A Study of the Impacts of Men's International Labour Migration on Th
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Bangor University DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Wives left behind: A study of the impacts of men’s international labour migration on their wives in Bangladesh Kamal, Marzana Award date: 2020 Awarding institution: Bangor University Link to publication General rights Copyright and moral rights for the publications made accessible in the public portal are retained by the authors and/or other copyright owners and it is a condition of accessing publications that users recognise and abide by the legal requirements associated with these rights. • Users may download and print one copy of any publication from the public portal for the purpose of private study or research. • You may not further distribute the material or use it for any profit-making activity or commercial gain • You may freely distribute the URL identifying the publication in the public portal ? 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Oct. 2021 Wives left behind: A study of the impacts of men’s international labour migration on their wives in Bangladesh Marzana Kamal A thesis submitted to the School of History, Philosophy and Social Sciences, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Sociology and Social Policy August 2019 Table of Contents Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................ 11 Declaration.............................................................................................................................. 12 Abstract ................................................................................................................................... 13 List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. 15 Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….16 1.1. Motivation of the Study………………………………………………………………….17 1.2. Research Focus and Objectives…………………………………………………………..17 1.3. Research Question……………………………………………………………………….19 1.4. Thesis Structure………………………………………………………………………….20 Chapter 2: Migration and Bangladesh context……………………………………………22 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..22 2.1. Migration from Bangladesh: Past and Present…………………………………………..22 2.1.1. The ambiguous nature of migration…………………………………………………....24 2.1.2. Temporary less-skilled workers outflow the migration pattern from Bangladesh…….26 2.1.3. Working abroad to homecoming: Integration abroad and reintegration in home………28 2.2. Gender and Migration……………………………………………………………………30 2.2.1. Feminization of labour migration………………………………………………………31 2.2.2. Migration as female responsibility and male opportunity……………………………...33 2.2.3. State policies and social attitudes in the context of female migration…………………..34 2.2.4. Stigmatization of female labour migration from Bangladesh…………………………..36 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………38 Chapter 3: Literature Review………………………………………………………………39 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..39 2 3.1. Reviewing Patriarchy…………………………………………………………………….39 The mothers and daughters-in-law relationship: Transition of power over the life-cycle….43 3.1.1. Female Autonomy……………………………………………………………………...45 3.1.2. Purdah…………………………………………………………………………….........48 Class and Purdah in Bangladesh………………………………………………………..50 3.1.3. Vulnerability to Gender-based Violence……………………………………………….51 3.2. The Place (or lack of it) of Left-Behind in the Migration Literature……………………...54 3.2.1. Women Who Do Not Migrate………………………………………………………….57 Wellbeing and Everyday Life…………………………………………………………...57 Women’s Work Participation…………………………………………………………...58 Decision-making Power and Physical Mobility…………………………………………60 3.2.2. Transfer of Gender Norms in the Milieu of Men’s Migration…………………………..62 3.2.3. Are Left-behind Truly Left Behind? ...............................................................................64 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………66 Chapter 4: Islam and Bangladesh Context………………………………………………...67 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..67 4.1. Islamic Roots in Indian Subcontinent…………………………………………………….67 4.1.1. Birth of Secular Bangladesh in 1971…………………………………………………..68 4.1.2. Revival of Political Islam in Independent Bangladesh…………………………………68 4.2. Current State of Islam, Politics, and Status of Women in Bangladesh…………………....70 4.3. Locating the Left-behind Wives: Transition towards Respectable ‘Modern’ Muslim Women/Housewife………...