although Most students planned to work while whites were only slightly over 30 percent attending college or technical school. of the student population in 1998-99, they Although most students planned to attend were the largest single group in the school. college after graduating, several had not Based simply on racial composition, Oscar yet applied and most did not seem to have Romero would be considered desegregat- knowledge regarding college opportunities ed. However, the number of minority stu- or the benefits they would gain from con- dents was very high given the demograph- tinuing their education. The primary moti- ics of the Twin Cities area. Additionally, vation for attending college was to make the number of students eligible for free or money to buy nice things, or for many, to reduced lunches (67.6 percent) was much avoid the financial struggles their parents higher than the regional average. Most faced. "By completing high school and notably, tracking within the school resulted [college]...[t]hat's the only way I'm gonna in a very segregated school population. get money to go to the places I want. Oscar Romero is a prime example of the That's probably what motivates me." difficulty in classifying schools along the The Junior ROTC (JROTC) officer train- continuum of segregated to integrated. ing course sergeant said that JROTC cadets When considering Oscar Romero's com- were more likely to go on to college than plexity of characteristics representing both any other group at the school. He thought segregated and desegregated aspects, we it was because the program taught stu- placed it toward the desegregated end of dents discipline and self-respect and gave the spectrum, keeping in mind its segregat- them a sense of pride. He also pointed out ed tendencies. that many people thought JROTC taught a Oscar Romero had a student population military curriculum. Although they used a military model of instruction, the content they have a better sense of what it of the course related to such things as citi- means to be involved, to be participat- zenship, leadership, and community serving citizens. We believe the JROTC ice. The racial makeup of the program was approximated. "Probably the largest ethnic [students] are more inclinedonce they group of students who take this program turn 18, are more inclined to go to the are Hispanic. Followed by, in pretty much polls and vote, and are more inclined equal numbers, Asian Americans and to pick up the newspaper, read what Caucasians. And African-American stu- the issues are of the candidates, where dents are [the] lowest percentage representative-wise." Of the benefits JROTC had to do the candidates stand on the issues." offer students, the sergeant said, Students appreciated the racial diversity "I would tell them that once a stu- at Oscar Romero. In fact, they commonly found racial diversity to be the most posi- dent finishes JROTC they are better tive aspect of the school. Some experi- prepared to make decisions, they have enced positive interracial relationships and a better idea of what the decision-mak- found that students regularly interacted ing process is all about, and what con- with other races, while other students saw stitutes a good decision versus a bad racism and segregation. decision. I would say also, that stu- Those who experienced positive relation- dents who tend to be a little quieter, ships thought they led to an overall feeling reserved, introverted, by the time they of good will. "The ease in which the students make friends. It doesn't matter if finish the program, they are no longer you're black, or white, or yellow, or red." quiet and introverted. Because they Another student said, need to be bold, [but] not in the sense "Yeah, It's pretty cool cause, like, in of powerful. When there's a job to be the hallways you see everybody saying, done, they need to just step to the front 'Hi' to each other, walking, talking, and do it and not wait for somebody you know, 'cause, like, every other peri- else to do it, or not necessarily wait for od I'm walking with a different person instructions on how to do it, but take and it's, like, from an ethnic back- initiative. ground, different ethnic background, or "I would also tell parents that we the same. I'm walking with a different believe that the JROTC cadets have a person every time Igo to, like, a period better sense of [government], what the or something." function of each one of the branches is Oscar Romero had a high special educa- built on and how those people are put tion and handicapped student population. into office and how Supreme Court Most felt the other students were accepting judges are appointed and why, what of them. As they did with racial differ- sort of regulations are put on them, ences, students seemed to take such differ- what are the limitations put on the ences in stride, viewing them as normal, rather than aberrant. Teachers were most governor, president, the state represen- impressed with students' attitudes toward tative. I would also tell them that and acceptance of diversity. One teacher

5 described the atmosphere, due to both stu- could be all black, or Mexican, or whatever. dents and staff, as a "little Utopia." In fact, But most of the lunchroom is mixed." teachers viewed student attitudes and Other students had a different perspec- behavior as strikingly better than that of tive, finding noticeable racial segregation adults. in the cafeteria and during other informal "People complain about the public times. education in the city, but the one thing "I think there's very little interaction it teaches you is reality. And how to cause it's a lot of groups of people that deal with racism. And that's what you just hang around each other, you know. learn as a student down here. And If you golike, what I seeif I go to a even more so, the kids down here are class that I know other people, no mat- exposed tobecause we're a mecca for ter what race they are, I associate with handicapped students, special ed., so them. But when Igo outside of the they're exposed to a variety of kids in classroom, in the hall, then lunch, you different situations. And they treat see a group of people sitting together. them as individuals." Like, black people here, white people Another teacher said that's what I've seen." "When we had when the new school To that comment, another student added, opened and we were the first school in "It's like the neighborhoods that you're from." St. Paul to be completely handicapped accessible as it was defined then. [The Consistently mentioned was a failure medial came and said, 'Oh.' And they among students to pursue interracial friendships outside of school. Close asked our students, 'Well, what's it like friends tended to be of the same race. having somebody rolling around in a Despite acknowledging racial divisions in wheelchair?' or something. And the other people's friendships, each intervie- very interesting thing that happened in wee claimed that his or her group of almost every incident was the kids friends was racially mixed. However, during more in-depth conversations, most would just say, 'What do you mean?"' admitted that their closest friends were of Although students felt that race did not their own race. Students cited shared limit student interactions in dass and dur- experiences and comfort level as the pri- ing other structured school activities, there mary reasons for this type of segregation. was discrepancy regarding interactions "...there's always that thing right there during free time at school. Some students between people of the same race. I don't found heterogeneity during informal times know, I can't feel it with other people who throughout the school. One student com- aren't Asian. mented about the lunchroom, "Yeah, Some students experienced not only seg- everybody just blends in together. It really regation but also racist comments and don't matter what race you are or any- dashes. "Sometimes their friends [will] thing...Just, I mean, there'll be some peo- make a comment to you. Maybe [they'll] ple who sit with their friends, and they make it directly because of your race or maybe because they just want to say some- interactions with teachers seemed to be thing. All depends on how you could take "targeted" by a teacher, either because of a it to be and it would become a racist war label they carried or personal differences. [they] personally attack you." Another said, "Some of the teachers are real hard to get along with...They always come at "A little prejudice here and you the wrong way and they think they there....Like, you know...they say this, can yell at you. But you can't say or whateverit's just because, like, we nothing back, you know? They think they, don't know us as the Hmong, they're better than you 'cause they're usually. And they're like, 'Are you teaching. Some teachers are cool, they Chinese?' or something like that. And won't say nothing. They treat you like you're like, 'I'm Hmong.' And they're, you're a regular person. And other like, making fun of my language and teachers, they'll treat you like you're stuff." an idiot...." Racial conflicts among gangs within the It was common for students to cite school were noted as well. Such experi- "down-to-earth" teachers who were easy to ences were laughed off or explained away talk with. More strict teachers were less by some students. For others, they were approachable. "It's like, 'I don't want to troubling and established an atmosphere of talk to you no more." tension and division. More students than not found teachers One of the major failures noted at Oscar open and interested in them. The follow- Romero was the racially segregated classes. ing student speaks well for those having White students tended to be in higher level positive experiences with teachers. classes. "That system, it's really biased....There's a lot of difference. The "I like that the teachers are really blacks, and the Mexicans, and the Asians easy to talk to. When you need them are primarily in the lower levels. The you can just go and, like, just have a white people, girls, are in the high." As one student expressed it, labeling the high- big old conversation with some of the er courses as AP or CP sent a message to teachers. It's really fun. And that students who were not in those courses there's a lot of different backgrounds that they would not be prepared for col- [among teachers] because you learn a lege, thereby discouraging them from try- lot from that. And that there's a lot of ing. These experiences confirm the prob- the same backgrounds, like Mexican lems related to tracking students within schools. Americans, here so that's cool." Students were divided regarding their Although there were not many African- feelings toward teachers. Most liked their American teachers, most students felt that teachers, but others had negative encoun- the staff was more diverse than at other ters. None, however, believed the teachers schools, having many Hispanic teachers. to be racist. "He's just like that. I just ain't Students felt that kids who were more never got along with him. I don't know, I successful took school seriously and were mean, I ain't gonna jump and say he's a motivated. Successful students were also racist." Often, students having negative seen as having parents who encouraged 59 them and wanted them to do well. negative influence on scholastic achieve- Students often wanted to please their par- ment. Many students worked after school ents by having a better life than they did. and either had to study during the school day or after leaving work at night. Some "There are some people, like, their students were more focused on making parents don't really care about their money than they were on school. education and stuff. And I think that's Regarding students who missed a high straight up wrong because my mom, number of school days, a teacher said, she's, just like, soshe's like, 'If you "It's justthey don't get it. But guys want to be somebody when you and they'll come back with, 'I'm never grow up, go to school.' And stuff like late at McDonald's. I mean, I'm that. And she struggled, like. She was always at McDonald's.' And the like, 'I didn't finish high school, or reward there is the paycheck. And I whatever, and see where I am. I am a tell them the reward here is a diploma, hardI have to work really, really which is a lot more valuable than the hard for my money and stuff. And you reward out there. Because that six dol- never know. You guys can go to college lars is gonna be six dollars, it's gonna finish high school, go to college, and stay six dollars." just be sitting in an office and getting Most of the students came from low- paid...Make sure you do your work, income families. Their families depended kid."' on them to make a financial contribution to the household. Many students were strug- It was commonly thought that students who did poorly in school received little gling to keep up with schoolwork while doing household chores, caring for sib- support from their families or had teachers lings, and working. Some of these stu- who did not seem to care about students' dents had the added challenge of being achievement. Families that emphasized things other than school, and friends who recent immigrants. did not encourage hard work had a detri- A large segment of Oscar Romero stu- mental impact on school performance and dents were not native English speakers. motivation. "I'm a bad student now. I Both students and staff found language used to be really good when I first got barriers to be a tremendous obstacle to aca- here, but the more you get friends and you demic and social success. hang out more, you just start slacking and you don't do your work. You clown in the Even though the school was diverse, classroom and stuff." there was frustration expressed about being a part of a larger system that was Students who felt that their parents were largely white and not necessarily sensitive unable to be active in school or spend time to the needs of the students in the school. monitoring performance often lost self- One teacher voiced concern regarding the motivation. "She used to come down on newly implemented graduation standards, me [after conferences] and all this. She citing them as Euro-centric and not appro- stopped doing that and I stopped caring priate for all students. she did, too." In addition to lack of support, students cited after-school jobs as a "And I get uncomfortable when the grad. standards are developed by so, just trying to become familiar with [white people]. And that, they're out to that, and all of those different things. propose what they perceive as And, being a new principal, there are American values on our children. And still areas that I have not gotten to." I'm just saying that, [people of color] Comments by teachers regarding their have values....The fact of the matter is multicultural curricula demonstrated that that all peoples on this planet have the school was just in the beginning stages things to contribute to education of developing a truly integrated multicul- education [is also what] you get at tural school. home, which is minding your manners, "We also had a number of courses, knowing your limitations, knowing and I would say that we probably inte- your boundaries, and that....I get a lit- grated an awful lot of international, tle shaken up, because I'm uncomfort- cultural information into the classes able with the system we have in terms during that ten-year period. For of looking at things from [the Euro- instance, the music teachers, when they centric] point." were adopting new materials, they did- Students felt they had some exposure to n't select materials thatfor instance, multicultural curricula, however there was choral music [did not have] selections not an emphasis on that type of learning. from Europeans, European or American They read modem fiction and non-fiction composers, [only]. And the band, like- by a variety of authors. Often, teachers wise. Our band started marching, allowed students to choose their own books or projects without requiring diver- marching units, we bought flags that sity as a component. Being in his second represented every one of the countries." year at Oscar Romero, the principal said he Despite teachers' contentedness with the had not yet pursued the implementation of curricula, students were aware of the dis- inclusive curricula. The curricula came parity. One student spoke of a teacher's from a combination of district and in- efforts to incorporate other cultures into school sources. their studies. "But, it's like, she was more "Right now we are using the curricu- in the superficial cultures that is the politi- lum that has basically been a compila- cally correct thing to teach." tion over a period of time....I have not Students wanted to have role models and taken an in-depth look at the curricu- a fair representation of their own history, lum at Oscar Romero, yet. That's one but they also wanted to learn about people of the things that, hopefully, I will get of different cultural backgrounds. "I think that in the history, I think that they should to as I become more familiar with all do more about not just one. Because, they the other programs. And that's one of think it's just in one section. I think they the struggles, is that Oscar Romero should do it about Hispanics, African because of past principals[there are] Americans, Asians." some tremendous programs out there. A Native American student commented They're very broad and very deep. And, on teachers whose discussions of Native Americans were divisive. "And when they school, expressed an interest in studying talk about the government and the Native the cultures of others and in receiving a Americans, they say 'we,' as in the govern- more well rounded and integrated educa- ment, but all the Native Americans are tion. Students were attuned to the value of someone else. Or like, 'us' the govern- integrating materials rather than adding ment...." occasional topics into the existing, narrow curricula. The school took steps to Some students felt further separated by improve student educational experiences special programming. Although most of with programs such as parent outreach the special programming and extra-curric- and JROTC. ular activities were seen as serving diverse groups of students, there was a marked However, relationships and attitudes suf- exception in the advanced placement class- fered from the exclusive curricula and the es. The majority of students in those class- segregation in the AP classes. The require- es were white. This served to both isolate ments for an integrated education, as the few students of color who were in the defined by Allport in the discussion earlier, classes and paint the classes as out of reach were not met as students were not learning to many other students of color. It served in a cooperative manner and in a way that to deprive white students of exposure to promoted equal status. Students sought other cultures as well. The lack of minority more integrated curricula with a diversity teachers as role models contributed to this of perspectives that would reflect their prohibitive atmosphere. A teacher spoke own ethnic makeup and bring a greater to the general feel of advanced classes, understanding and respect for each other's cultures. Although Oscar Romero was not "But there probably aren't a lot of as segregated as other urban schools in the teachers of color teaching those types HIP, it remained quite segregated by both of classes, either. So, the students may racial and economic criteria. The need for not necessarily see that as an option. many students to hold jobs and share other And sometimes those honors classes or family responsibilities, while lacking parental involvement in their education, the IB classes aren't presented as an will be a continual strain for these stu- option to them. They don't think that dents. they can take them. So they don't take them....They figure, 'Well, I didn't take this honors class before, so I can't take it now."

Almost all students mentioned their appreciation of the school's diversity and expressed an interest in receiving a more integrated education. Despite this, the school as a whole lacked an emphasis on multicultural teaching and integrated programming, but seemed to be just beginning to move toward greater integration. As in other schools, the students recognized the lack of multiculturalism in their 2 2. Winona La Duke High dent college attendance, but poor, minority students were more likely to go to local School St. Paul, two-year colleges than four-year Minnesota Universities, mainly due to financial constraints.

With a student population that is 52.2 Students at Winona LaDuke had respect percent white, Winona La Duke High and tolerance for diversity within their School lies in the desegregated portion of school. "One thing I will say about the spectrum. However, it did not meet [Winona LaDukel is that, regardless of the criteria for integration due to such whether kids may not always mix, they are things as tracking and Euro-centric curricu- tolerant and respectful of others. We have la. Despite a student body that was nearly a gay/lesbian group here and they never half students of color, few measures affir- receive any flack from other kids." matively addressed integration. One student expressed the opinion of During the 1998-99 school year, Winona many regarding the value of the school's La Duke was primarily composed of white, diversity. "I mean, my grandmother want- African-American, and Asian American ed me to go to a strict, white, Catholic students (52.2 percent, 23.0 percent, and school. And, I mean, if I had done that and 20.8 percent, respectively), with a small come out of high school with that back- number of Hispanic and Native American ground...I wouldn't know how to deal students (3.3 percent and 0.6 percent, with other people or I wouldn't under- respectively). Just over 30 percent of the stand the way people come off or the dif- students were eligible for free or reduced ferent backgrounds and stuff. Whereas, lunches (33.1 percent) and there was a when I come out of this school and go on small number of Limited English to college, I'm gonna be used to it already." Proficiency students (13.0 percent). Another student stated, "You got different La Duke had 84 percent of students score at races, different ages, different styles, and it or above average on the Grade 10 Basic all just dashes together. So you just learn a Skills test in writing in January, 1999.'23 lot. You learn more than what you come here to learn, actually." Students felt Students at Winona LaDuke did not have racism was not a serious issue. However, concrete post-graduation plans. Many they did recognize that students often sep- intended to attend college but had not yet arated according to race, especially in the applied. Furthermore, students were wor- cafeteria. ried that they could not afford college. Some students planned to work full-time "Everybody sticks to they own. All after high school to save money to attend you have to do, really, to tell how that college later. The overall sense from stu- situation is, is just go to a lunch. You dents was that college would help them know, the Asians stay with the Asians, get a higher paying job. They seemed the blacks stay with the blacks, and more concerned with the financial rewards of attending college than the benefits of the whites stay with the whites. Very learning. However, the principal stated seldom will you see a black and an that about 80 percent of their students Asian walking and talking together, attended college. She did not notice a dis- sitting at a lunch table. I mean, you crepancy between minority and white stu- can see it, but it's like you have to look really hard, you have to sit back and accuse someone of acting white or black, watch everybody. It's not like where usually because of the way someone spoke you can just go sit and just look over or dressed. and see, you know, all the Asians "I grew up in this neighborhood since together, all the blacks together. I was young, and, you know, people Everybody sticks to they own." call it the ghetto or whatever, but that does not mean that I'm a gang banger; Students did not associate this separation that Igo around doing drive bys and I with racism. Asian students were thought to separate themselves more than others. do drugs and all that other stuff. According to most students, this was due Because first of all, before I'll even to language and cultural differences. think about doing anything, I want to Students claimed that sports eliminated be school smart...So, like, when I'm in racial separation. Athletes associated with a high classclasses, there's always one another regardless of race. the smart ones, 'Oh, you want to be "Yeah, actually, I'd say athletics are white.' First of all, I know when and probably the best way to get to know a when not to use slang. I know how lot of different people, because they're and when not to use slang. I know the not thinking about, 'Well, I'm gonna be appropriate ways and areas when not on this team because there are a whole to. If I'm at home, it would be nice, lot of black people on it. I'm gonna be but when I'm in class trying to conduct on this team becauseI want to be on my grade, or trying to learn, it's differ- this team, whether that would be with ent. And they think I'm trying to be a black person, a white person, an white." Asian person, it doesn't matter, I'm gonna be on this team.' So you get to Students said that such comments typically came from people of their race. Most meet with a whole lot of people. You often, students accused people who used learn to have to trust one another and slang as trying to be black and those who you learn to be friends." spoke with standard English as trying to be white. Students who dressed in baggy They also said that there was a mix of pants and big shirts were also accused of races at events, such as Homecoming and trying to be black. Such statements both- Student Council. "Homecomingit's like, ered those who received them, but one stu- no matter what race you are, you're all dent expressed the attitude held by most, basically red and black. Everyone paints "I don't act a color... I act like who I am!" their face red and black, you don't know who, really, it is anymore. So, it's like Students also recognized racial separa- we're all bound together by one common tion in classes. Most students said that AP thread." courses were filled primarily with white kids. The principal said that improve- Although students claimed there was lit- ments in earlier education were necessary tle racism in the school, they often men- to get minority students prepared for high- tioned people accusing others of acting in a er-level classes. "And we say that the issue certain way. For instance, students would isit's almost too late for them to make One student spoke of a specific teacher. that decision when they get to high school. She said that he constantly made racist You know, they need to be involved in jokes and justified them because he had these accelerated programs, actually from, adopted children of color. She said his elementary and junior high." racism hurt her performance in class as well as her self-esteem. African-American students in these classes expressed concern regarding the separa- "Because, my [teacher], he's just, like, tion and racist treatment by some students you know, he has adopted children [of and teachers. They often felt isolated and color], but you can't tell, because he's a invisible in the classes. The principal related concerns expressed to her by students, little smart alec with hisand it's not "African-American kids who have been in good because it's [an advanced] class, it do talk about the isolation. You know, and I have to work on it, trying to get that there are few kids of color in it. So an A. But I cannot work hard enough they just feel isolated and they'd much when my teacher is being a smart alec rather not feel isolated in high school class." One student expressed the follow- and trying to have, sometimes, racial ing in response to a question if being the jokes...And, you know, he tries to be only student of color in class made it more funny, but then he goes, 'Well, I have difficult to learn. "Sometimes it do, [non-white] children.'...and there's like because you, likelike, when they say, two rows with the kids [of color], and 'Class, let's work in groups.' Then, you down the other side is the white. So, know, because there are going to be some people that are gonna be like, 'Well, he's in you know, he jokes we're, like, the our group, so we'll just, you know, don't ghetto part. He says we're the ghet- even talk to him." to...."

