LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT AND REVITALIZATION: OROKAM DIALECTAL SITUATION

BY

ABAH, AKOGWU JAMES PG/MA/12/62544

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA

AUGUST 2014

i

LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT AND REVITALIZATION: OROKAM DIALECTAL SITUATION

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND LITERARY STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (M.A.) DEGREE IN ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

BY

ABAH, AKOGWU JAMES PG/MA/12/62544

AUGUST 2014

ii

TITLE PAGE

LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT AND REVITALIZATION: OROKAM DIALECTAL SITUATION

iii

APPROVAL/CERTIFICATION

This project is approved and certified for the department of English and Literary Studies, Faculty of Arts, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Abah, Akogwu James, a post graduate student of the above department with the registration number PG/MA/12/62544 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the course and research work for the award of a Master of Arts degree

(M.A.) in English As A Second Language. The work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in partial or full for any other diploma or degree of this or other university .

______DR.BARR. (MRS) F.O. ORABUEZE PROF. DAMIAN U. OPATA SUPERVISOR HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

______EXTERNAL EXAMINER

iv

DEDICATION

This work is first of all dedicated to the supreme God and secondly to my late parents, Mr. John

Abah Ameh and Mrs. Cecilia K. Abah of the blessed memories.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A thousand tongues are not enough to appreciate God my redeemer who sustained me day and night to whether the storms of this programme, may your name forever be magnified.

I am inexpressibly indebted to my erudite and dynamic supervisor, Dr. Barr. (Mrs.)

Orabueze, Florence O. whose intellectual brilliance, constructive criticism, constant support and encouragement, motherly care, wholeheartedly directed and guided me throughout the process of writing this research and finally makes it a reality. I lack the right word to appreciate you. May the good Lord uplift you beyond your imaginations in Jesus name.

My unreserved thanks go to Prof. D. U. Opata, Prof. E. J. Otagburuagu, Rev. Fr. Prof.

A.N. Akwanya, Prof. L.C. Ngonebu, Prof. Sam Onuigbo, Prof. N.F. Inyama, Prof. I. Dieke, Dr.

M. Ezugu, Dr. P.A. Ezema, Dr. C. Onunkwo, Mr.T.A. Chukwumezie, Mr. F.U. Okoro, and Mr.

Kingsley Ugwuanyi whose scholarly assistance molded me academically.

I am highly indebted to Engr. and Mrs. Nelson Okolo, Prof. Jerry Agada, Bello S. A.,

Gbaaikyo L.M., Mr. Sokari U., Dr. A.A. Alpha, Commandant Ochogwu M. U., Bishop & Mrs.

Amuta, Mr and Mrs. Ogbodo, Mr. Amos A. Okoh, Mr. Ochai, A.B., Mr. Ochai, M.U., Mr. Akaa

Mkav, Idoko Johnson, Paulina Ochogwu, Mr. Igoche E.I., Mr. Onyebuchi Okimini, Omadachi

Umoru, Dr. Mrs. Cecilia Ohemu, Late Hon. Dan Ohemu, Pa Egwu Ode, Otene B.B., Utiri

Blessing, Late Pa Idoko Apeh, Dr. C. C. Ukagu, Pat. Otanwa,Gabriel J. Ogirah, Pa. John Ijiga,

Mrs. Lilian Odu, Ijiga Aaron, Emmanuel Ihediwah, Rosemary C. John, my wonderful course mates, etc for both your financial and moral support given to me to shoulder my academic challenges, I remain ever grateful and may the good Lord see you through in all your pursuit in life in Jesus name.

Similarly, I gratefully appreciate the love, kindness and financial assistance given to me by my amiable brothers, Emmanuel, Innocent, and Benedict Abah. You people are truly brothers vi both in words and in action. More so, I can’t forget the warm closeness, love, and concern received from Mary Godwin, Paulina Ocheme, Idoko Felix, Johnson Idoko, Benjamin Abutu,

Matty, Nneka, Lucy Adikwu, Blessing, Celestina, Godwin Agada, and many others during the programme, thanks and may God bless you bountifully.

History will never forgive me if I should forget to acknowledge Prof. Francis Okwori,

Prof. David Ker, Prof. James Alachi, Prof. Innocent Adikwu, Dr.Andrew Abah, Dr. Moses

Tsenongu, Dr. Barnabas Eke, Dr. J. Ogwuche, Dr. Ata Pine, Mr. Elaigwu Audu, Mr. Joseph

Apeh, all of the Benue State University, Makurdi for your numerous contributions to my academic wellbeing, I say, thank you all.

Conclusively, I could not have done this work without my able and accurate typist,

Perpetua Ogbonna, kudos to you. Since I cannot pay all of you acknowledged here for your goodness towards me, I recommend you all to the extravagant grace, favour, and protection of the most high God and may He loose His blessings on you for your good works in Jesus name.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover page ------i Title Page ------ii Approval/Certification ------iii Dedication ------iv Acknowledgement ------v Table of Contents ------vii Abstract ------ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Brief Historical Background of Idoma Nation - - - 1 1.2 The Origin of Orokam ------2 1.3 Statement of the Problem ------4 1.4 Purpose of Study ------5 1.5 Significance of the Study ------5 1.6 Scope and Limitation of Study ------5 1.7 Research Questions ------6 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Theoretical Framework ------7 2.2 Empirical Studies ------16 2.3 Orokam Dialect ------20 2.4 Language Endangerment ------23 2.5 Sounds and Letters in Idoma - - - - - 26 2.6 Morphological Features of Orokam and Otukpo Dialects - - 31 2.7 Sentence Analysis in Orokam - - - - - 32 2.8 A Popular Hymn among the Idoma or Orokam - - - 35 3.9 Singular and Plural ------36 3.10 Causes of Language Endangerment in Orokam Land - - 39 2.11 Adverse Effects of Language Endangerment in Orokam land - 42 2.12 Revitalization of Orokam Dialect of Idoma Language - - 42

viii

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Preamble ------46 3.2 Research Design ------47 3.3 Area of Study ------47 3.4 Population of the Study ------48 3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedure - - - - - 48 3.6 Method of Data Collection ------48 3.7 Method of Data Analysis ------49 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 4.0 Data Analysis and Interpretation - - - - - 50 4.1 Response to Questionnaires ------50 4.2 Data Presentation------59 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Summary ------61 5.2 Recommendation ------62 5.3 Conclusion ------63 WORKS CITED

ix

ABSTRACT

At present, there is a renewed interest in the fate of endangered or dying languages. The death of any language or dialect means the extinction of such cultural heritage, and to some extent, the loss of a people. As the Orokam people increasingly abandon the use of their indigenous dialect in almost all domains of life, including the home, this study seeks to show that Orokam, a dialect spoken among the Orokam people in Ogbadibo Local Government Area of the Idoma kingdom in Benue State is at the verge of endangerment or extinction. So, this work seeks to know the extent to which the Orokam dialect has been endangered; factors responsible for the relegation of the dialect as well as measures on how the dialect can be revitalized and preserved for posterity.

The purpose of the study is to determine the core dialect of Orokam as well as to suggest ways to which the dialect could be saved from extinction. Questionnaires and oral interviews were used for the collection of data. At the end of the research, the findings revealed that Orokam indigenes do not speak their dialect even at home; there was no written literature on the dialect and a such the dialect was not used as medium of instruction from the nursery to junior secondary school as recommended by the National Policy on Education; the indigenes feel inferior to use the dialect in social environment and the dialect has never been used by the media; Orokam people believed that teaching the dialect in their schools will be of benefits to them but they did not make any effort towards achieving that, and finally, the researcher recommended that the dialect should actively be used in Orokam homes, schools and even by the media; the religious leaders should use the dialect in their sermons; and that the government as well as the individuals should provide scholarship to encourage children who speak the dialect.

x

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Brief Historical Background of Idoma Nation

Etymologically, it is a difficult obligation to actually pin-point the first person that coined the word “Idoma”. Scholars like Erim (93) and Unoma (206) are of the opinion that the Idoma people migrated from the ancient Kwararafa confederacy. But there is a popular belief among the

Idoma that the terms, “Idu” and “Oma” were first and foremost the surnames of the Idoma progenitors. There is a fervent practice among the Idoma that someone’s descendants are regarded as “Ai” and that is why we have Ai-Idoma, Ai-Orokam and many others.

It is important to note that Erim’s study of the Idoma nation stipulates that “the Idoma people occupy areas of land which lies within both the broad valley of the Benue Rivers to the

Northern fringes of Igbo land” (11). He further states, “ranging about two hundred and eight kilometres from the East to West, the area is flanked by the Tiv and Igede to the East and the

Igala to the West. The bulk of the territory of the land is South of the Benue, some seventy two kilometres East of its confluence with the Niger” (6).

