Mina’igoziibiing: A History of the Anishinaabeg of Pine Creek First Nation in Manitoba A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Education For the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Education Brandon University Brandon, Manitoba Canada By Georgina Nepinak May, 2013 Copyright © Georgina Nepinak, 2013. All rights reserved i ii Dedication This history is dedicated to the memory of Albina Neapew, my Great Aunt, who passed away August 2, 1984, at the age of 93. She was an inspiration to me and many others. To my husband James, and my children, Jesse and James (Jr), and their children and grandchildren. “For your love, encouragement, and most of all, your patience.” iii Abstract This thesis provides a unique view of a Manitoba First Nation community from an Aboriginal perspective. It is a general history designed chronologically from the pre-contact era to the present time. This thesis is especially written for Anishinaabe children and youth so they will know who they are and where their people came from. Developing a positive identity and pride in the Anishinaabe ways, language, and history is the starting point of healing from the impacts of over 100 years of forced assimilation and to find our rightful place in Canadian society. It is also written for professionals who work with Anishinaabe children, youth, and families in education, justice, health, and child welfare to give them a better understanding and cultural awareness of the Anishinaabe people and their history in Manitoba and Canada. Primary data was selected from archival documents and from the Pine Creek Historical Research Collection, including Elder and other community interviews, photographs, settlement maps, and reports. Secondary data included past and current books and articles on the Ojibway history of Manitoba, Canada, and other First Nations across Turtle Island. This history will form the basis for more detailed research by future generations of Anishinaabeg. iv Acknowledgements The history of Mina’igoziibiing, or Pine Creek First Nation, was completed with the help of high school, college, and university students. We worked on the band history in the summers of 1982 and 1984 with funding assistance from the Canada Summer Works Program. I thank them for the initial funding that has led to completion of this community history. Thank you to my dear sister Margaret McKay, (Late) Christina Flatfoot, Shirley (Moosetail) Nepinak, and Lawrence Abigosis for their early research in helping to get this project started. I acknowledge Pine Creek School, now Minegoziibe Anishinabe School, for support and encouragement to develop a school-initiated Community Studies course, where high school students conducted more Elder interviews, as well as initial research and writing of essays pertaining to some chapters included in this history. I thank them for their great work and inspiration! A special honor and “Miigwech” to the Elders of Mina’igoziibiing, most of who have now passed on, who took the time to let us interview and record them for the interest of future generations. Their interviews are part of the Pine Creek Historical Research Collection which will be available for generations to come. In recognition, I have listed their names as follows: (Late) Joe (Shoon-zhoo) Abigosis (Late) Fred McKay Sr. (Late) Christina (Cheena) Nepinak (Late) Norbert & (Late) Therese (Late) John McKay (Late) Felix Nepinak Abigosis (Late) Annie Catcheway (Late) Marie McKay (Late) Harriet Nepinak (Late) Marie Louise Catcheway (Late) Mary Jane McKay (Late) Ignatius (Boyens) Nepinak (Late) Armand & (Late) Cecile (Late) Augustine Mekish (Late) Joe Nepinak Contois (Late) Zachary & (Late) Lizzy (Late) Jonas & Marie Therese (Late) Martha Mekish Contois Nepinak (Late) Louisa Chartrand (Late) Camille Moosetail (Late) Pat & (Late) Clara Nepinak (Late) Alice Eagle (Late) Catherine Moosetail (Late) Rose Adele Nepinak (Late) John Flatfoot (Late) Gertie Moosetail (Late) Florestine Richard (Late) Guspard & (Late) Isabelle (Late) Albina Neapew (Late) Martha Ross Gambler (Late) Bernard (Mr. B) Kakewash (Late) Arsene Nepinak (Late) Mike Stanley Rosanna Sinclair v Special thank you to Professor Jean Friesen at the University of Manitoba, Ralph Abrahamson of the Treaty and Aboriginal Rights Research (T.A.R.R.) Centre in Winnipeg, Provincial Archives of Manitoba, and Library Archives of Canada for providing guidance, assistance, and copies of documents for the research. Special thank you to Leo Pettipas, and the Museum of Man and Nature in Winnipeg, for permission to use maps and diagrams from his book, and for sharing various hard-to-find research articles with me. A special thank you to West Region Tribal Council for assisting me to attend the Researching and Writing Tribal