However, another student recognized Several students commented on the that being the only minority in a class racism of substitute teachers. Students could have advantages if the other stu- said substitutes preferred suburban schools dents were not racist. He felt that his opin- that were predominantly white and that ions were important because he offered a they would immediately judge students by unique perspective. "Because of the fact their skin color. that I was so different, you know what I'm saying, it helped us get along, because it Fair treatment by teachers was also keen- was, like, I felt that I was, like, you know, I ly observed and appreciated by students. was important." Other students were con- "...I was never put down, I was never cerned about the stereotypes that black stu- treated different...And I watched her, and dents were not smart enough to be in high- seen how she did the different levels. And er level classes. "Yeah, if you don't show it's like all our Asians, and Hmongs, and them. Like, even, like, these stereotypes of, whites, and the two blacks that are in my you know, black people not being smart dass get treated the samethere is nothing enough or even the way it even looks in different." our schoolthat we're not in ivy classes, Quest classes, to make it look like we're not smart enough." 65 As demonstrated above, students found Another hurdle students mentioned was that school success or failure was based on parents who had not graduated from high internal factors such as self-esteem and school. Students said that often these par- self-motivation, as well as external factors ents did not fully understand the demands such as school climate and family charac- of school or know how best to help them. teristics. They recognized that circum- Most students agreed that a nurturing stances such as working late, lack of environment was one of the keys to suc- parental support, or abuse were factors ceeding in school. One student's response that prevented students from doing well in to a discussion of parents who simply tried school. Students and teachers recognized a to bribe their children to get good grades, correlation between parental involvement said of her mother, "But her disappoint- in the lives of their children and academic ment, her sadness, her understanding is success. The principal perceived a high almost more important. It's a bigger goal level of parental involvement. Yet students for me." Students claimed that those who felt that many parents did not participate did well were encouraged at home, were in school activities or encourage their chil- self-motivated to succeed beyond high dren to do well in school. As one student school, and had good teachers. Like other put it, students interviewed in the HIP, these students were very aware of what was neces- "I think ones that, like, in their sary for success and what their environ- householdlike, I have a friend that, ments were lacking. Others students were her mom, like, beats her and so stuff motivated by defying statistics about their like that. When you don't have people race or poverty. In response to a question around you that want you to do well regarding what motivated her, one student said, or you don't have people around you that are helping you or motivating you, "Knowing that I want to make some- you lose your motivation." thing of my life instead of being just another statistic or another person Students also said that teachers who did that society can say, 'Well, hey, you not support them, were not inspiring, or were racist made it difficult to succeed in know what? This black girl just is school. One of the teachers expressed his another person who didn't do any- insight, thing.' So I know that I'm not gonna "If a teacher has a welcoming envi- be like that. And I just have goals set ronment in their classroom, then all for my life. I don't know, I don't want types of students will come. And a to wind up how other people most of student will take a class no matter my family are. I want to be different." how difficult it is if the teacher is there Students were concerned about funding to support them...So we have to create for the school, claiming that many text- that environment and we have to, also, books were outdated and teachers often constructively stop things that we feel had to correct the information. create and cause prejudice or racism within the school." "Well, like in Psychology class, [our who made an effort to have more inclusive teacher] has said to us, 'The books that curricula. Students valued learning about we have are not up-to-date.' And in people of their same race, providing them role models and inspiration. "...it encour- American History...the facts are wrong aged me. Like, if I see, likefor in case, if in the book. I mean, even in our chem- I see, like, a Hmong running for Mayor istry book some of the rules that they and stuff, it encourages me that, 'Wow, you gave us for elements, and whatever know, Hmong and people are, like, else, are wrong." advanced already.' So, I should encourage myself and be one of those too." Both a degree of satisfaction and also frustration with the curricula were Students also felt it was important to expressed by students as they did not feel learn about other cultures as a valuable that they were receiving a diverse educa- tool for future interaction, and most found tion. Most students were tired of learning it interesting. Students wished they were about African Americans only in a context exposed to more of such teachings, espe- of slavery, or only in reference to Martin dally regarding 'Hispanics and Asians. Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. Most of the information they received in school came from outside activities such as "Every black person knows about the clubs and festivals. harshness of slavery. So when we went Students wanted to see changes within on about blacks, I didn't hear her the school that would foster a more aca- explain not one person who succeeded demically integrated student body as well in something, one person who invented as improve the tools available to teachers something, one person who did some- and students. In the 1980s, Winona LaDuke slowly segregated the school thing to help the world as it still is according to academic class (i.e. AP was on now, or one person who just did some- the top floor, IB was the Fourth Floor, thing that was courageous. The times I down to Remedial classes on the Second heard, he was either beaten, ran away, Floor). Tragically, this also resulted in seg- dragged, or killed, or was a slave...It regation by race. White students were was just negatives...as a matter of more often in higher-level classes than were black students. Hmong students fact, the blacks and the Asians were in were further separated by ESL classes. the same week. Monday, Tuesday, and According to students and teachers, sub- Wednesday we were on blacks. The ject, not level, now separates the dasses. rest of Wednesday hour and Thursday Nonetheless, students said there were still and Friday we were on Asians and remnants of this academic segregation. then we were done." Winona LaDuke, as the first school in the study to qualify as desegregated, demon- Students wanted teachers to venture out strated no attempts to incorporate elements of the box and introduce new and exciting of integration. Students faced a myriad of material rather than covering the same top- obstacles to academic and social success. ics they had been studying since elemen- Tremendous within-school segregation, tary school. Regardless of the teacher's Euro-centric curricula, poor relationships, race, the students appreciated teachers lack of parental support, and lack of guidance for pursuing college were powerful Amidst protests, sit-ins, and boycotts of negative influences in the educational and other segregated sites in Louisville, partic- personal environments of all students, but ularly in the city's central business district, disproportionately so for students of color. the Louisville schools implemented a voluntary choice student transfer rule in the early 1960s. The rule permitted any student, upon written request from a parent, D. Louisville Schools to transfer out of the school of his/her resi- Context dential zone to any other school of the same grade level in the city. White student transfers tended to occur at the "tipping The schools of Louisville, Kentucky are point," the point when 30 percent of the unique in that they are overseen by a coun- schools' population was black, creating a tywide district called the Jefferson County "transfer-exodus" effect. Under this same Public Schools. This regional school dis- plan, the Louisville system allowed stu- trict structure, and the area's successful his- dents free choice of senior high schools.'" tory of busing as a desegregation mechanism, gained national praise for Jefferson In 1972, the Kentucky Commission on County A recent legal challenge to the dis- Human Rights released a report on trict's retention of race-conscious student Louisville schools from 1956-1971, docu- assignment policies brought by parents of menting the failure of the system in both African-American students raised the student and faculty desegregation. The question of whether a new paradigm of report compared Louisville to ten major integration is necessary for past successes school systems in Southern states and to continue. found that Louisville had the worst record in both student and faculty segregation, Before 1975, the city of Louisville, which including Atlanta, Birmingham, Charlotte, is entirely within Jefferson County, was Columbia, Jackson, Jacksonville, Little served by three different school districts. Rock, Nashville, and Richmond. The Two large districts, Jefferson County report dramatized the importance of School District and Louisville School teacher desegregation as an integral part of District, covered the geographic majority of desegregation plans." After the release of the city. A third, Anchorage Independent the reports, suits to desegregate and merge School District, covered the border of the local schools were initiated. city and was composed almost entirely of white students. Prior to Brown, the State In 1975 two suits were filed against the of Kentucky operated formally segregated Jefferson County school district and the school systems. Louisville school district. These suits' were later consolidated into a single law- In the 1956-57 school year, the Jefferson suit.' At issue was the racial isolation of County school board and the Louisville the schools within these districts. The school board drew boundary lines that court found that Jefferson County had two geographically desegregated. However, all-black schools; Louisville had 56 percent the school districts also implemented per- black children concentrated in three of the missive transfer policies that limited the city's 74 elementary schools; and over 80 impact of the new boundary lines. percent of the schools in Louisville were racially identifiable. Further, the adjoining school district, Anchorage Independent School District, was composed entirely of were merged by state law, leaving only white students. The court held that, Jefferson County and Anchorage because of the history of formal segrega- Independent School Districts as the parties tion in these school districts, the boards of in the desegregation litigation. education had an affirmative duty to bring their school systems to unitary status, that The decision of the Sixth Circuit Court of is, to ensure that schools no longer be Appeals was appealed to the Supreme racially identifiable. The plaintiffs in this Court. The district court judge refused to suit proposed that the three school districts create a desegregation plan before the be combined in order to effectuate desegre- Supreme Court decided the case. To this gation in the area. The court responded by refusal, the plaintiffs responded by filing a holding that where there are separate court action to compel the district court school districts in a single county, a deseg- judge, Judge Gordon, to issue an order for regation plan may involve district line full and complete desegregation of the crossing. The Sixth Circuit Appellate Jefferson County School District. The Sixth Court charged the lower court with the Circuit Court of Appeals then issued the task of creating a remedial judicial order to order, requiring Judge Gordon to order that effect. desegregation in the 1975-1976 school year, regardless of the imminence of any appeal, The school districts appealed this deci- and if necessary, to include Anchorage sion to the United States Supreme Court. Independent School District in the plan. The high court remanded the case for The appellate court further ordered that reconsideration in light of its 1974 decision the desegregation plan should remain in in Milliken v. Bradley.m As discussed earli- effect regardless of appeals, except for any er, that decision held that a district court portion of the plan that would include the does not have the authority to compel a Anchorage Independent School District."' school district to be a part of a desegregation plan if that district has not been found Pursuant to this order, the district court to have intentionally segregated its schools. did create a desegregation plan. The plan On remand from the Supreme Court, the included provisions for reassignment of Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals held that students and desegregation of teachers and the Louisville districts were distinguish- staff. The district court dismissed the able from the schools in the Milliken case Anchorage Independent School District as because both Jefferson County and a party, holding that the school district Louisville school districts had been inten- should not be included because it had tionally segregated. The appellate court never been found to have intentionally seg- ordered that the plan could overreach the regated its schools. This dismissal of existing district boundaries if the district Anchorage was appealed by the plaintiffs, court disregard the Jefferson County and and the defendants appealed the desegregation plan that the district court had Louisville district lines in creating a desegregation remedy. In addition, the appellate designed. The Sixth Circuit Court of court held that if it was necessary to effec- Appeals upheld the decision of the district tuate the desegregation plan, the district court on both matters: Anchorage was dis- court could annex the Anchorage missed and the desegregation plan was to Independent School District."' After this be implemented."' decision, the Jefferson County School As a result of this litigation, Louisville District and the Louisville School District became one of the last two major urban

69 school districts to desegregate. The 1978, and found great disparities in the merged Jefferson County School System responses of white and African-American implemented a mandatory busing plan interviewees across the board. requiring a 12 to 40 percent African- First, interviewees were asked their feel- American student population in elemen- ings about having the racial composition in tary schools and a 12.5 to 35 percent black the schools reflect that of the county; 90 population in middle and high schools. percent of blacks thought that it was a Students were bused according to their last good idea, as compared to only 51 percent name and grade level. of white respondents. When asked their At the end of the following school year, reaction to desegregation as it was being in May of 1976, the district court conduct- implemented in Jefferson County 29 per- ed hearings to monitor compliance with cent of black respondents stated that they the desegregation plan. The court deter- strongly favored busing, while only 1 per- mined that at least 28 elementary schools cent of whites answered that way. Fifty- did not satisfy the racial guidelines set out three percent of whites also stated that in the desegregation order and held that they opposed busing in all cases, not just in this level of non-compliance was unaccept- the particular context of Jefferson County, able. To remedy the non-compliance, the while only nine percent of African- court increased the busing of African- American respondents opposed busing in American students such that 900 more stu- all cases.'34 dents would be bused to new schools. The With the benefit of hindsight, Robert plaintiffs appealed this decision, arguing Crain of Columbia University's Teachers that such an action fell outside the jurisdic- College, highlighted Louisville as a busing tion of the district court. The Sixth Circuit success story. Crain cited, as connected to Court of Appeals opined that a district this success, the relative absence of white court may take broad measures to remedy flight in the region. He attributed it to the a constitutional violation, in keeping with merging of the predominantly white similar decisions of the Supreme Court.'" Jefferson County schools with Louisville The final action taken by the district city schools, which were about 50 percent court was the creation of an indefinite black at the time of the merger."' exemption from the desegregation plan for In 1978, a federal judge declared that the first graders. But the Sixth Circuit Court of Jefferson County system was fully desegre- Appeals held that such an exemption gated and therefore lifted the court order. would leave "vestiges of segregation intact" Independently, the school district decided and so ruled that it was unconstitutional.'" to continue mandatory busing but changed Public opinion of busing at the time was its racial guidelines such that elementary divided amongst African Americans and schools could be composed of between 16 whites. Scholars John McConahay and to 40 percent black students; for middle Willis Hawley conducted extensive inter- and high schools the range was changed to viewing during this period to determine between 16 to 35 percent black students. public opinion on the desegregation plan, The desegregation plan for middle and particularly as the manifestation of public high schools underwent revision in 1984 to reaction transformed from protests and become a system of zones and satellite demonstrations to more quiet compliance. areas with the effect that most students The two published reports in 1977 and attended school in their residential areas.