It is worthy of note that, among the twenty-three(23) Local Government Areas of Benue

State, the Tiv nation has thirteen while the Idoma have nine, which include Ado, Agatu, Apa,

Obi, Ogbadibo, Ohimini, Oju, Okpokwu, and Otukpo respectively. Ogbadibo is the Local

Government Area which is accommodating the endangered Orokam dialect, which is the subject of this study. There are several dialects among the Idoma people which include Otukpo (the standard dialect), but Orokam, Edumoga, Igede, Owukpa, Otukpa, Agatu, Agila and many others are regarded as regional dialects of the Idoma language. The Idoma dialects are further divided 2 into two major groups which are the “Enochi” (Northern Idoma) and the “Enone” (Southern

Idoma). The Otukpo dialect being the standard dialect; Agatu, Agila, Igede and many others are the northern Idoma dialects (Enochi) while Edumoga, Orokam, Otukpa, and Owukpa are the southern Idoma dialects (Enone).

Well, for the purpose of this study, the researcher will narrow this study to the dialect of

Orokam only, which is part of the “Enone”dialect group. A brief history of Orokam will be of great help to the study of the dialect (Orokam).

1.2 The Origin of Orokam

Geographically, Orokam is one of the Idoma speaking communities located at the western part of Idoma land of Benue State and situated in the southern part of Ogbadibo Local

Government Area with a land mass of about eight hundred and twenty kilometres (820km) long and four hundred kilometres wide. As the case of other areas, so also is the case of Orokam having boundaries with other states and districts in Nigeria. It is bordered by Otukpa district in the north, Owukpa district to the east (all of Ogbadibo Local Government Area), bordered in the west by Unyi-Ogugu in Olamaboro Local Government Area of Kogi State, and to the south, it has boundary with Amalla in Obollo-Afor, Udenu Local Government Area of Enugu State.

Historically, it is difficult to give the most concise and satisfactory account of Orokam due to the doubtful account of fallibility of human memory, exaggeration, addition or extraction from the myth, tales, or oral tradition, which is one of the many methods of data collection. Available sources of information to Orokam history are archeological materials and oral tradition. Oral tradition seems, however, to override others due to lack of proper documentations of Orokam 3 history. Based on 1991 National Population Commission Census of seventy-five thousand, seven hundred and fifty-six (75,756), Orokam has an estimated population of people.

Orokam, as it is called today, is an adulteration of the phrase, ``Ole Okam``, meaning the house of Okam. The name was mispronounced by the British colonialists who were deployed to teach the Ole Okam children when they found it difficult to call ``Ole Okam``. Okam is the son of Apa who was the first person to come to a piece of land near Unyi- Ogugu in Olamaboro

Local Government Area of Kogi State in search of fertile land and a good climate. In short,

Okam was formerly staying with his father, Apa, at Wukari in the present Taraba State after which he fled to Idah in Kogi State as a result of communal crisis in northern Nigeria, and there at Idah, the problem of chieftaincy title which was at the verge of claiming his life prompted his unplanned journey to the current place, which is today called Orokam.

Okam was the father of five children, who according to their ages are Inamu, Ona

(Abakpa), Oko and Agbo, who is called after his mother, Oriko (Agboriko), and Akor

(Onyirofe). They were scattered all over the country but were all later called to take their places in Ole-Okam. According to the eldest man from Ai-Inamu (Iyru) clan, eighty-two-year -old

Enenche Ameh, in an oral interview, said that Inamu was the first son of Okam to come to the land after his father. He was an experienced native doctor who by the instruction of his father took the place of Okam after his death and thereafter advised the younger ones to come to take their places in Ole-Okam.

In an interview with Idoko Apeh, before his death, he maintains that Abakpa who is popularly called Ona was second to arrive from Icho in Otukpo Local Government Area of

Benue State. Out of Ona’s love and traditional hospitality, he helped in carrying out some of 4

Inamu’s domestic chores and was instructed to live by the left hand side of his brother’s house, which is the current Uture (Ejema Orokam now). Mr. Idoko Apeh added that Oko, who was a hunter, was the third to arrive at Okam land from Ugboju, his mother’s place, and was also asked to live by the side of his brother, Ona (Abakpa). Next to settle at Okam land was Agboriko who was believed to have migrated from Nsukka in Nsukka Local Government of Enugu State. He finally added that Akor (Onyirofe) was the last to settle on Okam land and he equally migrated from Ileke in Onitsha Local Government Area of Anambra State. Hence, the children of Inamu -

Ona, Oko, Agboriko, and Ako - are all called Ai-Okam. By and large, Orokam is made up five clan representatives of the five adventurous fore-fathers: Ai-Inamu, Ai-Ona, Ai-Oko, Ai-

Agboriko, and Ai- Ako respectively. It is important to note that the five children of Okam after gathering, introduced a pattern of sound as symbol of cultural heritage and identity and that is what is regarded as Orokam dialect today. Though Orokam dialect, to some extent, shares some sound patterns with other neighbouring dialects but the tone in totality makes them distinctive as we are going to see in the preceding chapter of this work.

1.3 Statement of the Problem

There is no doubt that a plethora of studies has been done on the concept of language endangerment in Africa, as a whole, and Nigeria, in particular, but no special attention or consideration has been given to Orokam dialect. In an increasing number of Orokam homes, parents now prefer to bring up their children as monolingual speakers of English, which they feel their children need to function in school, thereby giving room to Orokam dialect of Idoma language to be endangered. Since the dialect of Orokam is fading out of use gradually without any serious attempt to revitalize and preserve it for posterity, the researcher here is out to: 5

I. examine the extent to which the dialect has been endangered;

II. factors responsible for the relegation of the dialect and,

III. measures to be taken to revitalize the dialect from extinction.

1.4 Purpose of Study

If a language is spoken by at least two people of different dialects within the same language, then there are always some differences of usage which an observer can detect if he looks closely enough. Therefore, this study is designed to find out the core Orokam dialect as well as examine the extent to which the dialect has been endangered and suggest how the dialect can be revitalized and preserved.

1.5 Significance of the Study

The researcher is optimistic that the findings of this study and its recommendations will unravel the problem of the dying Orokam dialect. It will be of paramount importance to parents, language instructors as well as the children who are victims of not using the Orokam dialect. It will also add to the few literatures on the dialect as well serve as an archive to further researches that may be carried on the dialect or other dialects in future.

1.6 Scope and Limitation of Study

This work is expected to examine Orokam dialect alongside the dialect that endangers it.

It will also give attention to ways by which the dialect can be revitalized. The limitations during the execution of this study include the inability of the researcher to do transliteration of the originality of some poetic expressions made by the illiterate respondents in the English language.

The respondents were not very free with the researcher as many thought the interview was for 6 their economic disadvantage, constant interruptions by respondents’ family members and passersby, inadequate fund, shortage of time and a host of others.

1.7 Research Questions

The following research questions will guide this study:

1. How prevalent is the use of Orokam dialect among indigenes?

2. Do parents nurture their children with the dialect?

3. Is there any effort to preserve Orokam dialect for posterity?

4. Is the Orokam dialect used by the media?

5. How often is Orokam dialect used at home by the parents?

6. Is the dialect used for teaching in schools in the area where it is spoken? 7

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored on the framework of ethno-linguistic vitality. Ethnolinguistic vitality theory asserts that status, demographic, institutional support and control factors make up the vitality of ethnolinguistic groups. An assessment of a group's strengths and weaknesses in each of these dimensions provides a rough classification of ethnolinguistic groups into those having low, medium, or high vitality. Low vitality groups are most likely to go through linguistic assimilation and may not be considered a distinctive collective group. On the other hand, high vitality groups are likely to maintain their language and distinctive cultural traits in multilingual settings. Compared to other models, Ethnolinguistic Vitality Theory (EVT) and its accompanying instruments provide a broader and more inclusive framework for the investigation of language maintenance and shift. However, the empirical evidence obtained in a number of contexts point to an underestimation of the actual vitality of some minority groups (Yagmur 111-

120).

The concept of ethno-linguistic vitality is viewed in different lights as Giles and Johnson

(199-243) state that ethno-linguistic vitality of a language is either objective or subjective.

Objective means that measures are accessible through demographic characteristics, social status of the measures and the degree of institutional support for the group that speaks the language.

Fishman is of the opinion that the interaction network that employs the language for one or more vital language functions is an important indicator of ethno-linguistic vitality. He claims that the more speakers of a language dialect, the higher their status and the greater the group language 8 vitality, the greater their chance for linguistic survival (7). He further states that language (or dialect) choice can function as a mark of group identification and solidarity. In accounting for vernacular choice according to the number of domains in which it is found proposed indicator of ethno-linguistic vitality (441). Practically speaking, this means identifying the domains of life where language choice becomes a factor and determining just how many domains each language is used. The notion of ethnolinguistic vitality has attempted to define its role in shaping intergroup processes. Although the importance of minority vitality and dominant group attitudes to intergroup processes is recognised, no theory has yet developed that explains intergroup processes as the relational outcome of the vitalities of both the minority and the majority group

(Ehala 35-50).