Histories workshop with Dr. Duane Kendall Hale at the University of Oklahoma in 1989. Also, “Gichi miigwech” to West Region Child and Family Services for ongoing support and encouragement, and giving me the time to complete this thesis. I am indebted to Dr. Helen Armstrong, Department of Education at Brandon University, who acted as my master’s thesis advisor; Dr. Lorraine Mayer, Department of Native Studies at Brandon University; Dr. Betty Lynxleg, Research and Development Specialist at Manitoba First Nation Education Resource Centre in Winnipeg; and Dr. Arnold Novak, past Chair of Graduate Studies, Department of Education at Brandon University, who agreed to be members of my thesis committee. Finally, I acknowledge the Pine Creek First Nation Chief and Council for permission to do the research in the early stages, and for allowing me to interview them. “Gichi miigwech,” thank you very much to anyone I may have missed for your encouragement and kind assistance. I hope that the history of our community and area will be enjoyable and informative to you—the reader. vi Table of Contents Title Page i Signature Page ii Dedication iii Abstract iv Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vii Chapter 1: Introduction ~ Biindigen (Come in) 1 Autobiography 2 Use of the Anishinaabe Language 3 Purpose of the Study 4 Importance of this Study 6 Methodology 8 Primary Sources 10 Oral History Collection. 10 Photograph Collection. 11 Secondary Sources 12 Organization of the Study 12 Conclusion 16 Chapter 2: Origin Stories of the Anishinaabeg in Manitoba 18 Manitoba in the Ice Age 19 Melting of the Glaciers – Lake Agassiz 20 Ice Age Animals 21 vii Changes in Landscape and Vegetation after Lake Agassiz 22 Anishinaabeg Enter Manitoba 23 Anishinaabeg as Ogitigeg – Agriculturalists 24 Aadisookaanan – Legends and Origin Stories of the Anishinaabeg 26 The Story of Mandaamin, An Ojibway Legend of Corn 26 Mandaamin. 27 Aandi Gaa Onjiiyang - Creation Story of Where We Came From 32 Aandi Gaa Onjiiyang (Creation Story). 33 Chi Bimoodewin – Great Ojibway Migration Story 34 Chi Bimoodewin. 35 Conclusion 41 References and Bibliography 43 Chapter 3: The Early Years at Minaigoziibiing ~ Before European Contact 46 Arrival of Anishinaabeg in Manitoba 47 Arrival of Anishinaabeg in Mina’igoziibiing 49 Lands and Resources 50 First Anishinaabe Families at Mina’igoziibiing 51 Anishinaabe Culture and Life 52 Family Life 52 Housing 53 Child rearing beliefs 53 Moss bag teaching. 53 Tiikinaagan or Cradleboard Teaching. 54 viii Coming of Age Ceremonies. 55 Recreation 57 Family Roles 58 Clothing 59 Governance 59 Clan System. 60 Ojibway Scrolls. 62 The Great Midewiwin Society 63 Regional Alliances 65 Conclusion 67 References and Bibliography 69 Chapter 4: Fur Trade Era ~ 1600 to1800 72 Anishinaabe Prophecies 72 Arrival of the Newcomers 74 Arrival of the French 75 Arrival of the English 77 English and French Trade Wars 78 Increase in Fur Trade Competition 79 The Seven Years War 80 Peace Treaties 80 Treaty of Paris 80 Royal Proclamation of 1763 81 Hudson’s Bay Company 81 ix Effects of the Fur Trade on First Nation People 83 Introduction of the Horse 83 Coming of the Missionaries 84 Diseases that Destroyed the First Nation Communities 85 Alcohol as a Trading Item 87 Results of the Trade 88 The Métis 89 The Métis of Mina’igoziibiing 90 The Hudson’s Bay Post at Pine Creek 93 Conclusion 94 References and Bibliography 97 Chapter 5: Treaty Number Four ~ The Qu’Appelle Treaty of 1874 100 Period before the Treaty 102 U.S. War of Independence 1775 – 1782 103 War of 1812 – 1815 103 American Civil War 104 Canadian Confederation of 1867 105 Métis Resistance Begins 1869 105 Hudson’s Bay Company 107 First Nation Concerns 108 Encroachment of First Nation Lands 108 Near Extermination of the Buffalo 109 Oral Societies versus Written Societies 110 x Indian Treaties in Manitoba 111 Treaty Number Four – The Qu’Appelle Treaty 114 Purpose of the Treaty 117 Treaty Four Negotiations 118 Tuesday, September 8, 1874 118 Wednesday, September 9, 1874 119 Friday, September 11, 1874 120 Saturday, September 12, 1874 121 Monday, September 14, 1874 122 Tuesday, September 15, 1874 124 The Final Treaty Four Agreement 125 Indian Obligations 125 Crown Obligations 126 Crown Prerogatives [Rights/Privileges] 127 Treaty Presents 127 The Adhesion of First Nations to Treaty Four 128 Outcome of the Treaty 130 Weaknesses of the Treaty Agreement 132 Strengths of the Treaty Agreement 135 Conclusion 137 References and Bibliography 139 Chapter 6: Lands and Resources ~ Changes Over Time 142 Treaty Four Adhesion of Duck Bay Band in 1875 144 xi Period after the Treaties 148 Loss of Buffalo and Impending Starvation, 1870s to 1880s 148 Beginnings of Métis Resistance in the Red River 151 Early Land Surveys 152 Keeseekoose