70 Racial guidelines were altered from the cent African-American.'" In 1998, parents 1978 policy: elementary schools were to be of several African-American students composed of between 23 and 43 percent whose applications were rejected at Central black students; and middle and high High School filed suit against the school schools were to be 12 to 42 percent black. district because the school's enrollment was already 50 percent black. In 1992, Project Renaissance replaced mandatory busing. It was designed to The plaintiffs asserted that the racial bal- integrate elementary schools by giving par- ance policies resulted in more than 300 ents a choice of schools to attend. Racial black students being denied admission to guidelines were retained but changed Central High School, a historically black again, such that no school should have a school, in 1997-98, despite the fact that this racial composition of less than 15 percent, and other high schools were operating nor more than 50 percent African- under capacity. The parents bringing the American students. lawsuit argued that the policies were depriving their children the right to attend In a fairly unique move, the dis- the school of their choice, and that the rule trict currently articulates its goals should be revised to facilitate integration for educating students with race at and choice. Further, the parents asserted the fore: "All [district students] that some programs within the district will become critical thinkers and O., were not held to the racial balance rule. 1 life-long learners who are academi- They offered as an example the Advance cally prepared in a racially integrat- Program, a program tailored to gifted and ed environment.'''" The district talented students, the racial composition of attempts to make the classroom racial com- which was only 11 percent African- position reflective of each school's popula- American.140 tion. The district further supports this goal of integration with quality-oriented mecha- The tension between the goals of achiev- nisms: by holding teachers and staff ing numerical desegregation and opening accountable; conducting biannual evalua- access to programs for the growing popu- tions of employees; and mandatory profes- lation of African-American students was sional development.'37 understood by Central's principal, Harold Fenderson. He supported the notion of The enrollment policy for the 1998-99 having integrated schools because students school year involved five criteria. Student will not be going to work in a segregated assignment is determined by examining environment. But he also said students the space availability at the desired school, should have the opportunity to come to the program requirements, the impact on Central, which offers programs in business, the racial balance, any transportation limi- law, and government; computer technolo- tations, and, receiving less emphasis, ath- gy; and medicine. "It's not about race; it's letic recruitment. These criteria are used in about the opportunities that students can assigning students to Jefferson County's receive here that aren't offered at other schools: Optional (a form of local school), schools."' Magnet, and Career Magnet.'" 1 The lawsuit was characterized by As mentioned above, the district's stu- Louisville journalist Rochelle Riley as an dent assignment policy prohibits any opportunity for a long-overdue dialogue school from having an enrollment that is on race and education in Jefferson County: more than 50 percent or less than 15 per- It could prompt soul-searching, 1. Leonora O'Reilly record-searching, and analysis as the High School school district takes a hard look at how it assigns, and whether black stu- Louisville, Kentucky dents are being educated in the current system. On one side is the Jefferson Leonora O'Reilly High School, in County School District, which must Louisville Kentucky, had a student population of 1,155 during the 1997-98 school focus on the big picture: the county year. (The Jefferson County school district must have integrated schools. Not tabulates its student population by two having them would set back the county racial categories: "black" and "other." Such and state about 40 years. On the other categorization is a throwback to the days side are black activists who want of state-sanctioned segregation.) Approximately 60.0 percent of the student black children to participate in some population was "other" and around 40.0 even pretty special magnet programs percent was African-American, slightly if the programs have met their quota over 10.0 percent higher than the district of black students. In this case, percentage. Almost 64 percent of students compromises would be better than qualified for free lunches, a figure nearly double the district percentage. Similarly, stand-offs.142 Leonora O'Reilly's dropout rate (15.1 per- The Jefferson County Public Schools dis- cent) was almost twice that of the district's trict monitors the changes in neighborhood (7.9 percent). With the limited data avail- racial composition and annually assesses able, we place Leonora O'Reilly within the the need for redrawing boundary lines. segregated to desegregated portion of the The results of this monitoring and assess- spectrum. The student body was close to ment could lead to the adoption of any the proportion of the racial composition of number of reform efforts, including the the region. However, the school experi- expansion of the magnet system, as has enced a much higher concentration of low- been advocated for by groups of African- income students than the region, which American parents; the connection of school had a strong negative impact on the school integration policies with public and afford- and students. able housing development, as was suggest- Perhaps the most disturbing indicator is ed by groups that attempted to join the students' low academic achievement as Central High lawsuit; or, at a minimum, measured by state tests. During the 1998- the alteration of the racial balance policy, 99 school year, Leonora O'Reilly students which the district is said to support. scored markedly below state and district wide students on the Kentucky Core Content Test. Students' total academic index was 39.1, compared to the district figure of 59.5 and 60.3 for the state. Leonora O'Reilly students scored lowest in reading, with an index of 38.8 (compared to 64.3 for the district and 66.6 for the state), followed by math at 39.4 (67.2 for the district and 67.3 for the state), 43.9 for striving to serve that community of social studies (65.8 district and 67.2 state), students." and 50.9 for science (64.2 district and 66.3 state).'" Teachers and students felt that college attendance was low among graduates. The demographics of the school were Those interviewed had plans to attend col- affected by the dynamics of the larger lege but felt that a "limited supply" of school environment. The principal saw Leonora O'Reilly students went on for fur- that a number of the highest functioning ther education. The principal said, kids, academically" were drawn away from Leonora O'Reilly by schools with special "The best I can recall...about 38 to 40 programs, private schools, and a magnet percent [of our students] went to col- school, leaving behind a number of low- lege....[which was] probably lower income and struggling students. Teachers and administrators were concerned by the than the district average. When it's difficult circumstances faced by many of when you have a high percentage of their students. "[Our] kids beat the odds students who have a hard time afford- herethey try hard....I just wish we didn't ing lunch, you know, it's hard to afford have a lot of hungry kids here." college....Plus, many of our kids don't The principal explained that the area sur- have that tradition in the family, aca- rounding the school had moved from a demic tradition. The parents may not middle class to a lower income community, have the skills that give them the kind with an increase in the numbers of low- income housing projects. of not only economic support, but emotional support to stay in college." "It is a fairly large district in [the] physi-geographic dimension of itbut One student in the JROTC program, a military prep program said, "Yes, ma'am. I also in the number of students that intend to [go to college] along withwhile reside in this area. Over theyears of I'm in the military." being a more affluent school it is [now] Most students who planned to attend col- probably the school with the highest lege said they would have to work as well. percentage of free and reduced lunch Other students did not appear to have students in Jefferson County. We have received guidance or information regard- about 70 percent of our kids on free and ing college. One student said, reduced lunch. Also, all the factors "If I don't have a scholarship, I'm going that tend to go along with a lower to the Air Force out of [high school] and socioeconomic community are evident I'm going to get a scholarship for it....I in this school. There's a diverse stu- want to be a surgeon, but I don't really like math a lot. But I like cutting into stuff. I'll dent population. We have a lot of stu- probably just be in, I don't know, probably dents who speak English asa second the Air Force, cause I want to travel." language who have tended to congre- gate in an apartment complex in this area. We have a lot of special needs students who go here. And so,we are 73 Another student said, "Well, I plan to go just, you know....they've not had any to college if it's free. You know what I'm experiences, and so I think that that's a saying, if they reduce it, or something. [Or problem with being poor....they don't if] my mom, she'll pay for it. But I ain't experience a lot of things." paying for no college or nothing. But I'll go if it's free." The principal said, Those students who had concrete plans "[Some] of the kids' lack of success at to attend college, consistently had parental school....it's parents who have a diffi- support and supervision. "My mother's cult time meeting the functioning sup- always on me, 'Where's your report card?' Or, 'Have you got homework?' Everyday, port of the home. They need a lot of she's on me. Pushing me. Pushing me. My parenting skills that they have not father, every day. All my aunts and uncles, been able to learn. And they are work- sisters, brothers, everyday." Students who ing at survival level....Struggling to had ambiguous plans beyond high school survive....[Our] attendance, if you have or who considered other forms of training had little to no family support or supervi- you look at lower socioeconomic sion of their education. One student, communities, you're going to have a whose eventual goal was to sell Amway, lower attendance rate. The kids are said that his parents had not said anything not as healthy. The kids are needed at to him about his grades since he entered home more. The parent is not there, high school and that his father, "[didn't] they're working two or three jobs. have any opinion." These students also said that they either did not get homework They don't know whether the kid is assignments or they had no time to study there. There's not a car to get the kid because of "other responsibilities." This to school if they miss the bus. Many of echoes the conditions found in the other them don't have telephones, so we EUP schools suffering from concentrated can't contact the parents. poverty. Many families were forced to concentrate on making ends meet and were "See what's going on....I don't think unable to have school be a priority. that parents in this school care less Many students were working while about their kids. I don't think parents attending Leonora O'Reilly. "Probably the at this school have any less desire for majority of everybody works." Teachers their child to be academically success- viewed the financial struggles of students and families as a challenge to student ful or less successful in careers....and achievement. Teachers noted a lack of you want to know when your child's resources ranging from food and books to not doing well. But as far as being guidance and role modeling. available to come to meetings in the "You know, they don't have the evenings, they have to take the bus resources that other students and there's one kid watching the other have....Well, I think it affects, you kids at home. It's difficult...." know, their class work. We find so many kids on reduced lunch and they 7 4, One of the teachers took active steps to "We have not had a very high partici- help parents learn to encourage their chil- pation of our ESL kids in much of any dren. [extra-curricular] area simply because "I get on themcall home [and say], theytheir culture, their tendencies to 'Your baby needs to go to college.' work, to emphasize academic skills [They say], 'She does? She's never and progress. That, and having to help made college kind of [grades].' Doesn't out with their family as much as possi- have to. I didn't either, in high school. ble. If you have any extra time you My ACT score told me I was gonna be spend it either helping out taking care a C student at best. I'd better go into a of the family, and cooking and that technical field, you know manual kind of thing. Or work an outside job labor, or something stupid, it said. I to bring in some financial support to never will forget that....It was intimi- the family. So, I'm glad to see that we dating...I didn't even think college was are beginning to get a few more of for me [but] my mother made me those kids involved in our extra-curric- go....These kids, with maturity, all of ular activities." them are college material....So I make ESL students had previously been in a them do all the college stuff anyway, pullout program that resulted, in notice- 'cause I said, 'You might not do it when able friction between ESL students and you graduate, or right now, but you others. After mainstreaming ESL students need to know how to do this 'cause one into the classrooms, there was marked day you'll have to'cause you need to improvement in student relationships. Students and teachers noted that relation- go to college. You don't need to sit ships among students of different races around and do what people around you were positive. Students mixed and cooper- have done.' Some of them talk about ated well during formal school activities how their families are really gruff with and were encouraged to do so by teachers. them and say, 'You think you're better This interracial contact is an important than us, 'cause you're going to gradu- step toward integration. However, during ate from high school, don't unstructured times such as at lunch and you?'...And I [say], 'Well you are [bet- outside, students tended to associate with ter] in that aspect...in terms of what students of their own race. "But of course, that's your friends. You gotta sit with your you choose to do with your life, you friends. But they talk, they don't just have, can do better."' like, all the Vietnamese on one side, [or] all the white people." However, some stu- Teachers noted that students in the ESL dents noticed that Vietnamese and Muslim program often faced the challenges of low students tended to segregate themselves income, in addition to language barriers more exclusively than did other groups. and cultural differences. 'They're just used to their own group of people." Similar reasons were given regarding all of the other groups of students, including familiarity and ease of