Gumpertz (7) argues that language behaviour is social behaviour. This corroborates Edwards

(1985) that there is a correlation between the functions of a language and social structure.

The indicators of ethno-linguistic vitality are a collection of factors that have been documented in sociolinguistic literature, and these factors have been useful in indicating the probable direction a speech community will go relative to the maintenance of, or shift from its traditional language.

On the other hand, language endangerment comprises a number of sociolinguistic implications which negatively mount pressures on the survival of the target language, undermining its continual existence. The concept of language endangerment has attracted a deluge of definitions from linguists in the light of the renewed interests in the grim fate of endangered languages. In the opinion of Elugbe and Udoh (19) quoted in Agbedo (72),

“Endangered languages are languages that are threatened by extinction because they are not passed on to a younger generation.” 9

According to Fakuade (58) also quoted in Agbedo (72), the most obvious definition is by number of speakers. A language with fewer speakers, as Fakuade argues, is more likely to be endangered in comparison with a language with a large population of speakers. Fakuade (59) further posits that an endangered language is not used in formal education and its communication role is limited to in-group communication and such traditional domains as rituals, festivals, and communal meetings.

Endangered languages are languages that are not replacing themselves demographically.

This is due to the shrinking number of users the languages have or the meager importance of the uses with which the languages are associated in their speech and\or writing community. Put in another way, the languages have fewer and fewer users generation after generation and the uses to which these languages are commonly put are not only few, but additionally, they are typically unrelated to higher social status (prestige, power) even within their own ethno-cultural community. This is a reflection of the relative powerlessness of the bulk of their users (Fishman,

81).

Populations experiencing threat on their languages have no alternative, by and large, but to become entirely independent from its surroundings or from influences coming from afar. That being the case, all one can hope for is as much cross-cultural understanding as possible, as accurate cross-cultural communication as possible, and as much development of cultural individuality motivated by the attitude of the speakers of the endangered language which consists of each cultures own, maximally self-regulating fusion of influences from a variety of sources.

It is worthy of note that when languages are in contact, they are often in competition.

Williams (4). Conversely, there is no language contact without language conflict. Endangered 10 languages are usually minor language contact and consequently seem to be in situations of language conflict. Minority languages are often neglected and usually they find themselves into despondency, perhaps, due to absence of persistent usage and encouragement by their speakers . .

. (Igboanusi 125).

Emenanjo (6) maintains that indeed, all living phenomena: human beings, groups (tribal, ethnic or racial), animals, plants, and languages become endangered when their original natural, indigenous habitats, uncomfortable, in conducive or spent. The position of Emenanjo has taken us to a broader perspective of the concept of endangerment but as linguists, we are chiefly concerned with language endangerment.

In a related development, Brenzinger sees language endangerment in the light of the number of speakers. In his view, an endangered language is one with less than five thousand (5000) speakers.

According to Michael Cahill (1), “language is endangered when it is in fairly imminent danger of dying out”. Michael proposed two ways to recognize when a language is on its way to death: i. When the children in the community are not speaking the language of their parents and ii. When there are only a small number of people left in the ethnic-linguistic community.

Hale (68) also observes that language endangerment is a process in which culture becomes deprived of its diverse languages as a result of the emergence of a dominant culture and language. 11

In a similar way, Bradley and Bradley (9) also described the devastating effect of language endangerment on the world’s languages this way:

The level of language endangerment is much more extreme of other biodiversity. Various

scholars have estimated that up to 90 percent of the world’s languages will disappear

during the 21 st century.

Many indigenous people and linguists are working to halt this trend which threatens to diminish the world’s cultural and linguistic heritage. To lose an ancestral language is to weaken the links to the ancestors themselves. As languages disappear, a wealth of culture, art and knowledge disappears with them.

Therefore, we can say by way of definition that language endangerment is a language that is gradually moving towards extinction as a result of a reduction in its number of speakers or users of the language. More so, Crystal in defining language death equates it to human death:

“To say that a language is dead is like saying that a person is dead. It could be no other way for languages have no existence without people. A language dies when nobody speaks it anymore.”

(1)

However, UNESCO (2010) distinguished four levels of endangerment in languages, based on intergenerational transfer as:

i. Vulnerable: most children speak the language, but it may be restricted to certain domains

such as their home.

ii. Definitely endangered: children no longer learn the language as mother tongue in the

home 12

iii. Severely endangered: Language is spoken by grand-parents and older generations; while

the parents’ generation may understand it, they do not speak it to children or among

themselves.

iv. Critically endangered: the youngest speakers are grandparents and older ones, and they

speak the language partially and infrequently.

Similarly, Harrison classified language into three main categories which are:

i. Healthy language: As one that is currently being learned by children as a first language.

Healthy languages are generally used in all works of life, at home, in school, at work,

in private and public setting.

ii. Endangered languages: Languages that are endangered as earlier stated in this study are

languages which have fewer speakers to its credit. Language endangerment can be

seen in some languages of the world. For instance, in many Native American

languages and with European languages such as Breton in North Western adopted

French as their first language to the detriment of their native language, thereby,

endangering their languages. This phenomenon is also noticeable in some parts of

Nigeria like in Orokam dialect in Benue state where English and its other varieties

have dominated the speech community of this area which if no measure is taken in

the nearest future may result to the death of this dialect.

The most endangered languages are called Moribund. And a moribund language is one that has a few native speakers, but it is not being learned by the children, often just a few elderly speakers remain. Reviving a moribund language may require extraordinary efforts, including documentation, analysis and intensive language instructions. Languages now classified as 13 moribund included the aboriginal Nyulnal language in Australia, the Native American Osage language in the United States, and the Finnic tongue of Livonian in Lativia. And there are probably about 400 moribund languages worldwide. iii. Extinct language or Dead language: is one with no living native speakers. Dead

languages include the Sumerian language used by people of the kingdom of Summer in

Mesopotamia and Oscan language of ancient Italy. Sometimes a dead language can be

brought back to life through documentation.

Tasaku (50-54) account for causes of language endangerment as follows: i. Density of the population or concentration/dispersion of the speakers and residential

segregation of the speaker. A sparse population spread out over different territories

without regular language contact when people are scattered in different places, this

reduces the opportunities to speak the language leading to its demise. ii. Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the speaker: When a mono-ethnic is living side by side

with a poly-ethnic speech community, it will trigger language endangerment. iii. Marriage patterns: Endogamy versus exogamy. The interethnic marriage is often one of

the listed causes of language endangerment, i.e., when the husband is of different cultural

background from the wife. iv. Migration pattern: the rate at which native speakers migrate out of their native settlement

leaves the home or community with a reduced size of the population, thereby subjecting

their languages to endangerment etc. 14

Emenanjo (53) posits that a threat to a language can be classified into primary or fundamental and the secondary or ancillary factor. The primary cause of language endangerment is language attitude which refers to people’s value judgements about one or other language, as more or less beautiful, rich or poor, efficient or inefficient.

The attitude of speakers to a language, therefore, determines the health of a language.

Hence a language that is robbed of the loyalty of its speakers has contracted an ailment, which is sure to drain its immune system like the dreaded HIV virus, until it is brought to an untimely death. This explains why Geary aptly remarks that, “Language, like all living things, depend on their environment to survive, when they die out, it is for reasons analogous to those that cause the extinction of plant and animal species. They are consumed by predator tongues, deprived of their habitats, or displaced by more successful competitions (54).

The secondary factors derived their efficacy from the primary factor. In other words, these factors from the primary factor can only endanger a language if the primary factor is present. The secondary factors include political, economic, religious, educational\ social factors i. Political factor: The political strength of a nation is directly related to the strength of her

language. The Nigerian linguistic situation is a typical example. The reference to Hausa,

Igbo and Yoruba as the major Nigerian languages (MNLs) is a political issue motivated

by the dominance of these three groups over hundreds of the other groups. The

gravitational pull of the dominant language groups on the non-dominant ones results in

the endangerment of some of the non-dominant languages. ii. Economic factor: Usually, economic might is an attribute of a powerful nation. A country

with an enviable economy attracts other poorer countries and exhibits her political and 15

linguistic hegemony over the latter. This has always been the case between the third

world countries and Europe. For instance, the decision of Nigeria to make French the

second official language in the face of ailing indigenous languages is motivated by

French economic advantage. iii. Religious Factor: language as a medium of religious expression greatly influences a

people, particularly when it is the language of an elevated group. In accepting a religion,

the people embrace the language through which the religion arrives. Such language will

be patronized at the detriment of the native language. iv. Educational\Social factors: Education invests in humanity the aura of enlightenment and

sophistication. Consequently, the language of education carries as much prestige as

education itself in Nigeria.