…………………………………………………………………76 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………78 3 Chapter 5: Methodology……………………………………………………………………79 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………..79 5.1. Research Design and Methodology………………………………………………………79 5.1.1. Qualitative Research: Naturalist and Feminist Methods……………………………….82 5.1.2. Beyond Feminist Standpoint Theory…………………………………………………...82 5.1.3. Notes on Reflexivity…………………………………………………………………...84 5.2. Nonprobability Sampling………………………………………………………………...85 5.2.1. Data Collection and Research Locations………………………………………………85 5.3. Discussion of the Field Sites……………………………………………………………..88 5.3.1. Gaining Access and Field Visit to the Villages in Bogura……………………………..92 5.3.1.1. A brief description of Bogura………………………………………………………...93 5.3.1.2. A note on the past and the present of Bogura district………………………………..94 5.3.1.3. My observation of the villages in Bogura……………………………………………94 5.3.1.4. Villgers’ Occupations……………………………………………………………....100 5.3.1.5. Who is the villagers’ first point of contact: government’s representative/Member, police, NGO workers or religious leader?...............................................................................101 5.3.2. A brief description of Munshiganj…………………………………………………….102 5.3.2.1. A note on the past and the present of Munshiganj…………………………………...103 5.3.2.2. Gaining Access to Munshiganj……………………………………………………..103 5.3.2.3. My observation of Munshiganj ……………………………………………………..103 5.4. Notes on Gatekeepers…………………………………………………………………...104 5.5. Data Analysis………………………………………………………………………...…105 5.5.1. A note on translation………………………………………………………………….106 4 5.6. Ethics and Positionality…………………………………………………………………106 5.7. Limitations……………………………………………………………………………...108 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..109 Chapter 6: Changes in the Family Structure: Impact of Men’s Migration on Kinship Culture and Changes in Women’s Status…………………………………………………110 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………110 6.1. Changes in the Patrilocal Residency……………………………………………………110 6.2. Women’s Dependency on Non-migrant Male Family Members………………………..117 6.2.1. Narratives of ‘Father like Figure’……………………………………………………..120 6.3. Cousin Marriage and Son Preference …………………………………………………..122 6.3.2. Son Preference for ‘Religious’ Reasons………………………………………………128 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..130 Chapter 7: Left-behind Wives’ Relationship with In-laws, Physical Mobility, and Decision-making Power……………………………………………………………………131 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………131 7.1. Lifecycle of Left-behind Wives………………………………………………………..131 7.1.1. Conflict with In-laws…………………………………………………………………135 7.1.2. Company of Sisters-in-law and Relation with Father-in-law…………………………136 7.2. Physical Mobility: “Vodro ghorer bou baire ghure na’’- A respectable wife does not roam around outside!.......................................................................................................................137 7.2.1. Greater Responsibilities on Men from an Early Age………………………………….140 7.2.2. Sub-urban Left-behind Women Are Seemingly More Mobile………………………..140 7.3. Successful versus Unsuccessful Migrant Households………………………………….140 7.3.1. Rejecting Television Culture…………………………………………………………146 5 7.4. Daily Phone Conversions: Policing Wives’ Physical Mobility?......................................148 7.5. Practice of Burkha and its Impact on Wives Physical Mobility…………………………150 7.5.1. Narratives of ‘Ami valo toh dunia valo’ ‘if my character is fine, the world around me is fine’…………………………………………………………………………………………154 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..156 Chapter 8: Left-behind Wives’ Vulnerability to Gender-based Violence, and Narratives of the Teen Brides………………………………………………………………………….157 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………157 8.1. Abusive Marriage and Stigma Related to Divorce……………………………………...157 8.2. Risk of Sexual Harassment from Local Men……………………………………………160 8.3. Widespread Fear of Gossip……………………………………………………………..163 8.4. Experience of Teen Brides Married to Migrant Men……………………………………165 8.4.1. Marrying a migrant man facilitates young bride’s education?.......................................166 8.4.2. Husband’s migration does not change teen bride’s responsibilities towards her in- laws………………………………………………………………………………………….168 8.4.3. Teen brides who went to madrassa are least interested in continuing education………170 8.5. Men’s Migration and the Practice of Teen Marriage……………………………………172 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………..175 Chapter 9: Men, Migration and Masculinity……..………………………………………176 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………....176 9.1. Men’s Advocacy for ‘Female Modesty’ and Madrassa………………………………....177 9.1.1. Sub-urban migrants’ views differ on female education……………………………….179 9.2. Admiration towards Saudi Arabia………..……………………………………………..181 6 9.2.1. Differences between destination countries barely matter in shaping migrant men’s attitudes…………………......................................................................................................182