3 communication. One student said, "I think In addition to appreciating the diverse that blacks and whites are working togeth- student population, students valued learn- er better. But I don't think that we really ing about their own culture as well as the I'm personallyI don't think I take the cultures of other students. "It's important, time out and talk to [white students]." it is. 'Cause I want to know, I don't want Another said, "Well, I think they are inse- to be blind. I want to be able to get cure about themselves. They don't want involved in the conversations and the to, you know, thank their spirits and ven- debate. If I don't know nothing, I can't ture out and mix in with other peoples out talk." Although some teachers were there. They're just used to their own group attempting to incorporate aspects of multi- of people." The school did not have struc- culturalism into their classes, the effort was tures in place to encourage social mixing lost on most students. An African- among the races. American student said, "We probably know more stuff about white people than Although there was no formal tracking we know about ourselves." Another stu- within the school, the honors classes were dent said, "See, mainly, most of the writers formerly composed of primarily white stu- are mostly white. Like, white and some dents. One of the teachers intervened and black." Of his history class, one student began recruiting students of color. She said, "That's just white man's stuff. That's discussed an African-American "top-notch just strictly the whole book." Students said honors student" who withdrew from hon- that during Black History Month they ors courses because of the treatment he received a picture and a page of informa- received from teachers. Additionally, she tion about an African-American person. said, "There's some kids in other classes The exposure to various cultures that stu- that need to be [in the honors classes]. dents did receive was limited primarily to They might not have perfect syntax...but well-known African Americans such as they have critical thinking down pat. They Martin Luther King, Jr. and Harriet have sharp cognitive skills that they know Tubman. how to use, and they need to be in that class." The school offered an African-American Literature course on occasion. Students Despite the segregation of the higher attending the class were almost exclusively classes and the self-segregation during free African-American and attendance was low, time, almost all students cited diversity as with between 10 and 15 students. A newly the school's strongest characteristic, instituted cultural program was an attempt "Because you get to experience new things, to improve the school's meager progress 'cause there's so many different races and toward an inclusive curricula; each month people of different ethnic groups." One a different racial or ethnic group would be student said, "It's just giving us, like, a recognized in the school. One of the teach- head start on what the world's really like ers had planned a project in her class to 'cause there's so much out there." Another celebrate Chinese New Year, however, student said, "I love to learn about other most of her students were Vietnamese and cultures, you know? Because, it's only one student was Chinese. Several like...you deal with these different people teachers decided to make the Chinese New every day. You're not here on this earth by Year celebration, "as authentically yourself, you know? And you have to Vietnamese as [they could]." While such know about other people to interact with add-on programs were well intended, they them, you know?" demonstrated a lack of understanding "the opportunity for students to get regarding the creation and implementation training in nine different technical of an integrated educational environment. areas related to Construction Special programming offered students Technology from: architectural draft- opportunities to gain experience in a vari- ing, interior design, plumbing, heating ety of career fields, college preparation, and air conditioning, carpentry, and work experience. The school rana daycare for teen parents that also gave stu- masonry, welding, building mainte- dents experience in early childhood educa- nance, and electric. Anything in the tion. The Adult Student Accelerated construction of a building. As a matter Program (ASAP) allowed students to of fact, we're building a house....it has attend school for three hours per day and to meet all building codes, as any work for three hours, earning them six credits. The Success Maker program building has to, and it's inspected regu- allowed ESL students extra time in the larly....[When it's done] we'll sell it. computer lab. And we have to pay back the board the Six years prior, the school started a col- cost of the building, the materials, and lege preparatory program called AVID lot. And then, hopefully, we'll realize a (Advance Via Individual Determination). profit and that profit will allow us to Students worked on other course work and perpetuate building every year." received help from the AVID teacher. The students worked on organizational and Nearly 50 percent of the school's students study skills, wrote to colleges, practiced participated in the CTP. The academic and filling out college applications, and technical teachers worked together to engaged in other college preparation activ- ensure that students completed their aca- ities. The aim was to provide enough sup- demic work. "Some days they're here and port to AVID students that they would go they're at the academic classes all day and onto college. other days they're out at the house all day." This required students to get "a great deal One of the math teachers ran a program done" on the days they were in classes. in which the students operated a working "And we selected teachers that could work bank within the school, complete with a with the students in the academic areas in mission statement, an operations manual, a little bit different type of expectation..." and brochures. The students decided the services they would offer, such as checking There were complaints that the school accounts, savings accounts, and loans. A did not address race issues directly. There local bank sponsors the program, which is were also mixed student reviews of teach- used by students and teachers alike. Local ers. While some students felt teachers banks were beginning to show interest in were respectful and caring, others felt that renewing the coop and internship program teachers were not supportive of them and that had, 25 years ago, operated in con- often referred students with concerns to junction with the bank. someone else. Teachers were thought to avoid addressing racial issues that came up According to staff, the Construction in class. "I think that it's probably one of Technology Program (CTP) offered, our problems and I think it needs to be addressed." One student said of teachers, "The majority of [students] the teachers junior yearafter we got the dress code respect, but like some teachers just...totally the gang stuff justI don't even hear stereotype them and when they see them nobody even talk about gangs all that that's how they treat them." Another said, much anymore." Still, others felt the gang presence remained strong and felt the dress "An African-American male with code was not only ineffective but that brains...might have his pants sagging teachers focused on it too much. "They or something like that....But some care more about what you wear than what teachers will automatically say, 'Oh you learn. well, he's not nothing. He's just a dog The gang problem was cited by most, to out on the street.' You know? And they be more widespread among younger stu- don't try to help him. They don't try to dents entering the school from the middle talk to him, learn nothing about them schools. Additionally, these young students demonstrated poor Comprehensive or anything." Test for Basic Skills (CTBS) scores. Several students felt teachers did not do "On the CTBS test that was given enough for those students who struggled last spring, the studentsninth- academically. "Not all of the teachers, but I don't like some of the teachers that I feel, graders at [Leonora O'Reilly], scored like, give up on your students. I feel like worst in the state....So we're getting they are, likethey'll teach you to a certain students whose skills are really very extent and then if you justif you have a low. But the fact that we get kids that problem to where you just can't learn, they are really among the lowest in the give up." state and that we have been able to In addition to negative feelings toward work with these students and by the teachers, students cited gangs or violence time they take the [state assessment] as the other negative characteristics of the school. As one student expressed, "And test in June they are showing not the they have all this gang stuff going on lowest [scores] in the state. You know, which is not necessary because the school we're not as far from the bottom as I'd is supposed to be for you to learn, not for like to be, but we generally have shown gangs. You can go outside on the streets some significant growth with those wait until you get out of school." The prin- kids." cipal cited gangs as the primary source of tension among students. Teachers noted When considering the creation and that many students were attending anger implementation of multicultural program- management classes. To combat the vio- ming in light of the challenges to academic lence from gang activity, the school insti- success that Leonora O'Reilly students tuted a dress code, thereby lessening their face, the principal said, "sometimes you ability to "represent" their gangs. can't focus on everything. If you spread Some students and teachers felt the dress yourself so broad, then you're not going to code had lessened the problem. "Yeah, do anything as well as you could have. So 'cause we didn't have a dress code and we we're trying fairly well to focus on per- were coming with gang colors and it formance standards." The principal voiced would start gang fights. But after, let's see, his frustration over funding. "Schools where you have a high level E. Shaker Heights high percentage of lower socioeconomic background students, School Context the needs are greater. We need our labs computer labs are pathetic. The use A suburb on the southeast border of of technology in the classroom is Cleveland, Shaker Heights has a population of 31,000 people with above average pathetic. There needs to be, in my income and education levels. Beginning in thinkingif a district comes in the 1960s, the city of Shaker Heights made and introduces anything, they extraordinary efforts to address racial seg- [should] go to the schools regation in its community as its minority where you have a lower socioe- population increased, and to promote integration of its neighborhoods and its conomic level and do that first. schools. As a result, "Shaker Heights is You make them theon the one of the few examples of sustained sub- cutting edge of whatever you're doing. urban racial integration in the United Because, in the home of the average States."' student here at [Leonora O'Reilly],you Shaker Heights officials have taken a sys- don't have a computer. They do not temic approach to the integration of their have the Internet. And if that is the community, recognizing, for example, that case, then those kids are going to be housing patterns and school segregation functioning at a lower level, be less are interrelated, and should be addressed together. The school board and the school knowledgeable than those kids [who] system administration have long been use a computer everyday at home." involved in the city's efforts to integrate its neighborhoods. Although Leonora O'Reilly had a diverse student body fairly consistent with the dis- In an early example of the cooperative trict's racial composition, it had a high efforts that characterize Shaker Heights' number of students from low socioeco- pro-integrative strategies, the mayor, the nomic families and ESL students. The city council and the board of education school seemed to be stretched forresources joined in 1964 to form the Shaker Citizens' that interfered with the education of their Advisory Commission to address commu- students. The school's resources were nity issues, including housing segregation. tight, but students' resources were even That same year, the Commission's first act tighter, with many students juggling the was to ban the display of "for-sale" signs demands of jobs and family responsibili- on front lawns, to stave off the 'blockbust- ties. In this environment it was difficult for ing" that had contributed to resegregation education to be a priority, especially when elsewhere. The board of education also such a large number of students faced funded and sent representatives to the gov- these struggles. erning board of the Shaker Housing Office, which was founded in 1967 to promote housing integration. In 1968, the school board even took the unusual step of employing a community worker to try to recruit white residents to buy and rent %9 homes in the Moreland elementary school to six predominantly white schools. The district, which was on the way to becom- board held two public hearings, at which it ing an all-black neighborhood."' became apparent that the administration's proposal was unacceptable to both pro-and Another cooperative endeavor of the city anti-desegregation factions of the commu- government and the school system is the nity Fund for the Future of Shaker Heights, an innovative incentive program encouraging Within three months of the administra- residential integration. Using privately tion's proposal, a group of parents con- donated money, the Fund provides low- ceived and presented to the board a pro- cost mortgage loans of $3000 to $6000 to gram that came to be known as the Shaker whites who move into a neighborhood that Heights Plan. The Plan was a voluntary is more than 50 percent black and to blacks cross-enrollment and busing program for moving to a neighborhood that is more the seven most segregated of the city's nine than 90 percent white. The city govern- elementary schools. Under the plan, any ment and the board of education founded student in one of these schools could trans- the Fund together in 1986 and share the fer to any other of the schools if the trans- program's administrative expenses. fer would improve racial balance. Donald L. De Marco, director of community Supporters of the Plan presented the board services for the city, said in 1992, "If you with a list of about 100 white children look at (the Fund) as a housing program, whose parents had said they would be you say yes, maybe this is something that a willing to transfer them to Moreland under board of education should not be involved the voluntary program. The board with, (but) it actually is an integrative approved the Plan as an experiment in organization more than a housing organi- 1970, adopted it as a permanent program zation." 146 in 1973, and then expanded it in 1977 to include the city's remaining two elemen- Shaker Heights' commitment to an inte- tary schools and both junior high schools.'a8 grated community has long carried over into its school system. "It is in the public In a 1978 document, the school district schools, which are considered among the administration articulated the Plan's objec- most rigorous in the country, that Shaker tives. The primary goal was "to bring each Heights' relentless race consciousness is school's enrollment as close as possible to perhaps most on display," wrote a New the district-wide racial balance," which was York Times reporter in 1991.1" then "approximately two thirds white and one third black students." Beyond the goal Up until 1968, Shaker Heights' sole of numerical desegregation, the Plan had approach to desegregating its schools was larger ambitions: the effort to racially integrate the schools' neighborhoods. In 1968, the school district By being part of an integrated school administration began a two-year study, community from an early age, each with the goal of improving the racial bal- child is better prepared to enter our ance in the elementary schools. In 1970, integrated secondary schools and later the school district administration recommended to the school board a plan to par- to participate more effectively in the tially desegregate the 88 percent black multi-racial society beyond the school Moreland elementary school by busing all doors. Many children find through the of the fourth through sixth grade students Plan their first opportunity to make friends of another race. While becom- graders. Four of the nine elementary ing aware of cultural differences and schools were closed and the elementary similarities, they also learn to perceive school boundaries were redrawn so that each other as individuals. each school now housing only kindergarten through fourth grade students A key component in the Plan's promo- would draw enough children from the tion was the matching of new families in nearest black and white neighborhoods to the program with families in the receiving achieve a racial balance approximating the school, "who help both children and par- 50-50 balance of the student population as ents feel welcome in their new surround- a whole.15' ings." Programs in support of the Plan, Having achieved racial balance in its funded by the U.S. Department of Health schools, the school district has turned its Education and Welfare, induded profes- attention to fostering racial sensitivity and sional development programs to give harmony within the schools as well as the teachers insights into the needs of students problem of segregation within individual in desegregated schools, elementary school schools. The board of education's Human resource rooms allowing children to min- Relations Policy, adopted in 1987, provides gle outside the regular classroom setting, in part: and cultural awareness programs.'" Positive human relations materials, By 1978 more than 10 percent of written and audio-visual, shall be Shaker Heights elementary and junior included in the total school curriculum high school students were voluntarily from kindergarten through twelfth participating in the Plan, and several grade in as many subjects and disci- previously racially isolated schools plines as possible to promote racial, had become significantly more inte- religious, social and cultural under- grated. Moreland Elementary school, standing, cooperation and respect which in 1968 had a black studentpop- among all people. Additionally, the ulation of 88 percent and climbing, was curriculum shall include an equitable 30 percent white in 1978; and Malvern presentation of significant viewpoints, Elementary, which had enrolled no achievements, cultures and experiences black students in 1968, was 16 percent of both sexes and of the major racial black 10 years later.50 and religious groups in the United In 1987 Shaker Heights undertook a sys- States. tem-wide redistricting and reorganization project. The primary motivation for the All sixth graders are required to partici- change was a declining student population pate in a racial sensitivity training program that necessitated closure of some elemen- conducted by the Student Group on Race tary schools, but the improvement of racial Relations (SGORR). SGORR is an organi- balance in the schools was also a factor.'" zation of high school students, founded in :1 1983 by students who were concerned that Under the 1987 plan, the city's two junior the positive relationships enjoyed by black high schools were transformed into middle and white elementary school children often schools: one school for all fifth and sixth did not survive the transition to middle graders, and one for all seventh and eighth school. The SGORR program consists of expanded to include a Merit Roll for three one-day workshops that are spaced GPAs 3.0 to 3.49 and a Recognition Roll for throughout the school year and augmented 2.5 to 2.99.154 by follow-up activities under the supervision of the sixth grade teachers. Each year close to 150 high school students volunteer 1. Hiram R. Revels High with SGORR, designing the curricula and conducting the workshops. Racial sensi- School Cleveland, tivity is also part of the curricula at the Ohio area high school, where an elective course called Oppression, focusing on slavery and the Holocaust, is one of the school's most Hiram R. Revels High School's conscious popular classes. effort to have integrated curricula and student body starts at the elementary school Shaker Heights schools also strive to level. The school and the district have a close the persistent gap in achievement number of programs to affirmatively between black and white students. In address racial issues. When issues are addition to the tutoring, special classes, identified, students or the school are likely and counseling services provided by the to respond. Hiram R. Revels falls toward schools, high-achieving African-American the integrated end of the spectrum. The upperclassmen at the high school mentor school is working toward true integration, struggling ninth- and tenth-graders in a with its greatest shortcoming being its lack program of their own design.'" of truly integrated curricula. The high school's Faculty Achievement The only high school in its district, Hiram Committee was formed in the mid-1980s to R. Revels had a student population that address the underachievement of minority was approximately 50 percent black and 50 students, particularly African-American percent white during the 1998-99 school males. The Committee's accomplishments year. During the 1997-98 school year, include persuading the faculty as a whole Hiram R. Revels 12th-graders had consis- to abolish "grade weighting," in which the tently higher percentages of students pass grades from general level courses were than did the state, 67.2 percent for math assigned lower grade-point values than (50.1 percent for the state), 75.0 for reading those from college preparatory courses, (66.7 state), 88.7 for writing (77.6 state), and and getting the school-day schedule adjust- 65.6 for science (55.4 state). Students grad- ed so that students would have more time uated at a rate of 93.8 percent, compared to to seek extra help from their teachers. In 79.9 percent for the state. Between 85 and 1990, the Committee's consultation with 90 percent of students went on to college, high-achieving African-American male stu- with many attending prestigious four-year dents inspired those students to form the universities.'" The Hiram R. Revels area is Minority Achievement Committee (MAC). predominantly middle and upper class, In addition to establishing the student however, many of the African-American mentoring program for underachieving high school students are from poor com- black male underclassmen, MAC prevailed munities in nearby Cleveland. The princi- upon the school administration to expand pal said, the practice of posting a monthly Honor Roll. The Honor Roll, that was composed of students with GPAs of 3.5 or above, was 0 U "So we have a high number of doc- ensure that whites in the city who were tors. So we've got a lot of different looking for housing saw housing stock professionals, and we've got very good in predominantly minority neighbor- transportation from here to downtown. hoods [and] that minorities entering So, I don't know. There's businessmen the city saw housing stock in predomi- or whomever, can conveniently use nantlyin the majority of the neigh- public transportation to reach the borhoods so that there was an attempt, actual heart of the city, um, working in as I see it, to stabilize and equalize. So financial districts. So all of these we wound up, not with pockets of things sort of like, coincide to giveus a blacks and pockets of whites, but quite highly educated population." a spread of diversity. Then in addition, One of the striking features of the com- the community, did a, a busing project munity was its deliberately integrated of its owninternal through the city. housing policy, which supports a pro-inte- Actually, it wasn't mandatory. It was grative movement. Again, the principal not mandatory integration; it was vol- stated, untary integration. So there were cer- "Because if you go backI bought a tain 'neighborhood schools' in predom- house in this community in 1960...there inantly minority neighborhoods. were certain portions of the contract "[The district reorganized around that were designed, to limit the intro- the]...mid eighties...[to create] single- duction of minorities or, you know, site education [for grades]... five, six, 'unacceptable' populations....But [the seven, eight, [and] nine [through] city] had a high percentage of, of Jews. twelve....fAllf of the students in those So there was a degree of, if not racial, grades, irrespective of community or religious diversity within the city. neighborhood, attend the same school. Which, which was significantly differ- So again, it's an attempt, I think, to ent from many other schools, in the architecturally, if you will, maximize area. And, so, in the sixties this com- opportunities for, for sharing the edu- munity, I think, recognized that by its cational enterprise." geographical position there was going to be a changea racial change in the Students described race relations in the makeup of the population. And this school as cordial and unproblematic. However, both black and white students community, in my opinion, embraced described racial segregation among the that change and tried to do things to various levels of dasses. In honors and AP make it happen in the most positive of courses most students were white, while ways. college prep courses were predominantly black with only a few black students in the "Now, some people would say it's too higher level courses and a few white stu- controlled. But they, they had a hous- dents in college prep. These levels created ing office that would proactively try to a system in which students in lower levels were presented with fewer challenges and "I have a friend that is [black]. And, opportunities and lower expectations, somehow it's not likelike, if you which in turn perpetuated their placement walk into the cafeteria, sure there are in lower levels. This stratification was an going to be white tables and there are issue discussed by students, teachers, and administrators of all races. It was general- going to be black tables, but it's not ly seen as a problem, and there were sever- like they can't be together. It's just al programs in place to address the issue. something we choose. But there is no Despite the awareness and efforts the prob- hostility. Like, if I were to go over and lem has not been completely solved, which sit at Sherry's table, there's nothing sometimes creates a sense of frustration. bad about it. It's like, it just doesn't Students felt that there were casual happen that way." friendships among students of various races and ethnicities, but that most stu- Students also said that there was a "black dents associated with people of their own door" on one side of the school and a cultural background. "I think a lot, like "white door" on the other side where stu- the majorityout of dass maybe there's dents congregated after school. They not a ton of interaction between the races described it as "segregation," though but it's not like it's, it's not like there's, like, administrators were quick to point out that hostility. It's more like, neutral." Students the division correlated with which side of pointed out that there was some tension the school students lived on. between blacks and whites but that most Very few of the clubs at Revels were students had "acquaintances" of both races. racially diverse in 1998-99. Student coun- "I think that everyone's just extreme- cil, choir, and band were viewed by stu- ly comfortable around each other. dents as racially balanced, as was the most frequently mentioned clubthe student- Maybe it's not that we're, like, all real- run group on race relations. The group, ly good friends. But I think the fact founded in 1983, is a mentoring program that we can work together and we can for fourth and sixth graders in the local ele- be together and it's not a problem for mentary and middle schools. The inten- anyonelike, I never ever remember tion is to engage high school students in being, in high school at least, [where teaching and modeling positive inter-racial interaction. Here, the advisor discusses the had a problem with working with program: someone of a different race, ever." "It started off where we were just However, some African-American stu- taking [601 kids...And they would go in dents, particularly males, felt uncomfort- to the sixth-graders and they had a able in settings if they were the only black students in the group. They often felt that curriculum that they had created. They white students did not expect them to con- where the first day that they were tribute as much to the group work. gonna go in, they were gonna talk The cafeteria was described as having a about trust, and this, and support. white side, a black side, and a few "mixed" And they had activities that they tables. that were interactive, and then sit down and talk about how is this life- the core, the core of the leaders [at]my like? And the second time they would house every Sunday night from 6:30 to go in, they would do peer-pressure and 10.00 and then we'd do support self-image and how this affects the grouplanai curriculum. And, and kinds of choices you make, in race rela- they're completely in charge. I am tions and everything. And the third there to tell them about the sixth-grade time they went in, it was- they'd do child, what works, what doesn't work. creative problem solving. Now that Basically what I'm teaching them is you had the basics, the awareness, how how to teach." do we what is the process of solving This student-run group was extremely problems? How do you do options and popular among students. They were prioritization and blah, blah, required to apply for admission and go blah...They would go in two times a through a series of workshops and activi- year. When they went in they went in ties before being chosen. The advisor for the whole day...And over theyears, always received more applicants than could be placed in the program. The pro- it has grown to...280 students...[and] gram was successful in the eyes of stu- 30 teams. We're in all the fourth dents, teachers, and administrators at grades and all the sixth grades. improving race relations in the district. An additional benefit of the program was that "And the most exciting dynamic, real- many students developed a love for teach- ly, is what happens to a high school ing. "Certain activities lose and gain popu- student. Because anybody who works larity orbut the [students'] methodology with high school students knows that blows my mind. They're so very creative. you don't tell high school students And you see amazing teaching ability. And the most important thing to me was what to do. You just say, 'Could you that a lot of students who never thought of help me tell this guy how to get it education, especially black males, went done?' And so, of course that was into education [in college, based on] this always the raison d'etre. But wenever experience." said that. We always said, 'We need The girls' volleyball team was typically help with these sixth graders.' [And mentioned as the most diverse sports team, they said], 'No problem.' So as that while most of the other sports were way, you can teach them. And so, I described as being dominated by one par- would tell them all of these things, ticular race. Most students and teachers felt this was because some sports were 'This is what sixth graders do, sixth more traditionally played in black or white graders leave people out, sixth graders communities. For example, the boys bas- do this.' And then about October or ketball team was predominantly black, November, they would say to me, 'You while the crew team was almost complete- know, I think we do some of that.' It ly white. Crew was segregated by income as well, requiring equipment and trans- was, it was amazing, okay? But what portation to and from practices. happened also was that...I meet with While sports and other extra-curricular