The arrival of formal Western education aroused an interest in Nigerians to learn and use the language of the colonial masters. This situation has almost eroded the use of the mother-tongue in education in Nigeria, especially in private schools.

Similarly, Agbedo accounts for three major processes leading to language death as:

i. One in which a community of speakers of one language becomes bilingual in another

language, and gradually shift allegiance to the second language until they cease to use

their original (or heritage) language. This is a process of assimilation, which may be

voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of such languages,

particularly regional or minority languages may decide to abandon them based on

economic or utilitarian grounds, in favour of languages regarded as having greater

utility or prestige. 16

ii. Language can also die when their speakers are wiped out by genocide or disease or, in the

rare event, devastating natural catastrophes.

iii. A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the

language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining,

and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is

effectively dead (76).

2.2 Empirical Study

This study mainly focuses on the endangered condition of the Orokam dialect and the factors responsible for this sociolinguistic phenomenon as well to proffer solutions to the problem.

This section reviews some of the works done in relation to language endangerment. Ifeagwazi

(2013) carried out a study on language endangerment with particular emphasis on Igbo language.

He used descriptive survey design to cover the books written in Igbo language between the years

2009-2012.Teachers teaching Igbo Language between 2008 - 2012 and student enrolment in the department of Igbo between 2008-2012 in a given college of education. He also used oral interview to elicit the necessary information and the instruments inform of books, films programme, time table and other records which are supplied by the interviewers. The findings of the study revealed that Igbo language is employed for many vital language functions. Also, the speaking of Igbo is encouraged by language writers, film producers, musicians, etc, and that Igbo language is enjoying a strong ethno-linguistic vitality and has a great chance for survival in the face of other languages around it. 17

On the contrary, Omeje (2008) also carried out her research on the language attitudes of the Igbos to their language which include preference of spoken English to Igbo even in situations where Igbo ought to be used, code-switching\mixing, poor attitudes towards writing Igbo names and poor attitudes towards transfer of the language to the younger generation was discovered.

She also analyzes the negative effects of those attitudes towards the language. The study ended with recommendations that the Igbo should change their negative attitudes towards their language; they should no longer prefer other people’s languages to their; rather they should cherish their language.

Similarly, another study is that recorded by Emenanjo (11) of Usen, a Yoruboid language with a population of 30,000, spoken in a predominantly Edo-speaking Ovia North East of Edo

State. Using stated evidence derived from comparing cogency in words from parts of the body, names of animals, things and numeral, Obahiabon finds 70% cogency between Usen and

Yorubiod (Isekiri and Yoruba). In the light of the unfriendly milieux, Obahiagbon correctly identifies Usen as, though not ‘extinct’, but unsafe, and ‘seriously endangered because only a few speakers between the range of 45 years and above speak the language fluently.

In addition, Emenanjo (12) did a study that Kwa language is Benue-Congo, which is also endangered by Bwatiye, a Chadic language which is in Adamawa State Kwa, with a population of less than 5,000 spoken in an enclave of only one local government area in Adamawa state is surrounded by the Bwatiwye, with a population of over 100,000 and spoken in seven L.G.As.

There is language shift and the absence of intergenerational transfer among the Kwa in favour of

Bwatiye. But it is interesting that in spite of close intercultural (including marital) relationships between the Kwa and the Bwatiye-speaking people, Kwa has not been innundated by Bwatiye words. Despite the interaction of the speakers of both languages and in spite of the relatively low 18 prestige of Kwa to Bwatiye speakers, the Kwa language has maintained its uniqueness and independence of vocabulary.

More so, Anagbogu (2003\2004) quoted in Emenanjo (12) has noticed a similar scenario between Koring and Igbo in Ebonyi State. Koring, the language of the Oring people, is spoken in four enclaves in Ebonyi State. Koring belongs to the Upper Cross group of the Delta-cross sub- branch of the Cross River language family, while Igbo belongs to the Kwa sub-family of the

Benue Congo family. Given its location in a predominantly Igbo milieu, Koring is endangered for the following reasons:

i. Nearly all primary and secondary school teachers are Igbo-speakers; therefore, they

interact easily in Igbo and hardly in Koring which they do not understand.

ii. Koring is not used as a medium of communication in public places such as the churches,

the schools, etc.

iii. It is mostly used at home and in the local markets.

iv. Igbo is regarded as the prestige language, so they prefer speaking it and answering Igbo

names.

Kuje in Emenanjo and Bleambo (43) reports an encounter with many urban dwelling Fulani people, whom he states spoke Fulfulde, otherwise known as the language of loyalty, but the language is registering less and less speakers. The native speakers of Fulfulde are losing their tongues to Hausa.

Ugwoke in Emenanjo and Bleambo (14) gave a compiled list of endangered languages in

Nigeria. The listing was informed by the definition of an endangered language based on 19 numerical strength of its speakers. Thus, endangered languages have been described by many as that which has less than 5,000 speakers.

A List of some Nigerian Languages in Danger of Disappearing and with less than 5,000

Speakers

State More More More More 1000 Less Virtually than than than than speakers than extinct 4000 3000 2000 1000 1000 speakers speakers speakers speakers 1 Adamawa - - - - 2 1 -

2 Bauchi - - - - - 11 2

3 Benue - - 2 - - - -

4 Borno 1 - - - - 1 -

5 Cross River - 1 - 1 - 1 -

6 Edo - - - - - 2 -

7 Gombe - 1 - - - 1 -

8 Kaduna - - 1 1 - 3 -

9 Kebbi - - - - - 1 -

10 Kwara - - - 1 - - -

11 Nasarawa - - - - - 1 -

12 Niger - 1 - - 1 5 -

13 Plateau 2 1 - 1 - 3 -

14 Rivers - - - - - 1 -

15 Taraba - - - - - 6 -

20

The above statistic is based on the study carried out by Ugwoke in Emenanjo and Bleambo (14).

From the foregoing, it can be said that languages are endangered due to the following underlying factors:

a. Assimilation to larger, more powerful groups nearby.

b. Assimilation to smaller, but culturally dominant groups.

c. Assimilation of foreign tongues

d. Demographic crisis caused by labour migration urbanism.

Language, in addition to being a medium of communication and being instrumental in people’s perception of reality, is the essential symbol of group identity and solidarity, the essential embodiment of people’s cultural identity, as is by Center for Endangered Languages, in

Emenanjo (83):

Language is the key to the heart of a people. If we lose the key, we lose the people. If we

treasure the riches, which cannot be guessed at, at the other side of the door. . . A lost

language is a lost tribe; a lost tribe is a lost culture; a lost culture is invaluable knowledge

lost . . . the whole vast archives of knowledge and expertise . . . will be consigned to

oblivion.

2.3 Orokam Dialect

Dialect can be described as a subdivision of a language used by a group of people who have some non-linguistic characteristics in common. It is a variety of language which is either 21 regional or social in origin and it is spoken by certain members of a community (Farinde & Ojo

66).

Dialect determines, to a large extent, where someone comes from. The dialect of Orokam is an Idoma language dialect spoken in the southern part of Idoma. According to Emenanjo

(1977), “There is no human language without dialect”. Whatever dialect variations found in language are derived from socio-political culture. For this reason, variation is a national phenomenon in linguistic usage or field.

Dialect manifests itself once there are a reasonable number of speakers. Dialect can be classified into several types, but the two major types are:

(i) Regional or geographical and (ii) social dialect.

Penasola notes that Regional or Geographical dialects are the most widespread type of dialectal differentiation. It is only natural that the speech of one locality differs, at least, slightly from that of any other place (1981). Differences between neighbouring local dialects are usually small. Every dialectal feature has its own boundary like-Isogloss (a line on a map marking an area having distinct linguistic feature).

On the other hand, a social dialect or social stratum is another area of differentiation.

Social dialect is a class dialect used by certain social class within a speech community. In most areas, dialectal differences are associated with social class, educational levels, etc.

By and large, Orokam dialect can best be described as Regional or Geographical dialect.

It (Orokam dialect) is a dialect because it has a mutual intelligibility with other dialects like the

Otukpo, Owukpa, and Otukpa respectively. Agbedo observes that dialects of a language are 22 considered to be mutually intelligible. Mutually intelligibility occurs in a situation where speakers of X understand Y and speakers of Y understand X, where X and Y are two speech forms. If there is mutual intelligibility, then X and Y are therefore dialects of the same language.

This is one of the yardsticks for measuring dialects and languages (1998).

Similar to mutual intelligibility is structural similarity. It is obvious that the aforementioned dialects of Idoma language have a similar structure. Agbedo (1998) equally notes that speech forms are deemed to be dialects of the same language if they are similar enough to each other structurally, that is, along the grammatical levels of phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary. But if the speech forms are sufficiently dissimilar, they are likely to be different languages.

Several studies have been carried out on dialects and dialectal variation. One among these is Emenanjo (1970), who contributed to the study of Igbo dialects by critically examining Orlu and Ohuhu dialects. He discovered that aspiration and nasalization are clearly distinctive in these dialects and stressed that Orlu and Ohuhu dialects would be lacking in comprehension, if prominence is not given to aspiration and nasalization.

A similar scenario appears to be playing out in the case of Uzo-Uwani Dialect of Igbo

Language as being reported in the on-going research by Agbedo and Krisagbedo (2010). The study is aimed at examining the speech behaviour of Uzo-Uwani indigenes resident in Nsukka

Urban area and the centrality of subjective ethno linguistic vitality perceptions in that process. It looks at the interface between identified social variables and the respondents’ perceptions of the dialect contact situation in Nsukka metropolis. The emerging preliminary results of the investigation points somewhat strongly, to dialect shift and loss among the Uzo-Uwani indigenes 23 living outside their immediate speech community. The study predicts that the current direction of dialect shift and loss will remain on course so long as the social status of the UD within the multidimensional social space of Igbo dialects as well as the ethno-linguistic vitality perceptions of the UD speakers strut around the leader in the estimation of both UD speakers and the general

L1 speakers of Igbo (Agbedo 77).

Oluikpe (1979) studied the Ngwa dialect of Igbo where he concentrated mainly on the grammar of the variety and also classified various varieties of the dialect into “substandard and general varieties.

In the light of this, the researcher has done reasonable findings to identify the core dialect of Orokam side by side with the dialects that endangered it. It is pertinent to note that several

Nigerian languages or dialects such as Owukpa, Otukpa, Otukpo, Agila, Agatu, pidgin, Tiv,

Igala, Igbo, etc, and the Standard British English are the architect of the endangered Orokam dialect, but the research will make reference to the core or major ones that had a serious influence on the Orokam dialect which are the Otukpo dialect and English.

2.4 Language Endangerment

Language as a tool for human communication and national development is quite indispensible, since all activities of man in the society revolve around it. The relevance of language has become a corner-stone which is deeply entrenched as a medium of communication and dissemination of information; it also has a social and cultural uses. According to Ferdinand de Saussure in Hartzeler, language “. . . exists only by virtue of a sort of contract signed by the members of a community” (11). In other words, language is the culturally established rules which govern all forms of linguistic communication within any given community of speakers 24 that share common linguistic knowledge, which de Saussure referred to as “langue”. The affinity between language and society is such that one cannot exist without the other. There can be no language without a people and no people without a language. There exists an intricate web of interrelatedness between a community’s way of life (culture) and their language. According to

Trudgill (2-5), language as a social phenomenon is closely tied with the social structure and the value system of a society. Knowing the speech propriety: the how, what and when of performance. This is largely dictated by the culture of the society for is been harmony between linguistic structure and social acceptability.

In the event of language contact which comes about as a result of the coming together of different ethno-linguistic groups, to live together in a particular place would likely bring about linguistic difference. These languages compete with one another for particular functions, and consequently, some languages in the same community assume the high status while others are accorded low status. It is in this direction that Omeje (51) holds that, “. . . languages compete unfavourably with themselves....” Therefore, for any language to serve its primary function of communication, and also be preserved, it must be taken to heart by its owners who must deliberately speak it so that it will not be endangered. A language is endangered when its speakers use it in fewer domains and fail to pass it on to the succeeding generation (Tasaku 22).

Some languages have suffered lack of due protection by owners because of several factors and such languages are said to be endangered. According to a report published by Time Magazine ,

Kuju (38) (quoted in Agbedo 2011), there is a shrinking number of languages in the world, up to half of the roughly six thousand, five hundred (6500) languages now spoken across the globe is already endangered or on the brink of extinction. Similarly, Charles also quoted in Agbedo (78) confirms that, “it is being estimated that globally, some four thousand (4000) languages have 25 already been lost, with six thousand (6000) remaining, but with the majority facing one level of risk or the other”.

It is no doubt that even among the living languages, there are some that are dangerously being abandoned by their speakers, a situation which renders the languages greatly endangered.

The fact that language is identity is indisputable, but the alarming rate at which languages of the world are fast dying leaves one to wonder if the speakers are still mindful of their linguistic identity. The co-existence of languages which should be the pride or a blessing to any nation is rather bringing about language extinction (i.e. linguistic obituary). Amfani notes that language loss is always attributed to a domineering influence of a particular language on the dying language, and this indictment often turns into serious social crisis (2010). He further notes that without a strong national policy on Nigerian languages, the languages will continue to decay and eventually die, and one day every Nigerian will lose his or her linguistic identity.

Unfortunately, since the intrusion of colonialism, indigenous languages have been losing their pride of place in the lives and minds of their owners. Orokam dialect in Idoma language has been relegated to a position of an inferior language. It is now regarded as the language of the illiterate, poor, socially and economically disadvantaged people. It is never a rumour that

Orokam dialect did undergo a period of language contact with the standard Idoma Enochi’s dialect (Otukpo), Nigeria Pidgin, Standard British English, and many others, which led to its present state of extinction. By and large, it is pertinent to credit the government and Orokam native speakers as the harbingers of language endangerment on Orokam dialect.

26

2.5 Sounds and Letters in Idoma

In English language, there are twenty six (26) letters of the alphabet and forty-four (44) sounds, excluding the five triphthongs but in Idoma language, there are thirty-four sounds and letters which are the foundation of both the spoken and written expressions.

Idoma speech sounds and letters:

A b gb d E e f g h i j k l m n ng o ō p kp r s t u v w y z ch gw kw nw ny nm

Sounds Place of use Meaning

A Adah Father

B Obuu Front

Gb Igbi Snail

D Edache Type of people.

e (realized as Egbi A person’s name and a name of a tree used

‘a’ ) for the treatment of Iba (yellow fever)

ē Ene Mother

F Fi ā Fast

G Ógó Vulture

H Ihinkpa Scrotum 27

I Iga Fence

J Ojil āa Gathering

K Akoba Coconut

L Lē Own

M Má See or look

N Enehi Big

Ng Ongaji a person’s name

O Out Night

Ó Óla Light

P Pé Peel

Kp Okpa Friend

R Oronya A name of a person (the prize of a donkey)

S Isati Saturday

T Iticha Teacher

U Ube Butter pearl

V Uvero Orokam way of calling Vero

W Uwá Them

Y Oyima Name of a person (the child)

Z Ozaa Sound of a sharp cut of something

Ch Ocha Calabash

Gw Gwa Drink

Kw Ikwuta Name of a person (meaning) death has

rejected 28

Nw Nwada A person’s name

Ny Anyi Liver

Nm Nmije To beat.

In the area of phonology, Orokam dialect differs significantly from that of Otukpo dialect and below is a table showing their differences in sound:

English phonemes Orokam variation Otukpo variation Meaning

\f\-\p\ ifúu Ipu stomach

Ifuole ipuole inside the house

Af áa ap ā lizard

\s\- \h\ isi ihi yam

Os ēta oh ēta freedom

Isinkpa ihinkpa scrotum

\r\-\l\ ire ile play

rá la buy

Ikpere ikpele bedbug

Tone-marking is one of the significant characteristics of any living language, Idoma language and Orokam dialect inclusive.

29

Comparison of lexical items

Orokam Otukpo English

1. Okpa Oyaa Friend

2. Eyi Oyi Blood

3. Ikerekwu Ipu Rat

4. Egr o Egile bicycle

5. Gaa Waa Come

6. Okwu Ikwu Death

7. Ire Ile Play

8. Ra La Buy

9. Oja Olihi Market

10. Eda Ablakpa Foot-wear

11. Ojari Ojali Witness

12. Efewu Efu Mountain

13. Egwo Odoo Wall

14. Inyir o Enu Hoe

15. Agb or Achi shroud

16. Ugbandara opia\Ukpakwu Cutlass

17. Alo Aho Ear

18. Edr o Eh o Farm

19. Uwe Afe Cloth

20. Igogo Ocha Benne-seed 30

21. Akamkpa Igbamkpa Maize

22. Olokrefu Ataji Cap

23. Omabaja Akache Prophet

24. Ikprefu Ikpeyi Head

25. Ari Ali Palm tree

26. Ogbodu Olila A fool

27. Ogbaja Akwuna A prostitute

28. Orii Ongwa Rope

29. Ogede angbo Banana

30. Akitakpa Akwu Masquerade

31. Akoba Inoba Coconut

32. Abasi Abahi Enjoyment

33. Ochikapa Oscapa Rice

34. Obronu\opo pa Oblanyi\oblonu Groundnut

35. Ogbaa Iga Fence

36. Ehiro Ehil o Gorilla

37. Is otu Ihotu Love

38. Aremu Alemu Orange

39. Ugbe Ed o Variety

40. Ujuru akpa Apé Pawpaw

41. Aje oje Land

42. Utaba Oturu Tobacco

43. Ikerike Oma Salt 31

44. Owowura Ope Slope

45. Itete Anne Spinach

46. Osiri Ohili In-law

47. Alo Aho Ear

48. Okpra Okpla First male child

49. Achu Ekengbe False\lies

50. Okpenbi Ikinibi Bush baby.

2.6 Morphological Features of Orokam and Otukpo Dialects

Morphological information, according to Ndimele (1999), is the way different sounds are combined to build words. Every word has its own peculiar internal structure, that is, no two words have the same sequences unless they are those linguists describe as homophones, that is, words which are pronounced in the same way, but have different meanings.