uJ activities affected or reflected race relations don't encourage them as much. They among students, perhaps the most don't support them. And then also, provocative issue was the system of aca- there's the black students will, like, demic levels of tracking. make fun of other black students like, "I'm in mostly CP [college prep] 'Why are you acting white? Blah, blah, classes. I've taken a few Honors blah.' They do that all the time." throughout high school. But, so I'm The staff seemed to support the tracking used to, like, the very mixed classes. system, feeling that it better allowed teach- I'm used toevery white's been in the ers to meet the needs of their students. minority in my classes. So I'm used to "As a teacher...I taught students of I get along really wellit doesn't, different levels we called them levels. it's not like a black thing. Like, I don't And I think it's more accurate to refer hesitate to approach black kids or any to them as levels in our situation other race kids, just because I've rather than tracks because tracks is an always been around them. And, I image of, of, like rails going off into the mean, that's definitely an advantage to distance...It gives this image of stay- me just because it's opened my mind ing on one track. And now, we, we do up. And I haven't been hesitant to have levels of instruction. And in my make new friends.... For those AP and experience, I will admit, that in teach- Honors white students, like, they're ing different levels of instruction, that I placed in the position where there's, personally did find it more advanta- like, two or three black kids in the geous to have different levels of class and they see that and they auto- instruction. When I taught AP, the matically look down on black kids level of difficulty, the quantity of work because they're 'obviously' not as that was covered, was clearly inappro- smart as them, you know, like, suppos- priate for most of the students that I edly because they aren't in this class.... had in college prep level. Now, there "But I think that, like, we talked were some students I had in college about with the article a lot when all prep who could have done AP work. those statistics came out in the school And there were some students at the newspaper about the gap between the bottom, if you will, of the AP track, or blacks and the whites or whatever and level, who could have been equally as soand they say that basically the well served in a CP curriculum. So my reasons are that parents aren't urging first position on this, and I think it's a their kids to take the Honors and AP position that's shared by most of our classes, they don't want them to be faculty, is that there's some instruc- with only white kids. And so they tional sense in maintaining levels." don't want tobecause they don't want them to take the classes, they While the tracking or leveling system has going to adjust instantaneously. I mean, the effect of separating students by race, it there's got to be some kind of growth or operates differently than in other schools. adjustment period. So we try to get kids The system is open in that students can who are moving up to stay with it long elect to be in the various levels and, most enough that you can start to come on importantly, the lowest level is college board and so forth...I'm going to say prep. The teacher continues, round numbers, but it's sixty to seventy percent I'd say of our courses are college "Secondly, the importance of preparatory level. And thirty percent are calling them levels is because Honors or AP And, there are no, what we we have what we refer to as an would call, general education level open leveling system...which courses." means that students can elect, For students needing special help the to move up or move down a school had self-contained, "intervention level as it seems academically ,dasses....taught by a special-ed teacher, appropriate. So what did we with a small number of kidsall who have do? What we're trying to do is two a dire handicapped condition." Additionally, they had inclusion classes at things. Number one, we're trying to the college prep level for students with maintain the standards of these differ- learning disabilities. A teacher said, "I, I ent levels of instruction because we reallyactually I celebrate this whole idea think it's served our community well. of everyone [participating]. We've got LD Advanced work we want to maintain kids on the college prep level, Honors level and AP level." an advanced standard. It leads kids to develop advanced knowledge or A notable aspect of the school's system advanced skills. We think that that was that college prep was the lowest track of class available to students, with the sends them off really well. So we want exception of the "intervention" dasses. to maintain a standard in all of our That meant that every student in the levels. And secondly, we want to school was expected to leave high school encourage as many of those students prepared to do college work. The adminis- who are in those marginal areas or trators were concerned with maintaining those cusp areas to choose wisely and high standards. However, not all teachers agreed with the system of tracking or the ideally to choose up. motivations behind it. "So we're trying to do awe're trying to "The political dynamics affecting get people to want to take on a higher aca- school administration are such that, an demic challenge. Then beyond that, we're trying to encourage our parents to know administrator is going to serve himself what does that mean? What kind of home best by maintaining the status quo support is necessary? What kind of study particularly in these suburban dis- habits are expected? And that you don't tricts. In a Shaker-like setting, there is move up and then just do it immediately. enormous fear of change It would be like me going from, you know, jogging a quarter mile to jogging a mile because...power being equated with and a half and thinking that my body's wealth and educationthose kids are doing just fine, thank you. And there's get into those classes.... absolutely no interest in any change. Even students who were taking honors- So we'd rather pretend that high expec- level classes in one curricular area found it tationsthe mantra of high expecta- difficult to "jump" in other areas. tions, is the solution to our problem. "It's not impossible, but it's, like, not And in fact, anybody that goes into the easy because I've found that, during my kind of classrooms I'm talking about elementary years with the tracking and where you have effectively, separated things like thatI was tracked to be in to try high out the poorest students higher level English classes, reading expectations on them? That's absolute comprehension and all that stuff nonsense. [because] my scores were high. And so This teacher argued that such an educa- I'm taking AP English and AP Spanish tional structure served as a social sorting and AP Government. You know, like system. His vision embraced heteroge- all the Humanities courses. But to be neous classrooms as easier to teach and able to 'jump,' like, the math cours- more beneficial for all students. es...they put you a year ahead of Students, too, experienced the limitations everyone else." of the school's tracking system. Moving from a CP-level dass to an honors-level Part of the problem is the preparation class was called, "jumping," something stu- that students have had before attending a dents found quite difficult to do. high school in which these levels occur. The school tried to address this problem by if you "I feel that it's really hard having a "bridge" program, which is con- don't start out with ninth grade, even ducted during the summer to help stu- seventh grade maybe...if you don't dents "jump" to honors and AP classes. start out in higher classes like Honors For many students, this was not an easy, classes when you're younger, it is so appealing, or effective option. Another difficulty was that jumping in one area hard to get into that system when requires skills in another area. you're older. Like I, I was never really that competitive when I was younger, "So for me to be able to take an AP and so I just took regular CP class- physics class or chemistry or AP math es...So I was never in, like, any of the or any of that, I would have had to go honors classes. Like a few times, I to summer school and taken a class in would take, like, an honors English summer school and then come back and class or something. But that wasn't, been able to do the jump then. And like, my basic core curriculum. My even if, like, I wanted to take a higher classes were mostly CP. So then, like, level of science class I couldn't have it's so hard to get into those, AP and because I wasn't a year ahead in honors classes...I wish I had chal- math. So it's sort of like those two lenged myself a lot more. But I felt, are connected more so than the like, after, like, tenth grade, I couldn't other subjects. Another program that focused on and ignore everything else that's going achievement, "Achievement Scholars," was on all about you, and ignore everybody successful in raising the grades of African- else around you. I mean there's so American males. The program created a mentoring relationship between junior and many you need to know, if nothing senior boys who were chosen as else, their history, the history of what's Achievement Scholars and freshman and happened, and what's brought us to sophomore boys with marginal grades this point and why things are the way who were chosen as Potential Scholars. they are now. And you can't under- Every other Wednesday the upper class- men wore jackets and ties for their mentor- stand other peopleunderstand where ing session with the younger boys. The they're coming from and be able to young men chosen for this program were respect them. And, I mean, you may high achieving students who were disagree with them, but you need to at involved in multiple extra-curricular activi- least know what they're saying and ties. Many of them were star athletes as where they're coming from. And to do well. At the start of each mentoring session, these impressive young men would that, you really need to know about stand at the front of the auditorium while other cultures and other places. You the younger students entered. The older can't just [learn about] yourself and students engaged in a dialogue with the say, 'Well I know about me and that's younger boys regarding study habits, all I need to know. I don't have to grades, and future aspirations. The most notable aspect of the program was that worry about anything else.' That's just older students had been effective in mak- not a reasonable attitude to take in ing it "cool" to be academically successful. today's society." The school recently had begun the "Sister Scholars" program for African-American Teachers and administrators expressed girls. support for the idea of inclusive curricula. However, they found that the national AP Most students reported that the curricula curricula made implementing such curric- was predominantly Euro-centric. One ula difficult. AP students were required to exception mentioned by students was an pass an exam that covered primarily Euro- African-American history course. In con- centric material. trast, teachers saw their curricula as more inclusive. Though a few black students Hiram R. Revels has a greater opportuni- said that having materials written by or ty than many other schools in the EIIP to about African Americans was not impor- achieve full integration. The history of tant, the majority stressed the value of desegregation in the city is strong, and this learning about one's own history Students attitude of community support is apparent of both races articulated a desire to learn in the school setting. Moreover, the area about cultures other than their own. has a relatively small low-income population, meaning that students have more "I think it's really important. I think resources and the encouragement and abil- especiallythings are changing so fast, ity to focus on school. There are a number and the world is becoming you can't of impressive programs in place to affirma- just, like, hide in your own little corner tively address race issues. The teachers and students we interviewed seemed open

9 to discussing issues of race. School values almost double the state average of 37 per- regarding race are consciously addressed cent. Advanced placement dasses (AP) within the larger community. Despite this, were a high priority for the school. Forty- revisions in the school's curricula are nec- seven percent of junior and senior students essary in order to achieve integration in achieved placement in AP classes com- conformity with Allport's criteria. pared to 13 percent statewide; 37 percent Somehow the school must find a way to enrolled in AP science versus 14 percent balance its focus on college preparation for the state (1998 data); and 29 percent AP and academic achievement with the need math enrollment compared to 10 percent for a more inclusive curricula. In fact, true (1998 data). The school offered AP dasses integration would suggest that these are in biology, chemistry, calculus, computer not mutually exclusive goals, but rather science, English, French, statistics, Spanish, goals that can help students become more U.S. history, and U.S. government. educationally, socially, and emotionally Desmond Tutu also provided other honors well-balanced. courses in analytical geometry and calculus, math analysis, chemistry, physics and world literature. F. San Jose In 1998, Desmond Tutu students fared better than statewide averages on stan- Schools Context dardized testing. Seventy-five percent of students took the SAT, versus 36 percent Desmond Tutu High School in San Jose statewide. Seventy-five percent of stu- California resides in the Fremont Union dents scored over 1,000, while statewide High School District. Unlike most of the that number was 19 percent. In 1999, 75 other school districts in the EU, Fremont percent of students scored above the Union School District does not have a national average in reading, and 90 percent desegregation litigation history. As a scored higher in math. As for students result, the context section for the Desmond with limited-English proficiency, 30 percent Tutu High School area differs from the scored higher than the national average in other school contexts in this report. reading compared to 10 percent statewide, Noteworthy information regarding the and 89 percent scored higher than the school and district is included to provide national average in math compared to 23 background information regarding the percent for the state. Ninety-three percent influences and environment surrounding of 1998 graduates went on to attend col- the school. The district stands far ahead of lege, with 69 percent at four-year institu- the other districts in the EIIP in their collec- tions and 24 percent at two-year colleges. tion and dissemination of detailed student Two percent of Desmond Tutu students profiles including racial composition, test were economically disadvantaged as meas- scores by student characteristics, and ured by free or reduced lunches. None of enrollment data. Desmond Tutu's economically disadvan- Desmond Tutu had a 1999 graduation taged students scored above the national rate of 81 percent, markedly higher than average on the SAT-9 exam, but 76 percent the state average of 69 percent. In 1999, 72 of students who were not economically percent of students completed University disadvantaged did so. The district saw 20 of California/California State University percent of its economically disadvantaged admissions requirements, which was students achieve above the national aver-

9 0 age, while the state figure was 23 percent. system used the number of AP tests taken Comparatively, the district had 61 percent at the school divided by number of gradu- and the state had 51 percent of students ating seniors.'6° Yet, the leader in the fight not economically disadvantage perform for the voucher system for California pub- above the national average.'" lic education, Alan Bonsteel, went to Desmond Tutu and questioned the aca- According to the high school web page, demic climate of the school. "I was an aca- Desmond Tutu High School served the demic in a nonacademic high school," he communities of West San Jose with por- said. "I wanted depth and knowledge, and tions of Saratoga and Cupertino. The it was a school that dealt with things on a majority of the students came from educat- superficial level."''' ed households and had parents who worked in "high-tech" firms. Fourteen percent were identified as gifted and five percent were seen as limited in English profi- 1. Desmond Tutu High ciency. School San Jose, The Fremont Union High School District, California like many others throughout the nation, implemented a no-tolerance approach to students who display destructive behav- Desmond Tutu High School falls in the iors. For example, one student caught sell- desegregated portion of the spectrum, and ing drugs on school property was perma- it is struggling to become an integrated nently suspended from Fremont and school. It was a "high achieving" school ordered to attend Desmond Tutu. with over 1,700 students during the 1998- According to Fremont Union High School 1999 school year. Desmond Tutu's student District Superintendent Joe Hamilton, 20 to population was 52 percent Asian, 42 per- 30 students in the district were forced to cent white, 4 percent Hispanic, 1 percent make similar "administrative transfers" to African-American, and 1 percent Native comprehensive high schools.'57 American. Desmond Tutu ranked third in the state in SAT scores and had a national- Voters were willing to make major ly known math team. The school's improvements within the 40 to 70 year old dropout rate was 0.5 percent.162 schools of the Fremont Union High School District by overwhelmingly approving a Historically, more than 90 percent of stu- $144 million bond measure. The money dents went to college and the majority of will go to various building repairs, as well graduates went to Ivy League four-year as science labs and library improvement universities. Because of this high achieve- projects.'" A volunteer committee found ment, many students and faculty felt that that classrooms built in the 1950s and students had a high degree of stress. "I 1960s needed new plumbing, heating, and think there's too much work. I mean, I'm water systems. Although most of the up 'til 1:00 at nightand I'm only a fresh- money is allocated for general repairs and man! And I've heard it gets to be a lot renovations, the school is slated to receive more." Groups of students tended to additional classrooms.'" blame other groups for the competitive and stressful academic environment. The Desmond Tutu High School was named faculty and students also discussed cheat- 89th nationwide in encouraging its stu- ing and a rampant drug problem. dents to excel academically. The rating 9 Students and teachers agreed that the they're in the classrooms and they school was largely segregated. Many stu- don't know what's going on. And then dents preferred to associate with friends of they don't speak English so you hear their own race although there was some them speaking in their Asian language mixing, especially in the classroom. Despite this, most felt Desmond Tutu was or whatever. Like all during class peri- the best school in the district because od reading their Asian books. If they among other things, its academic standards don't know how to speak the language, were very high. The assistant principal they should at least take a class or a said, "Mostly all the classes are college couple before they come into the class- prep, students do not really have the option of taking non-college courses. room." There is some segregation but students get A teacher taught a group of white stu- along well." dents who she felt were struggling due to Although students had amiable relation- feelings of isolation and animosity toward ships, there was underlying prejudice Asian students. She described these stu- toward Asian students. Some students dents as, "basically white and basically the said that they felt the school had been kids who are at this school and feel like "invaded" by Asian students. One stated, they're foreigners in their own school. "Businesses are closing down and they're There is definitely a segment of the [white] putting up Asian businesses, it seems like population that is uncomfortable with the everything that like falls it just rises Asian." Asian population." Additionally, some white students behaved negatively toward "Because the Asian people hang out Asian students. A teacher stated, together I think a lot of white people "There is a definite prejudice against resent that kind of thing. They're like, new immigrants that don't speak 'Why can't why don't they wanna be English. If they don't speak English friends with us?' And they resent the they are definitely looked down upon. fact that they hang out just amongst They are looked on as being sneaky. themselves. They won't go the extra As, 'Oh yeah. You're just saying you mile to become friends with them. But don't understand just to get out of then again, [white students are] not doing what you don't want to do."' doing anything to become friends with [Asian students]." Adding to the animosity was the perception that Asian students drove the high Some students expressed frustration with achievement standards. When asked students who spoke in their primary lan- about challenges regarding race relations, guages and believed it meant that they one student said that some white students could not speak English or felt it was rude. felt "intimidation by all the Asian people One student said, how they get better grades. [The white "I love listening to people's accents students] get happy when they get an A. My Asian friends, they'll be like, "Oh, my but when there's a big population of god! I got a B. My parents are going to kill Asians who are coming in and they me!" don't speak a word of English - and 92 The faculty felt that the school usually received diverse curricula, but when asked "errs on the side of overdoing multicultur- about the authors and subjects of their alism." However, some students felt that reading, most students cited traditional teachers reinforced students' negative per- Euro-centric materials. One student char- ceptions of Asian students. Some students acterized them as "old white guys." felt that teachers picked on Asian students Another student said, "We don't really because they tend to be soft-spoken. A have that much diversity." The music teacher stated, teacher attempted to expose students to other cultures through the use of folk "They don't venture out to get songs. She stated, "One of the cool things English speaking friends. They don't about music is that it's an opportunity to do as well because they don't learn expose people to other cultures. That's English as fast. And also, then it starts what I try to do with the folk songs. And to look like a clan. And then you get, also, to interpret the words to develop sort of, bad feelings because they're empathy for other people's situations." cliquish. So, the kids that venture out Students and teachers felt it was impor- and try to make friends outside of their tant to learn about a wide variety of cul- comfort zone really are the ones that tures. However, many believed that it was less important to learn about their own do best." heritage. When asked how important it Generally, Asian students were given sole was to study her own culture one student responsibility of approaching white stu- said, "Yes, but it doesn't really matter...As dents rather than focusing on creating a long as I'm exposed to a lot of different mutual approach. Some teachers took things then that's fine." Another student steps to counter some of the negative inter- demonstrated a separate view, "Well, I feel, action. One teacher had a group of 35 stu- like, a sense of pride when my class is dents who did peer counseling. learning about my background." Still another said, "I would like people to know The school enjoyed a high degree of what [African Americans] went througha parental involvement. Teachers and while back, for all them years." administrators credited much of the school's success to parents. Parents were Desmond Tutu had the advantages of a involved in fundraising for music, athlet- high achieving student population, finan- ics, and scholarships. Additionally, there cial resources, and parental support. was a "bilingual advisory committee which Despite this, racial animosity was a signifi- consists of parents who are trying to draw cant problem for students. The school and the newer immigrants who don't speak community were facing the somewhat new English or don't feel comfortable in the challenge of how to integrate students school and trying to be a bridge between when a minority group becomes a majority them and the rest of the community." and excels above the level of other students. Majority-minority issues are creat- Students had a variety of opinions ing a need for changes in policies, pro- regarding the diversity of their curricula. grams, curricula, and teacher training in While most students agreed that American San Jose and other communities in history focused on "white" history, there California. were discrepancies regarding English courses. Some students initially felt they 33 lems of inter- and intra-school segregation G. Berkeley School and some of the conflict associated with Context becoming an integrated school in our society. Berkeley, a city of approximately 100,000 Berkeley is one of the few school districts people, had 9,126 students in its public nationwide whose desegregation plan was schools during the 1997-98 school year. initiated by the local board of education The Berkeley Unified School District without court action.' Beginning in 1964, encompasses eleven elementary schools, Berkeley was among the first urban school three middle schools, a high school, a con- districts in the country to voluntarily bus tinuation high school, and an adult school. students to achieve desegregation. But a District-wide, the student population in parent of that era commented in 1994: "If 1997-98 was 42.4 percent African- ever there was a community that wanted American, 33.6 percent white, 13.5 percent to integratewhere the will was there, the Hispanic, 10.0 percent Asian American, dream was there, the vision was and 0.4 percent Native American. there...(yet) three years later, the kids were segregated on the playground...the The mission statement of the Berkeley kids...were eating at separate tables. And Unified School District affirms the district's in the 20 years since, we've not been able commitment to integration: to figure out a way to get kids to have The mission of the Berkeley Unified lunch together."" School District, as the beacon for a In 1940, only 4 percent of Berkeley's pub- diverse community united in commit- lic school students were African-American, ment to public education, is to ensure but by 1958 the percentage of African- that all of its students discover and American students was 29 percent. Berkeley was becoming one of the most develop their special talents, achieve racially diverse cities in the West, but seg- their educational and career goals, and regated housing patterns persisted, result- succeed in a rapidly changing, multi- ing in segregated neighborhood schools. cultural society by empowering the This was the situation that in January of students, parents, community, and 1958 prompted the Berkeley branch of the staff; providing a strong core curricu- NAACP to address the Berkeley board of education, and ask what they could do to lum; and offering special programs and help. Six months later, after some foot- alternative learning experiences in a dragging by the Board, an interracial citi- racially integrated, pluralistic environ- zens' committee was appointed to gather ment. information about school segregation in the district. On October 19, 1959, the The Berkeley school district is in many Citizen's Advisory Committee made its ways a model of the conscientious quest recommendations for comprehensive for school desegregation and integration. improvement in all educational programs But Berkeley is also a showcase for the dif- and services, improvements in interracial ficulties involved in achieving true school relations and intercultural education, and a integration. Despite their efforts and suc- new fair-employment policy directed at cesses, Berkeley school officials and stu- increasing the number of minority employ- dents continue to confront complex prob- ees in the professional classifications. Despite divisions in the community and community organizations voicing support among the district staff, the Board, backed for the committee's recommendations, and by innovative School Superintendent C.H. the newly formed Parents Association for Wennerberg, implemented the bulk of the Neighborhood Schools (PANS) leading the committee's recommendations. No opposition.'67 attempt was made at this time; however, to address the de facto segregation of Meanwhile, a junior high school English Berkeley's schools.'" teacher named Marjorie Ramsey, aided by interested citizens and colleagues, pro- In 1962, the Board of Education was posed a junior high school reorganization made to confront the desegregation issue it plan aimed at integrating those schools. had avoided in 1959. On May 1, 1962, the Under the Ramsey proposal, all of Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) pre- Berkeley's seventh and eighth graders sented to the Board its study finding de would attend two of the city's three junior facto segregation in the Berkeley schools. highs, and all ninth graders would attend The city's single public high school was of the third school, which would become an necessity integrated, but CORE found that integral administrative part of the senior most of the lower schools were severely high school. The senior high would there- segregated. According to the CORE report, by become a four-year high school, located eight Berkeley elementary schools had a on two campuses.'" white enrollment of 94 percent or more, while two other schools enrolled 94 per- The board turned both the Hadsell com- cent or more non-white students. Of the mittee recommendations and the Ramsey proposal over to Superintendent city's three junior high schools, one was 99 percent white, and another 75 percent Wennerberg for review, instructing him to black. The school superintendent joined in ascertain the staff's reactions and recom- CORE's recommendation that a broadly mendations, and to study the educational representative citizens' committee be and financial feasibility of the various pro- appointed to analyze the problem and sug- posals. On May 19, 1964, at a public board gest solutions, and the board acquiesced.'" meeting attended by several thousand Berkeley citizens, Superintendent This interracial committee of 36, under Wennerberg recommended implementa- the chairmanship of Berkeley minister Dr. tion of the Ramsey plan for junior high John Hadsell, offered its report and recom- school reorganization. As an alternative to mendations to the board on November 19, the Hadsell committee's elementary school 1963, before an overflow audience of 1200 redistricting plan, he proposed that all stu- citizens. In addition to renewing the earli- dents in grades kindergarten through three er committee's call for increased minority attend the schools that had been predomi- hiring and compensatory education pro- nantly white, and that the fourth- through grams, the Hadsell committee squarely sixth-graders attend the previously pre- addressed the problem of segregated dominantly black schools. The board schools by proposing partial redrawing of unanimously approved the junior high both elementary- and junior-high-school reorganization plan, to be phased in over boundaries, supplemented by voluntary the next two years, but indefinitely tabled and limited open enrollment. Two months the elementary school desegregation plan later, a second public hearing on the as (politically) unfeasible.'" Hadsell committee's report drew 2500 people, with more than fifty speakers from In response to the board's unanimous lion. On his recommendation, the Board decision to desegregate Berkeley's junior voted unanimously on April 18, 1967 to highs, desegregation opponents PANS accomplish total desegregation of launched an effort to recall the entire Berkeley's elementary schools by board. After months of intensive cam- September of 1968.'" paigning by both supporters and oppo- Superintendent Sullivan, after receiving a nents of the board, a special election on the report from a district committee that had recall petition was held on October 6, 1964. reviewed more than 300 proposals, recom- By that time, three of the five board mem- mended implementation of the elementary bers had resigned, so only the two remain- school redistricting plan that the board had ing members were subject to recall. Fifty- tabled in 1964. In January 1968 the board seven percent of Berkeley's voters went to adopted the final version of this plan, to be the polls, and the result was a resounding initiated in September of that year. The three-to-two victory for the incumbents.'" elementary school districts were redrawn The board saw the defeat of the recall into four strips running from east to west. petition as an endorsement of its desegre- The zones were designed to contain equal gation agenda. Following the recall elec- representations of the various racial and tion, when the board appointed three new socioeconomic groups. Each of the four members to fill the existing vacancies, a zones encompassed previously segregated major criterion for appointment was sup- eastside (predominantly white) schools port for school desegregation. In the midst and west- and southside (predominantly of the recall campaign, Superintendent black) schools. Within each zone, the Wennerberg had retired, and the board kindergarten through third-graders would hired Dr. Neil V. Sullivan, a nationally attend the eastside or middle area schools, known supporter of school desegregation, and the fourth- through sixth-graders as the new superintendent.'7' would attend the west- and south-side schools. Under this plan, approximately The United States Commission on Civil 3500 of the 9000 elementary school stu- Rights later credited the strong leadership dents would be bused each year to schools exerted by Superintendents Wennerberg more than a mile from their homes, with and Sullivan and by the school board, as west- and south-side minority children pri- well as community participation, with the marily bused in the first four years of successful implementation of the 1964 jun- school, and east-side white students prima- ior high school desegregation plan.' Yet, rily bused in the last three years of elemen- the city's elementary schools remained tary school." deeply segregated. Simultaneously with the adoption of the In 1967, the NAACP, joined by parent 1968 desegregation plan, the school board groups and teacher associations, petitioned adopted an affirmative action hiring policy the Berkeley board of education for imme- with the intent of bringing the number of diate desegregation of the elementary minority teachers into line with the num- schools. They chided the board for stalling ber of minority students in the district. On on elementary school integration. the board's instructions, the district person- Superintendent Sullivan wanted system- nel director conducted a nationwide search wide desegregation, but he believed that at for minority teachers.'" least a year of planning was essential to successful elementary school desegrega- 96 In the months leading up to September In the late 1970s, following the expiration 1968, the district administration made of the federal ESP grant, the Berkeley efforts to ease the transition to system-side school district experienced a severe finan- desegregation, and to unite the community cial crisis. Throughout this period, despite behind the undertaking. The superintend- substantial budget cuts that necessitated ent and district staff met frequently with staff lay-offs and salary cuts, the school community, faculty and student groups to board remained committed to the expen- facilitate a smooth transition; teachers sive busing program.'79 observed and taught at schools with different racial compositions than their own; and Change was in the air in 1992 when children met with the students from the Berkeley voters passed a $158 million schools with which theirs would be paired. General Obligation Bond measure to fund Despite complaints that the program dis- school building projects. The prospect of proportionately burdened black students this large-scale renovation and rebuilding because they were bused at a younger age project occasioned much discussion of than white students, Berkeley's busing pro- reorganizing the school system. The twen- gram was accepted by the community with ty-five year old busing program was criti- minimal dissension.'" cized for failing to substantially raise the achievement levels of black students, and In September of 1968 Berkeley became for alienating white families, many of the first American city with a population of whom pulled their children out of the sys- over 100,000 and a sizable black communi- tem in favor of private schools. Berkeley ty to completely desegregate its schools.'' parents joined others around the country in clamoring for more "choice" in school The 1968 desegregation plan was not significantly altered until 1993. However, assignments. Moreover, the city's shifting during the 1970s, with funding from the demographics had rendered the busing system obsolete, and some elementary federal Experimental Schools Project (ESP), schools were becoming resegregated.'" The the district experimented with "alternative" school board had mixed feelings about schools in which enrollment was voluntary. As many as 30 percent of the district's stu- reconfiguring the schools. In 1992, one dents were enrolled in ESP programs, sev- board member said that if busing for eral of which were racially imbalanced. desegregation was abandoned in favor of Among these programs were Black House, open enrollment, "(m)any of our schools an alternative high school for black stu- would become even more segregated, and dents, focusing on African-American cul- I don't think that's a basis for quality edu- ture, and Casa De La Raza, an alternative cation." Another board member voiced a differing view: "If we develop strong K-12 school serving students with Spanish- schools and then end up with schools that speaking backgrounds. These two schools are (racially) out of balance, I'm prepared came to the attention of the Office for Civil Rights of the U.S. Department of Health, to accept that's' Education and Welfare, which investigated In December of 1993, following the rec- and concluded that the two programs' ommendation of a fifty-member task force, racial exclusivity violated Title VI of the the Berkeley School Board voted to aban- 1964 Civil Rights Act. Following this 1973 don the district-wide busing program that determination, the district dosed both it had voluntarily instituted in 1968, in Black House and Casa De La Raza.'" favor of a system of "controlled choice" of schools at the elementary and middle school levels. The board also changed the (Students Together Opposing Prejudice), schools' grade configuration to a K-5, 6-8 all freshmen have been required to take an (middle school), and 9-12 system. Under ethnic studies class.' In 1993, the high the "controlled choice" system, the city is school principal instituted a "detracking" divided into three elementary school program in which the range of ninth-grade "attendance zones," and two middle school English and history courses were replaced zones, each with approximately the same with core curricula for students of mixed balance of white and minority populations. abilities. Detracking has proved controver- Parents of elementary and middle school sial, with some parents of high-achieving students filled out an enrollment form list- students complaining that the school's ing their first, second and third choices of high standards have been lowered.' schools. Preference was given to students Despite ongoing efforts to truly integrate living within a school's attendance zone, it, the Berkeley high school remains inter- and the district provides transportation nally segregated. Addressing parents in only within each zone. Desegregation 1993, Principal James Henderson acknowl- retains a role in the new system; in order to edged, "race is our Achilles Heel." The San keep every school within five percentage Francisco Chronicle reported in 1994 that points of the citywide average black and many upper level classes at the school are white student populations, the district may filled with white and Asian American stu- assign students to maintain racial balance. dents, while the basic academic courses The new system went into effect at the contain predominantly black and Latino start of the 1995-96 school year.''Q students. The author concluded that, "if The new system has not been completely the success of integration is measured by successful in keeping each school's black academic achievement across racial lines, and white student population within 5 per- [the school] has failed."186 cent of the district-wide average. In the On October 18, 1994, The Public 1998-99 school year, Berkeley's twelve ele- Broadcasting System (PBS) broadcast a mentary schools ranged from 25 percent to 150-minute documentary about Berkeley's 47 percent African-American, 15 percent to high school. Called "School Colors," the 34 percent white, 4 percent to 43 percent documentary followed a diverse group of Latino, and 3 percent to 18 percent Asian students and their principal through the American.'83 1993-94 school year. The show highlighted Berkeley's single public high school has academic and social segregation within the always been desegregated. As the lower school. A black student told the interview- schools were being desegregated, efforts at er, "[This school] is like the real world, and the high school have focused on programs the real world is totally segregated. No to foster racial sensitivity, and to reduce the such thing as integration when it comes to gaps in achievement between minority and America. We all want to be with our own." white students. In 1968, spurred by A San Francisco Chronicle reviewer called demands from the Black Students Union, "School Colors" "one of the scarier pro- Berkeley's high school became the first and grams you'll see this year." But on the day only high school in the nation to develop a the show aired, the newspaper also pub- Black Studies Department. The school also lished an editorial praising the high offers classes in Latino studies. Since 1991, school's administration for its continuing when the school board acted in response to struggle to integrate the school. The edito- lobbying by a group calling itself STOP rial concludes: "Progress must be measured