The different combinations of the same sounds might produce different results. Examples can be seen thus:

SN Orokam Otukpo English

1 Akpa + ti = Akpati Ikpa + ti = ikpati Box

(bridge)+ (suffix) (Ricket)+ (suffix)

2 Oja+ri = Ojari Oja+ li = Ojali Witness

(Market)+ (suffix) (Market) + (suffix)

3 Isi + nkpa = Isinkpa Ihi+ nkpa Scrotun 32

(yam) (suffix) (Yam)+ (suffix)

4 Oya + re= Oyare Oya + le = oya le Succeeded

(do) + (eat) (do) + (eat)

5 Osi+ugwu=Osugwu Ohi +gbu = ohigbu Because

(waist) +(fowl) (waist) + (suffix)

2.7 Sentence Analysis in Orokam Dialect

A sentence, according to Murthy, is “a group of words which makes a complete sense

(235). In this section, the researcher will pay attention to the basic sentence structure in Idoma language with special reference to Orokam and Otukpo dialects. Idoma, like the English language, classifies sentence into two broad categories which are: sentence based on function and sentence based on structure.

Sentence based on function are declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences respectively:

(a) Declarative sentence gives just information. Examples are:

Orokam dialect Otukpo dialect English

(i ) Ondu le ya re lum me Ondu le ya le gam me the lord has won for me

(ii) eno oche eko treeko Eno yo iche eko duu the sun shines always b. imperative sentence gives a command . Examples

(i) Waa ka chi che li yamu waa ka ga ya aje amu nya come and sit here 33

(ii) Eyi oha kowa to lamu no ihayi oha kowatu wola mu no let another year not meet you

here

(c) Interrogative sentence ask questions. Example:

Orokam Otukpo English

(i) Onye nyoedro? Onye ge ga eho? Who will go to the farm?

(ii) Emu na la nyo? Ega nya la yi nyo? Where are you going?

(d) Exclamatory Sentence

A ce lo ki yi ! Ace lo ne! ace lo ne! you don’t mean it!

Okorobia Onyiro Jari! Oklobia Onyilo Jali! Great man indeed!

On the other hand, sentences based on structure can be analyzed thus:

(1) Simple sentences: contain just an idea.

Orokam Otukpo English

(a) Agbo wo ce onyiro Agbo wo oce onyilo Agbo is a boy

(b) Ada o roji re Ada yo I le Odule Ada is eating food

(2) Compound sentence: contains two different sentences or idea of equal rank. Examples:

Orokam Otukpo English a. Ada wo ce onya amani Agbo Ada we oce onya aman Ada is a girl while

woce onyiro Agbo we oce Onyilo Agbo is aboy b. ngo jo k pa mro okpan lo nyo I jo okpa mla oya kum I am studying with

yukro lo yo gee yuklo my friend who is working

(3) Compound-complex: contains just a main clause and two or more subordinate clauses

Orokam

Example: n’ kr amu leko lo nya Abuja, ene lo dum t aje lefu kwo gbo obu ma 34

Otukpo

n' yo a mu eko ene lo ga Abuja no ka taje gamu ma .

English

I was here when he or she left for Abuja which she earlier talked about

Tone as defined by Dangambo (16, 19) “is the way in which the voice goes up and down in a word”. He further points out that tone and vowel length (in Hausa) help to differentiate meanings, indicate or mark tenses and help to distinguish between grammatical items. Therefore, tone in Idoma or Orokam makes it possible for a single orthographic Idoma word to have different pronunciation patterns, and in most cases, helps to differentiate meaning. For example, a word spelt and written as

“u – k – a” could be pronounced as

ūkä (a name of a person ) Ok-O (Canoe) Okpa (book)

Ùk ā (chewing stick) Oko (apex or beak) Okpa (oath)

Uka (church) Oko (neck) Okpa (skin)

Uka (stool for sitting) Oko (cough) Okpa (river)

Oko (a person’s name) Okpa (Bambara nut cake)

Okpa (friend)

Just like in Hausa, tone and vowel length in Idoma language or Orokam dialect indicate or mark tense as in: 35

Orokam dialect Otukpo dialect English

Ore Ole He ate

Öōré Óólé He will eat

öō ré öō lé He eats

2.8 A popular hymn among the Idoma or Orokam

Orokam dialect

Otu sun gbe, ka Jis os yi sotum

Otu sun gbe, ka Jis os yi sotum

Otu sun gbe, ka Jis os yi sotum

Jisos y’ so tu mo

Otukpo dialect

Oto he um ka n he Jisos otu.

Otu he um ka n he Jisos otu.

Otu he um ka n he Jisos otu.

Jisos y’ Ihe otu tu um

36

English

I am so glad that Jesus loves me

,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,

Jesus loves even me.

2.9 Singular and Plural

The Orokam dialect of Idoma is not an exemption in the identification of singular and plural words. Below are some examples.

Singular Plural

Orokam Otukpo English Orokam Otukpo English

Onyiro Onyilo Boy Anyiro anyilo Boys

Ori Ngwa Rope a’ori a’ngwa Ropes

Ogbodu Olila A fool a’ogbudu a’olila Fools

Orokam people can as well be identified by their names. Though there are some names that the

Otukpo dialect have in common but below are typically Orokam names:

Orokam English

1. Alachi - wickedness

2. Obitiye - Trained for fancy 37

3. Onyikwu - The wife of death

4. Ogwa - Wet or rainy season

5. Umakani - I have nothing to say

6. Abeka - What did they say?

7. Onyeholowo - Who is in the destiny?

8. Otache - One who refuses people

9. Okewu - Rumours of war

10. Obonyiro - A great man indeed

There are so many others, too.

Despite the divergences that exist between the dialects in question (Orokam and Otukpo), they also have some things in common and below are some of them:

Pluralization of most nouns in Idoma takes prefix morpheme, Examples are:

Singular Plural

Oche (person) ache (persons)

Onya (woman) anya (women)

Ada (father) àáda (fathers)

Igbano (bird) aigbano (birds)

Ebe (animal) àebe (animals) 38

Ugada eei (one chair) Ugada èpà (two chairs)

Some parts of speech include:

Orokam Otukpo English

Òla Òla fire (Noun)

Óle Ole house (Noun)

Gboko Gboko pray (verb)

Gwo Gwo sing (verb)

Oba epa oba epa two husbands (adjective)

Oyi nenche oyi nenche small child (adjective)

Taa fiafia taa fiafia write quickly (adverb)

Gwo emema gwo emema sing slowly (adverb) etc.

Reduplications which are common to Orokam and Otukpo dialects:

i. Echo (stone) echeecho (stones)

ii. Ole (house) olo ole (houses)

iii. Ochi (tree) ochoochi (trees)

Some names which are common to both Otukpo and Orokam dialects

i. Ada (first daughter) 39

ii. Agaba (lion)

iii. Oche (king)

iv. Echewune (the world is a swing)

v. Ebo (Peace)

In fact, there are several factors that aggravated the speed of Orokam as an endangered dialect, but the aforementioned are the major ones. It is equally important to note that language endangerment is an applied field, cultural value field that have new horizons. Using Orokam as an endangered dialect for private or domestic function, even in restricted manner, is a way of expressing pride in a common cultural heritage, because of its role in informal situations between people sharing close personal ties, knowledge of the obsolescent language becomes an important symbol of loyalty and group identity.

2.10 Causes of Language Endangerment in Orokam Land

Several factors are responsible for the shrinkage of the Orokam dialect of Idoma language. The salient (most noticeable) ones are as follows:

One of the reasons for the contraction of Orokam dialect is the polyglossic situation in

Orokam land. Orokam dialect has open social networks; it has contact with other dialects or languages that envelope it. The ethnic groups that encircle Orokam land are the Otukpo dialect,

Owukpa, Otukpa, Edumoga, Igbo, Igala, Pidgin, and many other languages and cultural contacts and inter-ethnic marriages between members of the neighbouring ethnic groups have led to shrinkage in the use of Orokam dialect. This is as a result of the assimilatory effects of the neighbouring languages or dialects. 40

Ideally, Nigerian Pidgin is supposed to be a language of inter-ethnic communication in

Orokam land. However, it has now penetrated the orbit of homes in Orokam land. It is now being used as a language of intra-ethnic communication in Orokam nation. Faraclas (1) states that

“Nigerian pidgin may soon become the most widely spoken language in Nigeria.” Similarly,

Egbokhare notes that Nigerian Pidgin is “Nigerian language of wider communication” (115).

Therefore, Nigerian Pidgin has already acquired a number of native speakers, and it has become the mother tongue of many children in Orokam central.

Apart from the Pidgin, English is also a cause of language endangerment in Orokam land.

English is Nigeria’s official language, and they have positive attitude towards it while they have a negative attitude towards their indigenous language or dialect. Nigeria is, therefore, culturally and linguistically colonized. It is pertinent to state here that Standard Nigerian English has now undergone nativisation and indigenization because it is now a blend of British and Nigerian culture. Bamgbose (21) was quite accurate in his observation that “English language has undergone modification in the Nigerian environment. It has been Pidgnized, nativized, acculturated and twisted to express unaccustomed concepts and mode of interaction”.

In Orokam as well as Nigeria in general, many parents encourage their children to learn and speak the English language fluently. Most elite from Orokam land now transmit only

English language to their children as the first language in their homes. Such children have now experienced language loss of the Orokam culture.

Another reason for the endangerment of Orokam dialect of Idoma language is the flawed language policy in Nigeria. Indigenous languages are bifurcated into majority and minority languages. While Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba are the major languages, the others, about 447 others, 41 are the minority. The three major ethnic languages dominate the country politically, economically, socially and culturally. Orokam in this sense looks at their language or dialect with disdain (unworthy) since they are not socio-politically and economically viable. The non- implementation of the National Policy on Education (1977), revised in (1981) is a cause of language endangerment in Orokam culture. Egbokhare (10) observes the adverse effects of the non-implementation of this language policy on Nigerian children thus “researches have shown that a child learns faster when taught in his or her mother tongue rather than a foreign language”.

Similarly, in an interview with Egwu, Ode (2013), he maintains that there is also the case of the older speakers of the language who are in a position to correct this anomaly but they see it as a form of civilization and a welcome development without knowing the implications of such act on the language as well as the culture.

Furthermore, he opines that there is an absence of some basic amenities and job opportunities, which have caused the younger speakers to move from their geographical location to other environments where such amenities are available. To worsen the situation, Orokam dialect is not being taught in schools in the Orokam community. It was observed that as a result of Western education, a majority of the younger speakers no longer speak the language. The few who manage to speak the dialects do so with difficulties; it is certainly heading towards a natural death. More so, no literature exists in the Orokam dialect and when such situation arises, the younger ones would therefore have no document to aid their learning of the dialect.

Unpatriotic attitude of the speakers: Many of the native speakers see their dialect as too crude that, speaking the dialect will make them stand the risk of losing their friends and spouses, 42 that the dialect is noted for superstitious beliefs, charm or diabolical acts and so on. Therefore, they want to be identified with Otukpo dialect that witnessed civilization before Orokam.

2.11 Adverse Effects of Language Endangerment in Orokam land

The dialect of Orokam culture is the main symbol of the people as an ethnic nationality.

The dialect gives their speakers positive self-image. The gradual death of this dialect is therefore a sign of the disintegration of the unity of the Orokam nation. Once the dialect which binds the

Orokam together dies, the basis of their unity and group identity will be undermined.

In short, the gradual death of Orokam dialect of Idoma language is also eroding some of the traditional practices like knowledge of traditional medicinal plants. The folklore and folk- tales of the people are being gradually eroded and they may well go into oblivion once the language or dialect goes into extinction. Since the Orokam dialect or language is experiencing language contraction, the precious cultural practices of the people are also shrinking. The Centre for Endangered Languages in its universal declaration of linguistic rights in Barcelonia (10) captures thus, “Language is the key to the heart of the people. If we lose the key, we lose the people. A lost language is a lost tribe, a lost tribe is a lost culture, a lost culture is a lost civilization. A lost civilization is invaluable knowledge lost . . . the whole vast archives of knowledge and experience in them will be consigned to oblivion”. Therefore, the Orokams should maintain their dialect or language in order to avoid the pathetic effects of language death on its speakers.

2.12 Revitalization of Orokam Dialect of Idoma Language

Language Revitalization, according to Tasaku (170), means “restoring language to the state where it is again used as a means of communication”. Linguists are now enthusiastically 43 pursuing language revival in many regions of the world. Therefore, a discussion on the strategies for the revitalization of Orokam dialect will be preceded by an insight into efforts at the revitalization of extinct languages and maintenance of endangered languages across the globe.

Linguists are enthusiastically collaborating with non-speakers of extinct languages and speakers of languages at various stages of endangerment in order to revitalize extinct and endangered languages.

The first strategy for the revification of the dialect is for the speakers of the dialect to change their attitude from the present negative posture to a positive one. Bamgbose (29) buttresses this fact when he states “When all is said and done, the fate of an endangered language may well be in the hands of the owners of the language themselves and in their will to make it survive”. Therefore, once the speakers can identify the unique qualities of the dialect to them, interest in them will be revived. With the revival, intergeneration transmission of the dialect from parents to their children will also be revived.

Furthermore, the Orokam people should develop a literary tradition in their dialect. This will extirpate the association of the language with rurality and illiteracy. Prominent Orokam indigenes should be encouraged to float a fund which will enable linguists develop a practical alphabet for the dialect and write textbooks and story books which will project the culture of

Orokam people.

Parents should equally be made to understand that they hold the key to the prevention of Orokam language endangerment by bringing up their children to speak their indigenous dialects and using them at home. 44

Besides, the government should make the language of the child’s environment to be taught side by side with English language both at the private and public schools. Government should then monitor compliance and mete out punishment to defaulters.

Both government and individuals should encourage the teaching of Orokam dialect by providing awards of scholarships and bursaries to the students or pupils.

All nursery, primary and secondary schools should have weekly activities on the culture of the environment of the child using the dialect or language – in songs, dances, games, drama etc. They should also wear dresses that portray their culture once a week.

It should also make knowledge of indigenous language or dialect a pre-requisite in certain vital domains such as in promotion from primary to secondary school, employment in local and public sectors and obtaining certificates of state of origin, citizenship or Nigerian passport. The dialect should also be encouraged in public places such as in the media houses, churches, markets, village gatherings, meetings of different discussion, etc.

As earlier mentioned in this study that language is an embodiment of culture, the peoples way of life, traditional ethics, norms and beliefs, it implies that if Orokam dialect is preserved, future generations will be availed the opportunity not only to learn, understand and speak the dialect but also to have a great knowledge of the culture, appreciate and become a tool for further preservation of the language and culture. Also, the Orokam people can easily be identified in

Nigeria and the world at large since language serves as a means of identifying the people of a particular geographical and geopolitical region. 45

By and large, the preservation of this endangered indigenous dialect is important to avoid its death and the subsequent loss of the indigenous culture. Generally, language can be a factor of unity, rather than division, and language cohesion paves the way for national development. 46

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Preamble

This chapter presents the research technique employed in this study. The discussions, therefore, include the following areas:

• Research design

• Area of study

• Population of Study

• Sample and sampling procedures

• Methods and instrument of data collection

• Method of data analysis

Every research adopts a method which would best fit its purposes and give it an objective direction. A research of this nature is expected to be as qualitative as possible. But G. Fayne and

J. Payne remarked that qualitative research ‘. . . often draws on some of the stock-in-trade of what are normally regarded as quantitative techniques’ (179). To support this, Pawson says that

‘nowadays it is much more accurate to describe the relationship between those who do qualitative research and those who do quantitative research as one of truce’ (quoted in M.

Haralambos and M. Holborn 804). What this portends is that this study drew from the strengths of the two, as methodological pluralism (otherwise known as triangulation) makes the findings of a research more objective. Many scholars have argued that triangulation has many benefits in 47 researches. It gives the researcher the privilege of drawing the strengths of multiple designs as far as they are relevant to the research.

3.2 Research Design

A research design is a logical model of proof that allows the researcher to draw inferences concerning causal relations among variables under investigation. This study adopts the descriptive survey design. A survey research design is one in which the entire population or a representative sample is studied by collecting and analyzing data from a group through the use of questionnaire. Ali (57) corroborates this view by stating that a survey is a descriptive study, which seeks or uses the sample data of an investigation to document, describe and explain what is existent or non-existent on present status of a phenomenon being investigated.