98 in inches, not miles, and whether or not 9.9 percent Asian American, and 1 percent they are aware of it, [the school's] gradu- other ethnic groups." The high school is ates will take with them to college and known for its academic excellence. Eighty work a better understanding of different percent of M.K. Gandhi High graduates go races and cultures than students from on to college, and the school's percentage other schools."' of students scoring at least 900 on the SAT is three times the statewide average.m A researcher, who has lived and studied in the Berkeley area, commented on the Students, faculty, and staff felt strongly media coverage of race relationships about the benefits of the school's diversity. among students that portrayed the school However, students segregated themselves in a negative light due to racial tensions. during social times such as lunch. One She found that when a school is going student gave a complete mapping of the through the process of transforming to an campus, integrated setting, tension and conflict often arise as they do in most transitions." "Right in front of the Community It is not surprising that few racial tensions Theatre is where all the Caucasian stu- exist in the homogeneous conditions of a dents hang out. And then the majority segregated school; likewise, it is a natural of the black students hang on the process for tensions to arise within grow- slopes. The Latinos hang around the ing and changing conditions. counselors' office on the stairs by the track. If you see any of them together, 1. M.K. Gandhi High it's usually in a small group." School Berkeley, The principal agreed stating, "in the classroom, I think [desegregation] is [doing] California fine. Outside the classroom we dearly have [divisions]."

M.K. Gandhi High School lies in the inte- Teachers and students alike felt that stu- grated, but not truly integrated, portion of dents were more desegregated during the spectrum. Having the most equal more formal school settings such as class- racial proportions of any HIP school, and rooms, school dubs, and some sports. demonstrating some efforts to provide stu- However, students felt that particular dents with exposure to multicultural mate- sports were reserved for particular groups. rials, M.K. Gandhi was further along the "Basketball's for African Americans. Crew path toward integration than most other is for white people. Soccer is for Latino schools in the EDP. Despite this, it fell guys. Badminton is for Asians." short of a truly integrated school, primarily due to its overall curriculum. However, Even though, during informal times, stu- M.K. Gandhi is a unique school in that it is dents segregated themselves, they did not one of the few high schools in the nation feel that there was racial tension. Students that has a number of ethnic studies depart- commonly stated that they simply pre- ments. During the 1997-98 school year, ferred to spend time with people who M.K. Gandhi High School's 3,124 students understood them or had similar interests. were 39.6 percent white, 35.7 percent One student stated, African-American, 10.2 percent Hispanic, "I think people are afraid of being misun- suchyou'll find the upper AP classes, derstood. I think that's why they separate you're gonna have mostly whites and themselves. I would feel more comfortable Asians, and the same in the math. So, talking to an African American than a there is still separation. But it's not by Caucasian or a Latino, because different things that they do, I don't do. It's like, an intentional ability level saying, certain things I can go and say to my 'You're at this level before you take this friends that I can't say to anybody else class."' 'cause they won't understand me." Although more needs to be done, the Students recognized a disparity in the school should be acknowledged for recog- racial composition of classes such as col- nizing the problem and taking steps to cor- lege prep. One student saw that, although rect it. the school tried to desegregate students, "If you look at all the honors courses, all you Further steps to provide more equal see are Caucasian kids and Asian kids. access to students of color included such And if you look at the remedial, it's prima- things as an outreach and education cam- rily African-American and Chicano." paign and more individualized attention. Students stated that this sent a clear mes- "There is no recruitment going on for sage to African-American and Latino stu- kids who could do the work [but] don't dents. "But the reason it felt kinda bad was because it kinda, I don't know. It kinda do the work. There's no real outreach. makes a statement that these races that are If we consider that kids of color tend not in here can't be at this level to do this to be more intimidated by the system kind of work." They also stated that "when [and] all the things the research has to you are the only one in a class, you feel say about kids of color and their suc- like an outsider." Fortunately, the principal was very aware of this problem. Though cess in school, then by not reaching out she had only been at the school for a short to them and by not making the extra time, she had begun to institute policies to effort to contact parents and to inform help counter the problem. The following parents, you're gonna have what we year, there would no longer be remedial have. And it has been proven at this math; all students would either join alge- high school when there has been con- bra or accelerated geometry. However, in spite of such steps, it was still recognized tact with parents, when there's been a that divisions would remain. An adminis- conscious effort to touch base with the trator said, kids who could do the work, who are "Even when we have no tracking, we in those college prep classes and could end up with tracked classes. The rea- easily do AP work, the numbers shoot son for that is, some of the electives are up. The kids are successful." the ones that the academic-type stu- An administrator said, dents choose. The academic students "Well, one of the things that [we are] tend to be more of non-color than trying to address in [our] ninth-grade color. So, if you go into our sciences program, is to get the kids in and make classes, which are not tracked, but, as the school a little bit more personal for

100 each and every kid. So that we keep a have the time or the desire to give them little bit better track on each of these individualized attention. kids. So that we can try to show better Students' impressions of teachers and success. So that we do keep 'em. counselors ranged from positive, to neu- We've done tutorials, we have all sorts tral, to negative. Some students experi- of extra programs for support. And, I enced race-based difficulties while others did not. "I feel, no. To me, personality has don't know whether we're saving any nothing to do with your race. If you have kidsI'm sure we are, but still, too a good personality, then I'll have no prob- many of 'em are not being saved. To lems with you... People relate to 'em no many of 'em are falling through the matter what color you are, they should be cracks." a nice person." Another student expressed that teachers gave attention only to those These strategies seemed to be what stu- who caused trouble. "Unless you're fight- dents desired. Many felt that it was harder ing. Then you get a lot of attention. And I to be a good student because they were don't understand that. Because the atten- required to do many things independently tion shouldn't be focused on the bad [stu- such as, seeking out the college prep coun- dents,] it should be focused on the good." selor and obtaining information about Students described their counselors as classes. One student stated that, while stu- "great" and conversely, "detrimental." "At dents were willing to be independent, they times they seem to be actively working did not feel that they had any sort of safety against you developing your full potential net. "...you have to stick your neck out for here." things you want. You have to shout. So I guess, I kinda felt lonely at first. I knew "A lot of teachers up here don't really tons of people, I have lots of connections, care enough for the students. I used to but I didn't feel like there was something I get a bad grade in one class. And this could fall back on." In contrast, other stu- teacher would not say anything to help dents felt that the independence they me. It's like teachers up here need to developed would benefit them. show more attention toward the stu- "I also think that at this school you dents. I just think teachers need to have to, sort of, fend for yourself. No give more personal time towards the one does anything for you. You learn students and build, even, relationships how to take care of yourself...You have with the parents so they can know to take care of all of that college stuff. what's going on in the student's life, so No one's really gonna do it for you. they can know what kind of attention You have to find the resources. It's like they need to give that student." - and it helps you when you're gonna Overall, the students said that they be out in the world. No one's gonna be enjoyed the diversity of their school. helping you. You have to go and find 'I Discussions of various cultures in the cur- [your own way]." ricula helped them feel more comfortable and more connected to the school, and it Students generally felt that teachers and helped them to be more open-minded. counselors were busy and either did not Students read books representing and

101 authored by a variety of cultures and did An administrator said of learning about research on other countries. However, one's own culture, such diversity came in small doses. "I think it's critical. I think that Teachers and administrators were confined by a state-adopted book list and by that's one of the things that keeps kids achievement standards. The primary focus involved in school, is that things for curriculum diversity was English and become relevant to their lives.... history. The principal said, I think [learning about other cultures "My observation since I've been here is] not critical, but I think it is has been that those two departments, really-if they only have one point of first of all, want heterogeneity and view, they're not gonna be able to do have that in their classes. And really much thinking. And they need to see a strive to cover a wide range of issues variety of points of views in order to and materials that come from a variety really open their mind and be able to of sources that are both ethnically analyze a problem." different, socioeconomically different, Most students agreed that learning about politically different in terms of other cultures was important. One student ideology." stated, "I think it's important to have an appreciation, understanding of how varied The overall impression of the school's thought is, to really be able to have a matu- curricula was that multicultural perspec- rity about ideas." Another stated, "It is tives were confined primarily to some important to learn about yourself. But it's English and history classes and the elective even more important to understand others courses on specific cultures. One student because that leads back to understanding stated that, rather than being a part of yourselfif you can relate to others and daily learning, exposure to another culture understand how others develop." On the was something that students had to seek other hand, some students, when asked if out. "If somebody wants to go out of their reading about their own culture was way to learn all this stuff it's there. [But] important stated, "...not that important. all the ethnic studies are separate classes." As long as I read something that catches This was true aside from the general ethnic my attention and something that is good, studies course required to graduate. then I'm fine. I mean, it doesn't have to be, 'Is this book about black people?' and if it isn't, then I can't read it. You know?" All students highly valued learning about other cultures.

102 "It's important, because I know Students at M.K. Gandhi High School about my culture. I don't know about had strong desires and opinions regarding other people's culture. And in order to their education, and poignantly, they desired the missing components of an inte- interact in the world with other people grated school, such as inclusive and multi- you have to know well you don't cultural curricula and teachers with train- have to, but it would be good for you ing and sensitivity regarding diversity to know what happened to them and issues. In spite of some remaining hurdles, how they can take things if you say M.K. Gandhi has the means and the desire certain things. So, I think it's good. to achieve true integration. I think it's important to learn about other cultures. Because what's theuse of learning all about my culture when I'm living in my culture. But I'm not living in the other people's culture so I really don't know anything about them."

103 CONCLUSIONS

these racially and economically diverse A. Findings schools benefited from the opportunity to broaden their educational experiences by One of the most challenging aspects of interacting with people of other races and the EIIP was placing schools on the spec- socioeconomic backgrounds. These stu- trum from segregated to integrated. The dents learned about our multicultural soci- first step toward integration is desegrega- ety by studying the history and literature tion, so a segregated school must necessari- of people of other races in a multiracial ly be considered far short of the goal of environment. true integration. However, we want to Judging by their comments, it appears give credit to several of the segregated that attending school alongside racially schools we examined, schools whose teach- diverse students fostered students' under- ers and administrators have implemented standing of the importance of a multicul- policies and programs aimed at providing tural curriculum. Close interracial friend- their students with a multicultural and ships among students were rare even in integrative education. While racially bal- the racially diverse schools, but positive anced schools must be placed farther along interracial interactions both in and out of our segregation-to-integration spectrum, the classroom were not uncommon. some such schools have much to learn Similarly, integrative programs such as from some of the racially isolated schools multicultural curricula were often superfi- that we examined. cial or insufficiently developed at the No school that participated in the EIIP desegregated schools. However, it must be was truly integrated, under our definition. kept in mind that the opportunities to That is, none of the desegregated schools learn about our diverse society in a mul- we examined was providing its students tiracial environment, and to form the rela- with a truly multicultural education in a tionships that will facilitate the transition learning environment that was inclusive to integrated workplaces and neighbor- and supportive of various student learning hoods, are completely foreclosed for stu- styles, and that adequately prepared students in racially isolated schools. dents of all races both to continue on with Our findings agree with other research higher education, and to interact success- indicating that almost all segregated fully in a multicultural society. Neverthe- schools with minority populations also less, there is no question that the students have largely low-income student popula- attending desegregated schools enjoyed tions. Due to the demographics of our educational advantages that were unavail- metropolitan areas, these schools are gen- able to the students in racially isolated erally in urban core school districts that are schools. themselves impoverished. Concentrated Students of color attending racially and poverty and racial isolation at both the economically diverse schools such as school and district level combine to create Hiram H. Revels in Shaker Heights, M.K. often insurmountable obstacles to success- Gandhi in Berkeley, Paulo Freire in ful educational outcomes. Segregated Chicago, and Winona La Duke in St. Paul, minority schools must commonly deal not generally scored higher on standardized only with individual students facing situa- tests, and were more likely to go on to col- tions that diminish their educational and lege than were students of color in segre- life opportunities, but also with the delete- gated schools. Moreover, all students in rious effects of concentrated poverty. The

104 cumulative effect of many students from people, growing up in high-poverty impoverished families in one school cre- neighborhoods, moreover, experience ates a concentration of poverty that signifi- widespread unemployment and hope- cantly affects the achievement of all students in that school."' john powell has lessness as a norm. Educational segre- stated, gation reinforces the diminished expectations engendered by neighborhood Poor urban schools lack the commu- poverty. Students' career/life expecta- nity support available to more affluent tions directly impact their view of the schools. In many affluent districts, relevance of education and the value of parents and businesses contribute time educational achievement. By contrast, and money to athletic and other pro- desegregated education fosters black grams, whereas poor communities are student expectations of entering high- strapped with low economic develop- status occupations where African- ment and high unemployment, and lack Americans are underrepresented."192 the time, energy, and resources to com- parably support their school children. The experiences of those living and working in such conditions support this. Inferior schools represent a compo- One teacher said, "The structure of the nent and a magnifier of the constrained community [must be] changed deeply "opportunity structure" imposed by enough so that there is actually a possibili- residential segregation. Housing is ty of fair treatment." more than shelter, it provides links to Many of the students in the segregated formal and informal opportunity struc- schools intended to go to college. tures. School districts are a part of the However, many of these students had a positive view of their educational experi- opportunity structure represented by ence but an inflated perception of their residence. Residential segregation future prospects, not realising the limita- excludes African Americans from main- tions that their segregated, concentrated- stream opportunity structures. poverty school was placing on their life Educational segregation, in turn, per- opportunities. Teachers in these schools petuates exclusion from the social net- often recognized the disadvantages their students faced and took steps to help works that lead to job information, counter some of the structural and familial contacts, and sponsorship. challenges by developing inclusive and empowering educational environments for Moreover, students' career/life expec- their students. tations are informed by the examples found in their neighborhoods and fami- With limited resources, the teachers and administrators in these schools developed lies. Professional, managerial, and innovative programs and a caring and other high-status workers reside pri- invested stafffactors that were highly marily in the suburbs, while lower-sta- valued by students and that research sug- tus unskilled and semi-skilled workers gests are keys to educational success. Still, are concentrated in the city. Young few of the students in these segregated schools achieved academic success. While EY" these schools had many of the curricular "I couldn't assign a reading and components of a truly integrated school, expect it to get read. And thenand and satisfied many of the less tangible expect it to be comprehended in order aspects of an integrated environment, they to be able to just do a discussion or a could not overcome the damaging effects of concentrated poverty and racial isola- project with it the next day. Here, it's, tion. Despite the efforts of segregated I mean, it's gotta be broken down. And schools, their students are still at a great a lot of themthe environment that disadvantage. William Trent found: they're coming from, you know, this The evidence from extensive survey isn't going on. And whether or not data supports a conclusion that deseg- reading's not in the home or whether regated schooling has important long- the whole school system isn't, you term benefits for minority students, knowthere's a million reasons why especially in terms of its ability to this is happening. But the environment open up economic opportunities for that they're living in...they're con- them. Taking an even longer view, stantly, they're kind of focusing on sur- improving economic and educational vival rather than, 'Oh, I think I'm opportunities for one generation of gonna read a story tonight.' You know minority individuals raises the socioe- what I mean? So I can't expect that to conomic status of the next generation, happen. And I don't anymore." so that those who follow are more apt The desegregated schools in the study to begin school at the same starting faced fewer hurdles than the segregated point as their nonminority classmates. schools, but they still failed to provide Parents who have attended desegregat- their students with a truly integrated edu- ed schools are more likely to have cation, an opportunity to equitably obtain the higher goals of education. Through attended college, have better jobs, and tracking and other disparate treatment, live in desegregated neighborhoods. white students received access to more They are also more likely to provide challenging classes than students of color. their children with the skills they need Students were very much aware of this dis- to begin school.'" parity, and many were dissatisfied with it. A few of the schools were taking affirma- Both teachers and students recognized tive steps to ensure that advanced-level the importance of familial support for and dasses did not further segregate the stu- encouragement of education, with teachers dent body. Some of the more integrated in the segregated schools repeatedly citing schools recruited students of color for their students' lack of familial resources as advanced level classes, or even eliminated a major obstacle to their educational the classes altogether. In these schools, achievement. Parents who had limited advanced classes were not abandoned. educational opportunities, and who strug- Rather, expectations for all classes were gle in poverty, often have neither the finan- raised. This type of change reflects an atti- cial nor the personal resources to support tude of confidence in and empowerment of their children in the up-hill battle for edu- all students, which should result in higher cational equity. One teacher experienced it aspirations and greater self-confidence this way: among the students. One significant obstacle to true integra- tions, or special classes, to supplement a tion is that most integration programs traditional Euro-centric curriculum. begin at the high school level, by which Students were often critical, understanding time the opportunity to make lasting that such things are superficial and not changes may have been lost.Research integrative. None of the schools had cur- supports the common-sense conclusion ricula that daily, throughout the year, that educational conditions, whether posi- addressed the interrelationships between tive or negative, experienced early and for cultures. Nor did most of the schools have a longer period of time have a more signifi- strategies in place to help students deal cant impact than late-coming, short-lived with the racial tensions arising among the conditions. Students in the EIIP schools students. had developed patterns of racial association during elementary and middle school The schools that were moving toward a years that tended to perpetuate into high truly integrated system were the schools school. Students coming to racially diverse that affirmatively valued integration and high schools from homogeneous elemen- were willing to invest their resources accordingly. The staff at these schools tary and middle schools often did not avail themselves of the opportunity to expand were more willing to talk about race and to the scope of their interactions in high adopt programs and policies to try to school. achieve this goal. However, even these schools encountered constraints from the An interesting example of this was the larger society, such as curricula set by the experience of students of color who district. Moreover, all schools are con- obtained early schooling in predominantly strained by school districts that reflect resi- white schools. Those students tended to dential segregation, and laws that preclude select primarily white friends when they inter-district desegregation measures. entered high school. Their early, narrow Given the extreme residential segregation experience strongly influenced their choice in most U.S. metropolitan areas, regional of friends, and persisted in spite of pres- school districts like that in Louisville, and sures to associate with students of their integrative housing policies like those in own race. One such student responded to place in Shaker Heights, may be our only the question of why she chose primarily means to integrate our schools. white friends, "I'm not quite sure. Maybe I II'm in this [environment that] actually does feel more comfortable just because I'm so used to it." Early, long-term integra- B. Recommendations tion in schools is most effective at introduc- ing students to a breadth of experiences. None of the school systems examined In virtually all of the EDP schools, stu- provided students with the necessary components of a truly integrated educational dents were very much aware of race issues. system. We found, however, that students Students also exhibited a remarkable interest in and understanding of the value of placed tremendous value on the various components of an integrated environment integration. The students generally valued diversity and were interested in multicul- and understood the benefits of such an tural curricula. A number of schools had environment. Thus, in revisiting desegregation and integration, and tapping the rudimentary forms of multicultural curricula consisting of add-on projects, celebra- insights of the people who work and are 1 0 7 educated in existing systems, we find that Concerted legal strategies to counter providing our students with a truly inte- Milliken must also be undertaken. grated education is more important and Desegregation plans that extend only to elusive today than ever. With this renewed district boundaries are not likely to allevi- evidence must come revitalized efforts. ate segregationparticularly in areas of The failures of past desegregation attempts concentrated poverty. Inter-district deseg- should provide lessons rather than dis- regation efforts have been shown to be couragement. The following are sugges- more successful and stable, and can be tions to begin a transformative process enacted through a variety of means from toward true integration. voluntary inter-district transfers, to redrawing of district lines, to district consolidation. Once integrated housing is achieved, however, such strategies will 1. Link Education and become unnecessary. Housing, Implement Educating community and regional resi- Region-wide dents regarding the benefits of metropoli- Solutions tan-wide desegregated communities and schools will rally support for the implementation of desegregated housing efforts. The initial step toward integration is the Engaging suburban schools in desegrega- creation of desegregated and equitable tion discussions can create partnerships educational environments for all students. that combine ideas and resources to make Two factors currently place desegregation positive changes for both the central city out of reach for many school districts. and the suburb. Successful efforts in such Residential segregation has created racially areas as Shaker Heights and Berkeley can imbalanced school districts, and Milliken's provide models for other communities. strict limitation of inter-district remedies has precluded the metropolitan-wide programs that could desegregate schools in fragmented metropolitan areas. 2. Address the Desegregation efforts focused on schools Connection Between alone will not produce lasting results Race and Poverty especially with the current push toward neighborhood schools. The problem is The connection between race and poverty most detrimental in central cities, which must be addressed at all levels. Minority are primarily composed of people of color students often live in neighborhoods segre- and have high rates of poverty. EIIP gated not only by race, but also by poverty. schools located in areas that have proac- In such concentrated-poverty areas, stu- tively addressed residential segregation dents suffer the lack of opportunity struc- had distinct advantages over schools locat- tures along with their families and commu- ed in segregated areas. Local, state, and nities. For example, impoverished minori- national initiatives that combat residential ty students have low college attendance segregation through fair-share housing rates, which translate into reduced career laws, limits on urban sprawl, and other opportunities and income. Low college regional strategies are the first step. attendance rates are the result of multiple

108 factors such as family background and influences, neighborhoods, school environ- 3. Improve Teacher ment, early educational failure, and lack of Diversity and academic and career guidance. The needs Training of these students cannot be met by the school systems alone. The community at largenot just the disadvantaged neigh- The positive impact on ElIP students of borhood, but the surrounding areas as well broad racial and ethnic representation must be engaged to address the crippling among teachers was evident. Teachers of problems faced by inner-city schools and color can provide students with role mod- their students. els, positive interracial interaction, and a sense of inclusion. School systems must Most metropolitan regions across the make a commitment to recruiting and nation contain an urban core that continues training teachers of color. to grow increasingly poor and racially segregated. This concentration negatively Reforms must be implemented in teacher impacts the education, economics, and education programs at colleges and univer- quality of life of the area. Regional sities if schools are to have an enlightened approaches to policy-making are necessary and well-trained pool of educators from to reduce segregation throughout an entire which to draw. The EDP uncovered a region, stabilize the urban core and inner- widespread lack of understanding among ring suburbs, and equalize educational and teachers of the importance of an integrated life opportunities. The most significant education. Teacher education programs reforms needed include fair housing, prop- must place a priority on teaching both the erty tax-base sharing, and reinvestment. value of integration and the means to cre- Other reforms require land planning and ate integrated schools. Additionally, growth management, transportation and teacher education programs must model transit reform, public works reform and integration by transforming their own pro- coordination of educational efforts. Such grams into integrated systems. As a result, reforms, however, require the formation of teachers will be armed with the informa- enduring coalitions within the metropoli- tion and understanding needed to imple- tan community that can withstand political ment integration within their schools. resistance. These coalitions are best Empowering teachers to identify and act formed between the urban core and the upon issues most important to providing inner-ring suburbs. Although fostering a an integrated education to students will regional approach is a large undertaking, it invigorate integration efforts in the stu- must be done if integration efforts are to dents' daily environment. succeed.

109 4. Implement C. Continuing Issues Structural, Curricular, and As expected, the work of the EIIP raised as many questions as it answered. Clearly, Programmatic continued research and action are required Changes in the ongoing struggle to truly integrate our schools and communities. The EIIP helps to clarify areas of compelling need Students in the EIIP were keenly aware for integration as experienced by students of the benefits of integration among struc- and educators. Some issues wereillunu- tural and curricular aspects of their nated in interview after interview and call schools. They were also keenly aware of for further exploration. The following are the lack of such aspects. The first structur- suggested areas for further inquiry. al obstacle to equitable education that must be eliminated from schools is tracking. Such within-school segregation damages Changing racial composition how to students' self-concepts and is detrimental educate the population regarding the to the academic and social education of all importance of preparing our school students. Other policy and programmatic systems to address the needs of our factors such as teaching methods and increasingly diverse population resources, extra-curricular activities, class size, and community and parent involve- Residential segregation how to ment must more equitably address the develop integrated communities needs of all students. Tracking how to ensure that schools Curricula must incorporate materials that meet the needs of all students without represent the voices and experiences of a segregating and isolating populations breadth of people. Such materials make of students up the curricula of an integrated system; Student self-segregation how to they should not be tacked onto a tradition- facilitate positive interaction among al Euro-centric curriculum. students within informal settings Parental involvement how to increase parental involvement, particularly in communities with concentrated poverty ESL and limited English students how can schools integrate these students and prevent isolation, yet respect language differences Teacher diversityhow to encourage schools to hire more minority teachers and how to attract more people of color to the teaching profession Teacher education how to educate 110 teachers to value and implement inte- educational environment speak directly to grated teaching methods true integration.

Systemic changes how to facilitate All of the schools in the EDP are substan- schools in transforming from desegre- tially constrained by our failure to address gated to truly integrated systems segregation in our neighborhoods, cities, and regions. Because of these constraints, many schools, despite good intentions and It is clear that even the schools most the implementation of innovative pro- agressively trying to achieve true integra- grams and practices, are unable to ade- tion face tremendous obstacles in a society quately prepare their students either for that lacks a fundamental understanding of higher education or for a successful life in integration and the need to equitably edu- our increasingly multicultural society. cate all of our citizens. Many schools are While we must continue to push schools to trying to educate our children under do more, we must also be willing to imple- extremely adverse conditions. At the root ment change beyond the schools from of such conditions lie racial isolation and neighborhoods, to regions, to the nation. concentrated poverty resulting from segre- True integration is not an ideal that can be gation. Despite the overwhelming disad- realised in five or ten years, it is an essen- vantages of continued segregation, school tial process within our democracy and our desegregation has fallen out of favor, and development of citizens. The process is indeed, there is a sense in our society that neither easy nor without tension, yet it is school desegregation was a failed experi- our only way to provide education and ment. What is not widely understood is opportunity to all of our people. An that it was only during a brief five-year understanding of and passion for truly period that all branches of the national integrated educational systems must be the government committed to desegregation, priority of policy-makers and educators and even then the movement faced some across the country. That understanding state and local opposition. However, dur- and passion must then translate into ing this short time, and with only ambiva- action. lent support, a great deal was accomplished. A broad understanding of the successes of desegregation efforts is critical to rallying support for true integration. Understandably, students in the EIIP expressed frustration with their educational environment and the life opportunities afforded them. Despite this frustration, student understanding and appreciation of an integrated education bode well for current and future integration efforts. These students lend insight and poignancy to the impact that segregative policies and practices, borne of complacency, ignorance, or racism, have on the daily lives and futures of our children. Student voices expressing 111 what they need and what is lacking in their 'Capacchione v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, 1999 WL 709975 (W.D.N.C., September 9, 1999). 'Although the law defines a school as desegregated by virtue of whether the school has implemented adeseg- regation plan that passes legal muster, as will be discussed, we consider a school to bedesegregated if it has a racially and ethnically balanced student population. Thus, there are schools that we categorize assegregated because of their racially isolated student bodies that have achieved the legal status of desegregation. 'This is a history that primarily functions within a Black-White binary, but which has importantimplications for the more multi-racial schools of today. 460 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1857). 5163 U.S. 537 (1896). 6347 U.S. 483 (1954). 7Marable Manning (1991). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: the Second Reconstruction in Black America,1945-1990.

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R. Morgan and James M. McPartland (1981). The extent of classroom segregation within desegregated schools. Baltimore, MD: Center for Social Organization of Schools, John Hopkins University. "David W. Grissmer (1994). Student achievement and the changing American family. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation; L. Scott Miller (1995a). An American imperative: Accelerating minority educational advancement. New Haven: Yale University Press; Gary Orfield (1993). Federal policy and college opportunity: Refurbishing a rusted dream. Change, 25(2): 10-15. 'David J. Armor (1996). Forced justice: School desegregation and the law. New York: Oxford University Press; Coleman, 1968; Crain, 1982a; Robert L. Crain (1984). Private schools and Black-White segregation: Evidence from two big cities. Stanford University, CA: California Institute for Research on Educational Finance and Governance; Robert L. Crain (1992). Finding niches: Desegregated students sixteen years later. Final report on the educational outcomes of Project Concern, Hartford, Connecticut. New York: Institute for Urban and Minority Education, Columbia University; Robert L. Crain and Rita E. Mahard (1977). Desegregation and Black achievement. Durham, N.C.: Institute of Policy Sciences and Public Affairs, Duke University; Dawkins, 1983; Marvin P. Dawkins and Jomills H. Braddock (1994). The continuing significance of desegregation: School racial composition and African American inclusion in American society. Journal of Negro Education, 63(3): 394-405; Janet W. Schofield (1989). Black and White in school: Trust, tension, or tolerance? New York: Praeger Publishers; Janet W. Schofield (1995). Review of research on school desegregation's impact on elementary and secondary school students. Chapter 33, Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education, pp. 597-616; Amy S. Wells et al.(1994). When school desegregation fuels educational reform: Lessons from Suburban St. Louis. Educational Policy, 8(1): 68-88. 1 1 4 BEST COPY AVAILABLE lomills H. Braddock and Marvin P. Dawkins (1993). Ability grouping, aspirations, and attainments:Evidence from the National Educational Longitudinal Study of 1988. Journal of Negro Education, 62(3): 324-36;Adam Gamoran (1992a). Is ability grouping equitable? Educational Leadership, 50(2): 11-17; Adam Gamoran (1992b). The variable effects of high school tracking. American Sociological Review, 57(6): 812-28; Adam Gamoran (1993). Alternative uses of ability grouping in secondary schools: Canwe bring high-quality instruction to low- ability classrooms? American Journal of Education, 102(1): 1-22; Adam Gamoran and Robert D. Mare (1989). Secondary school tracking and educational inequality: Compensation, reinforcement,or neutrality? American Journal of Sociology, 94(5): 1146-83; Adam Gamoran and Matthew Weinstein (1998). Differentiation and opportunity in restructured schools. American Journal of Education, 106(3): 385-415; Adam Gamoran, Martin Nystrand and Mark Berends (1995). An organizational analysis of the effects of ability grouping. American Educational Research Journal, 32(4): 687-715; Jeannie Oakes (1982).\ The reproduction of inequity: Thecontent of secondary school tracking. Urban Review, 14(2): 107-20; 14(2): 107-20; Jeannie Oakes (1983a). Trackingand ability grouping in American schools: Some constitutional questions. Teachers College Record, 84(4):801-819; Jeannie Oakes (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality. New Haven; London: Yale University Press; Jeannie Oakes (1986a). Beyond tracking. Educational Horizons, 65(1): 32-35; Jeannie Oakes (1986b). Tracking, inequality, and the rhetoric of reform: Why schools don't change. Journal of Education, 168(1):60-80; Jeannie Oakes (1987). Tracking in secondary schools: A contextual perspective. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation; Jeannie Oakes (1988). Tracking: Can schools take a different route? NEA Today (Issues S8),6(6): 41-47; Jeannie Oakes (1997). Detracking: The social construction of ability, cultural politics, andresistance to reform. Teachers College Record, 98(3): 482-510; Jeannie Oakes and Gretchen Guiton (1995). Matchmaking:The dynamics of high school tracking decisions. American Educational Research Journal, 32(1): 3-33; JeannieOakes and Martin Lipton (1992). Detracking schools: Early lessons from the field. Phi Delta Kappan, 73(6):448-454; Jeannie Oakes and Amy S. Wells (1996). Beyond the technicalities of school reform: Policy lessons from detracking schools. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Graduate School of Education & Information Studies; Robert E. Slavin (1981). Cooperative learning and desegregation. Journal of Educational Equity and Leadership, 1(3): 145-161; Robert E. Slavin (1987). Grouping for instruction: Equity and effectiveness. Equity and Excellence, 23(1-2):31- 36; Robert E. Slavin (1990). Achievement effects of ability grouping in secondary schools: A best-evidencesyn- thesis. Review of Educational Research, 60(3): 471-499; Robert E. Slavin (1991a). Are cooperative learning and "untracking" harmful to the gifted? Response to Allan. Educational Leadership, 48(6): 68-71; Robert E. Slavin (1993c). Untracking: The 97 percent solution. A response to James J. Gallagher. College Board Review,no. 168: 27, 35; Robert E. Slavin (1995). Detracking and its detractors: Flawed evidence, flawed values. Phi Delta Kappan , 77(3): 220-221; Robert E. Slavin and Jomills H. Braddock (1993). Ability grouping: On thewrong track. College Board Review, no. 168: 11-17; Kevin G. Weiner and Jeannie Oakes (1996). Ability grouping:The new susceptibility of school tracking systems to legal challenges. Harvard Educational Review, 66(3): 451-70. 9' Dominic J. Brewer, Daniel I. Rees and Laura M. Argys (1995). Detracking America's schools: The reformwith- out cost? Phi Delta Kappan, 77(3): 210-12, 214-15. " Amy S. Wells and Jeannie Oakes (1996). Potential pitfalls of systemic reform: Early lessons fromresearch on detracking. Sociology of Education, extra issue: 135-143. 52Bempechat and Wells, 1989; Brewer, 1995; Gary Burnett (1995). Alternatives to ability grouping: Stillunan- swered questions. ERIC/CUE Digest Number 111; Jeannie Oakes (1990). Multiplying inequalities: Theeffects of race, social class, and tracking on opportunities to learn mathematics and science. Santa Monica,CA: Rand Corp.; James E. Rosenbaum (1976). Making inequality the hidden curriculum of high school tracking. New York: John Wiley & Sons.; Margaret C. Wang (1995). Researchon school effects in urban schools. Number 95- 12. Philadelphia, PA: National Research Center on Education in the Inner Cities. 53F1i7abeth R. Word, Charles M. Achilles and Helen P. Bain (1990). Project STAR final executivesummary: Kindergarten through third grade results (1985-89). 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'National Task Force on Minority High Achievement (1999). Increasing the number of academicallyvery successful African American, Latino, and Native America students. The College Board. 115 "A. Alson, personal communication, August 13, 1999. "Carl F Hansen (1957). Miracle of social adjustment: Desegregation in the Washington, D.C. schools.Anti- Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. 5' Hansen, 1957. ° 347 U.S. 497 (1954). ° Hansen, 1957. °Floyd W. Hayes, III. (1990, October). Race, urban politics, and educational policy-making inWashington, D.C. Urban Education 25(3). °Carl F Hansen (1960). Addendum: A five-year report on desegregation in the Washington,D.C. schools. Anti- Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. 61269 F.Supp. 401 (D.C. 1967). °Hayes, 1990. 'Hobson v. Hansen, 320 F.Supp. 720 (D.C. 1970). "Hobson v. Hansen, 320 ESupp. 409 (D.C. 1970). °Bulluck v. Washington, 468 F.2d. 1096 (D.C. Cir. 1972). 'Judith Denton Jones (1987). Six schools complex: A successful innovation in Washington, D.C.'spublic schools. Washington, D.C.: The Six Schools Council. 'Jones, 1987. "Albert R. Hunt (1997, June 5). Politics and people: The general and the teacher hying to save D.C.school kids. Wall Street Journal. 'Daniel M. Weintraub (1997, March 14). Gore targets schools bureaucracy. Orange County Register. "Washington Public Schools (1999). www.wadc.gov "Washington Public Schools, 1999 "Gary Orfield (1978b). Must we bus? Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution; Arvarh E. Strickland(1996). The Schools Controversy and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Movement. The Historian, 58(4),717-729. "Strickland, 1996. 'Strickland, 1996; Gary Orfield (1978). Must we bus? Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution 'United States v. Board of Education of the City of Chicago, 554 F.Supp. 912 (N.D. Ill. 1983). 'San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973). °Brown v. Board of Education of Chicago, 386 F.Supp. 110 (N.D. 111 1974). 8' Johnson v. Board of Education of the City of Chicago, 604 F.2d. 504 (7th Cir. 1979). "457 U.S. 52 (1982). "United States v. Board of Education of the City of Chicago, 588 F.Supp. 132 (N.D. T11. 1984). 'United States v. Board of Education, 554 F.Supp. 912 (N.D. 111. 1983). 5 United States v. Board of Education of the City of Chicago, 799 F.2d 281 (7th Cir. 1986). °Richard Magat (1995). Unions and foundations as public policy actors. Policy Studies Review 14:1/2,161-170; Herbert J. Walberg and Richard P. Niemic (1996, May 22) Can the Chicago reforms work? "David Hill (1996, October 23). Chicago Hope. Education Week. 'Caroline Hendrie (1996, August 7). In Chicago, it's full speed ahead as a new reform team starts year two. Education Week; Walberg & Niemic, 1996. °Chicago Public Schools (1999). www.cps.k12.il.us. "Eric Zorn (1998, July 13). Don't ask, don't tell busing policy leads to uproar. Chicago Tribune. ° Books, not busing [Editorial] (1998, June 2). Chicago Sun Times. "James W. Compton (1998, June 18). School busing costs a small price to pay [Letter to the Editor].Chicago Sun Times. "Chicago Public Schools, 1999. 116 "Mark Walsh (1997, October 29). Chicago, San Francisco consider admissions changesof magnets. Education Week. "Magnet compromise good [Editorial] (1997, October 19). Chicago Sun Times. "Dan Weissman (1999, April). Northside's racial mix raises issues of law, equity. Catalyst. Janita Poe and Abdon M. Pallasch (1998, August 25). Chicago schools reach for bestas school officials by to retain the city's top students with new magnet schools. Chicago Tribune. "Chicago Public Schools, 1999. 'Chicago Public Schools, 1999. "Chicago Public Schools, 1999.

"'Booker v. Special School District No. 1, Minneapolis MN, 351 F. Supp. 799 (D.Minn. 1972). 'Citizens League (1979, December 20). Linking a commitment to desegregation withchoices for quality schools. 'Citizens League, 1979.

'Council of Metropolitan Area Leagues of Women Voters (1991, January). Metropolitanschool desegregation and integration: A study of proposals for integrating schools. 'St. Paul Public Schools (1974). Desegregation integration plan. "Citizens League, 1979. 'Citizens League, 1979. '08451 F.Supp. 659 (D.Minn. 1978). 109585 F.2d 347 (8th Cir. 1978). 110443 U.S. 915 (1979). "' Council of Metropolitan Area Leagues of Women Voters, 1991. 'Council of Metropolitan Area Leagues of Women Voters, 1991. "'Council of Metropolitan Area Leagues of Women Voters, 1991. "'Council of Metropolitan Area Leagues of Women Voters, 1991. "'Skeen v. State of Minnesota, 505 N.W.2d 299 (Minn. 1993). "'NAACP, Minneapolis Branch v. Metropolitan Council, 125 F.3d 1171 (8th Cir. 1997). 17144 F.3d 1168 (1998). 18119 S.Ct. 73 (1998).

"'During the Spring of 2000, the parties agreed to settle the lawsuit, andwere hammering out the details of the agreement as of the time of this writing. A tentative settlement agreement,as reported in the local Star-Tribune newspaper, provided for the busing of low-income students to near surrounding suburbs, which schools would agree to set aside 500 slots annually for a period of 4 years. The transfers would be voluntary. The tentative agreement also provided for continuing monitoring efforts. Norman Draper, "Busing Plan MirrorsOther Cities"' Minneapolis Star-Tribune, March 26, 2000 (page numbers not available).

"Matthew Little (1993, February 23). Schools shouldn't drop the 15 percent rule. MinneapolisStar Tribune. "Maureen M. Smith (1995, October 22). St. Paul school helps kids beat odds. MinneapolisStar Tribune "St. Paul Public Schools, 1999. "St. Paul Public Schools, 1999.

" Laurence W. Knowles (1962). Civil rights, U.S.A. public school: Southernstates, 1962, Kentucky: A report to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. Washington, D.C.: United States Department ofHealth, Education and Welfare.

"Kentucky Commission on Human Rights (1972, March). Louisville schoolsystem retreats to segregation: A report on public schools in Louisville, Kentucky, 1956-1971. Louisville, Kentucky: Author. 126Newburg Area Council, et al. v. Board of Education of Jefferson County and Haycraft,et. al. v. Board of Education of Louisville.

'Newburg Area Council, Inc. v. Board of Education of Jefferson County, Kentuckyv. Board of Education of Louisville, Kentucky, 489 F.2d 925 (6th Cir. 1973). 1 I '"418 U.S. 918 (1974). '29510 F.2d 1358 (1975). 10521 F. 2d 578 (6th Cir. 1975). 11541 F.d 538 (6th Cir 1976). '3=560 F.2d 755 (6th Cir. 1977). "3585 F.2d 803 (6th Cir. 1978). "'John B. McConahay and Willis D. Hawley (1977). Is it the busing or the blacks?: Self-interest versussymbolic racism as predictors of opposition to busing in Louisville. Duke University 15 Richard Whitmire (1997, July 3). New ideas needed for failed urban school integrationefforts. Gannett News Service. "'Jefferson County Public Schools (1999), www.jefferson.k12.ky.us. "'Jefferson County Public Schools, 1999. "'Jefferson County Public Schools, 1999. '"Veda Morgan (1998a, April 24). Lawsuit could change pupil assignment plan. LouisvilleCourier-Journal. "'Morgan, 1998a. "' Morgan, 1998a. "'Rochelle Riley (1998, May 12). Fewer schools, more magnets could help ease integration woes.Louisville Courier-Journal. "'Jefferson County Public Schools, 1999. "'Dennis W. Keating (1994). The suburban racial dilemma. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. '"Keating, 1994; Shaker Heights City School District (1983). History of the Shaker Schools plan,1970 through 1978. Shaker Heights, Ohio: Author. "'Peter Schmidt (1992, February 26). Courts, school boards testing strategies to integrateneighborhoods, schools. Education Week. "'Isabel Wilkerson (1991, December 30). One city's 30-year crusade for integration. New York Times. "'Shaker Heights City School District, 1983. '"Shaker Heights City School District (1978, December) Facts about the Shaker Schools plan. ShakerHeights, Ohio: Author. mShaker Heights City School District, 1983. "'Peter Horoshak (1987, February 10). Elementary consolidation recommendation of the ShakerHeights School superintendent. 15'Horoshak, 1987. '"Michael A. Fletcher (1998, October 23). A good-school, bad-grade mystery. Washington Post. "'Minority Achievement Committee, Shaker Heights High School (1996). Resource Guide. '"Ohio Public Schools (1999). www.ode.state.oh.us. "'California Public Schools (1999). www.cde.ca.gov. 157"Students forced transfer upheld." (1999, January 20). The San Francisco Chronicle. "8"School bonds pass muster with voters Santa Clara County also approves 2 parcel taxes." (1998, April 15).San Francisco Chronicle. 'w "South Bay Schools counting on big bond." (1998, January 16). The San Francisco Chronicle; "Bay area Election." (1998, April 15). San Francisco Examiner. "'Qum, Saratoga rated in top three in state." (1998, Apri113). San Francisco Chronicle. "The vocher people won't quit." (1997, January 14.) San Francisco Examiner. "California Public Schools, 1999. "'Jennifer Hochschild (1997, September). Is school desegregation still a viable policy option? PS: Political Science and Politics 30(3), 458. 118 "Frederick Tulsky (1994, October 17). A failing grade in integration. San Francisco Chronicle. "T. Bentley Edwards and Frederick M. Wirt (1967) School desegregation in the North.San Francisco: Chandler Publishing; David L. Krip (1982). Just schools. Berkeley, CA: University of CaliforniaPress. "Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Roscoe Hill and Malcolm Feeley (1968). Affirmative schoolintegration: Efforts to overcome de facto segregation in urban schools. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications; Kirp, 1982. "Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Hill and Feeley, 1968. "'Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Hill and Feeley, 1968. 1" Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Hill and Feeley, 1968. 'Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Hill and Feeley, 1968; Kirp, 1982. '7' Edwards and Wirt, 1967; United States Commissionon Civil Rights (1977, August). School desegregation in Berkeley, California. '' Edwards and Wirt, 1967; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977. '"Edwards and Wirt, 1967; Kirp, 1982; U.S. Commissionon Civil Rights, 1977. 'Edwards and Wirt, 1967; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977. '"U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977. '" Kirp, 1982; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977. 'Kirp, 1982. '"Kirp, 1982; U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977. "Kirp, 1982.

"Nanette Asimov (1992, December 4). Berkeley schools face major changes. San FranciscoChronicle; Elaine Herscher (1993, October 13). Berkeley plans to overhaul public schools. San FranciscoChronicle. "'Sam Green (1992, July 17). Berkeley schools consider thorny segregation issue. OaklandTribune. 'Berkeley Unified School District (1999). www.berkeley.k12.ca.us; Sandy Kleffman (1993,February 18). New school choice plan proposed for Berkeley. San Francisco Chronicle. 'Berkeley Unified School District, 1999. 'Pedro A. Noguerra (1995, Spring). Ties that bind, forces that divide: Berkeley HighSchool and the challenge of integration. University of San Francisco Law Review. "Tulsky, 1994. "Tulsky, 1994. "The Integration Experiment [Editorial]. (1994, October 18). San Francisco Chronicle. "8P. Perry, personal communication,November, 1999. 'Berkeley Unified School District, 1999. Tulsky, 1994. 'Trent, 1997. 19' powell, 1996a.

"William T. Trent (1997). Outcomes of school desegregation: findings from longitudinal research.The Journal of Negro Education. 66(3) 255-257.

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