This design is considered suitable since this study seeks information to find out the extent to which Orokam dialect of Idoma language has been endangered, with a view to suggesting solutions to the existing problem.

3.3 Area of Study

This study is carried out in Orokam district of Ogbadibo Local Government Area of

Benue state. The researcher’s choice of this area stems from the fact that the endangered dialect is found among the Orokam people in Orokam land. The researcher therefore wants to find out the extent to which the dialect of Orokam has been endangered and to join hand with other scholars to proffer solutions to the dying dialect.

48

3.4 Population of the Study

The word “population” refers to a group of people living in a specified geographical location. The population of this study consists of both older children and adults’ speakers of

Orokam dialect, that is, children and parents.

3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedure

Another relevant issue here is how the sample is collected. Every researcher looks for a sampling technique that would be representative of the population. Therefore, the sample size for this study is two hundred (200). This sample was drawn from the total population of Orokam district. The researcher used the simple random sampling technique in selecting the population sample of the research. Since the sample is two hundred (200), two hundred (200) copies of questionnaire were administered to two hundred (200) respondents of the sample population and interview was also conducted.

3.6 Method of Data Collection

The collection of data is a very crucial step in the research process. Every research involves the collection of pertinent data. Such data are necessary for arriving at the solutions of the problem at hand. This work was organized into a readable item due to information gathered from different sources. Field work was involved where questionnaires are used to elicit responses from the study population. However, the five clans in Orokam district were purposefully chosen because of the predominant presence of Orokam indigenes in those areas. Using the random sample technique, forty (40) respondents were selected from each of the five clans making a total of 200 as copies of the questionnaire were distributed and copies were returned. 49

Secondary source which is necessary and inevitable, that is, the use of library was also actively used, where books, journal articles, long essays and other reading materials were collected and used.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The responses or data collected from the use of the questionnaire items were collected and analyzed to provide required results by using simple percentage formula of the population for the study.

The formula is given below as:

Nx 100 F = P

Where F : Frequency (number of times of occurrence)

N: Number of responses to a question

P: Sample of population of study

50

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

This chapter deals with analysis and presentation of the results of the data collected on

the study. Tabular form is used to analyze the data generated from the survey respondents and

brief analysis is made below each table for easy comprehension of the table.

4.1 Response to Questionnaires

Due to limitation of space, the researcher selected thirty-two questions and two hundred

respondents for the analysis.

Table A: Age distribution

20-30 30-40 40-50 Total Percentage

Number of questionnaires administered 50 70 80 200 100%

Number of questionnaires returned 48 66 76 190 95%

In the process of gathering data, the researcher observed that the whole Idoma nation

cannot be sampled. Therefore, the researcher limited the research to Orokam, the place where the

language is used. From the table above, two hundred (200) questionnaires were distributed to

two hundred respondents, 24% was returned by respondents who are between the ages of 20 and

30 years, 33% were equally returned by respondents within the age bracket of 30 – 40 years,

while 38% was returned by respondents who are between the ages of 40-50 years. 51

Table 1: Question 7

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Are you an indigene of Orokam? Yes 170 89.5% No 20 10.5%

Total 190 100%

From the table above, 170 (89.5%) of the respondents are indigenes of Orokam while 20 (10.5%) of the respondents are non-indigenes.

Table 2: Question 8

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

From whom did you get in contact Grandparents 5 2.6% with your mother-tongue for the first time? Father 60 26.3% Mother 90 63.2% Sibling 20 7.9% Teachers 5 2.6%

Total 190 100%

Table 2 above shows 5 (2.6%) persons first got in contact with their mother tongue through their grandparents; 60 (26.38 %) person from their father; 120 (63.3%) from their mother, 15 (7.9 %) through their siblings, and 5 (2.6) from their teachers.

52

Table 3, Question 12

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

What is the medium of communication English 25 15.2% with your parents? Orokam 30 15.8%

Otukpo 100 52.6%

Pidgin 35 18.4%

Total 190 100%

Table 3 above indicates that in Orokam homes, 25 (13.2%) persons communicate with their parents in English, 30 (15.8%) in Orokam dialect; 100 (52.6%) in Otukpo dialect, and 35

(18.4%) use Pidgin.

Table 4, Question 14

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

My dialect is worth learning Strongly agreed 25 13.2%

Agree 56 29.5%

Strongly disagreed 90 47.4%

Neutral 11 5.8%

Total 190 100% 53

Table 4 above indicates that 25 (13.2 %) persons agreed strongly that their dialect is worth learning, 56 (19.5%) agreed; 90 (47.4%) strongly disagreed; 11 (5.8 %) disagreed, and 8 (4.2%) were neutral as to whether it can be learnt or not.

Table 5, Question 16

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

It is important that my children Strongly Agree 102 53.7% know their ethnic heritage? Agree 79 41.6%

Strongly Disagree 3 1.6%

Disagree 2 1.1%

Neutral 4 2.1%

Total 190 100%

The above response in table five shows that 102 (53.7%) persons strongly agreed that their children should know their ethnic heritage, 79 (41.6%) Agreed; 3 (1.6%) strongly disagreed; 2

(1.1%) disagreed, while 4 (2.1%) were neutral as to whether the children should know their ethnic heritage.

54

Table 6, Question 19

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Since almost all members of my Strongly Agree 1 0.5 % ethnic group speak English or Agree 5 2.6 % Otukpo dialect, it is a waste to keep my dialect alive Strongly Disagree 150 78.9 %

Disagree 34 17.9 %

Neutral - -

Total 190 100%

The response in table 6 above illustrates the opinion of 1 (0.5 %) person to strongly disagree to keep the dialect alive since Otukpo and English dialects or languages are widely used by the ethnic group; 5 (2.6 %) persons simply agreed while on the contrary, 150 (78.9 %) persons strongly agreed that the dialect should be alive despite the existence of Otukpo and English in the area; 34 (17.9%) agreed that the dialect should be alive.

55

Table 7, Question 27

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

What language would you prefer His or her mother tongue 60 31.6 to be used in teaching the child in Any of the three Nigerian 10 5.3 primary school in your languages community (Orokam)? English 120 63.2

Total 190 100%

Table 7 response shows that 60(31.6%) people prefer the use of the child’s mother tongue in teaching in primary school in the community, 10 (5.3%) prefer any of the three Nigerian

Languages, while 120 (63.2%) prefer the use of English language.

Table 8, Question 23

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

How do you feel when a non- Happy 140 73.7 % indigene uses your dialect? Sad 15 7.9 %

Very shy 10 5.3 %

Indifferent 25 13.2 %

Total 190 100% 56

From table 8 above, 140 (73.7 %) people are happy when non-indigene speak their dialect,

15(7.9%) are sad, 10 (5.3%) are very shy; while 25 (13.2%) are indifferent that is, they don’t feel anything at all.

Table 9, Question 25

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Are there text-books in your mother Yes - - tongue (Orokam) to facilitate the No 190 100% learning of the language?

Total 190 100%

From table 9 above, the whole 190 (100%) people who responded to this question have not seen any textbooks written in Orokam dialect to facilitate the learning of the dialect in the area.

Table 10, Question 27

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

I will look inferior if I use Orokam Yes 100 52.6% dialect in a social environment. No 87 45.8% Probably 3 1.6%

Total 190 100% 57

Table 10 explains that 100 (52.6%) will feel inferior if Orokam dialect is used in a social environment; 87 (45.8 %) persons will not feel bad about it, and 3(1.6%) people are not certain of how they will feel.

Table 11, Question 28

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Is the dialect used by the media? Yes 0 0

No 190 100%

Total 190 100%

From the response above, Orokam dialect is not used by the media and as a result, no air space was given to any programme in the dialect.

Table 12, Question 28

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Would you prefer radio or TV Yes 100 52.6 % programmes in Orokam dialect? No 90 47.4 %

Total 190 100%

Table 11 indicates that 100 (52.6%) would prefer radio or TV programmes in Orokam dialect while 90 (47.4 %) do not want any radio or TV Programme in Orokam dialect at all. 58

Table 13, Question 29

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

What type of programme Religious 7 3.7 % would you prefer? Cultural-based 150 78.9 %

Entertainment 30 15.8 %

News 3 1.6 %

Total 190 100%

Table 12 above indicates that 7 (3.7%) people would prefer to watch religious programmes in

Orokam dialect; 150 (78.9%) prefer cultural-based programmes; 30 (15.8%) persons prefer entertainment programmes while 3 (1.6 %) people prefer news.

Table 14, Question 30

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Would there be any benefits in Yes 143 75.3 % teaching your children or wards No 40 21.1 % your dialect? I don’t know 7 3.7 %

Total 190 100%

59

Table 13 response shows that 143 (75.3%) people believe that their children would benefit from learning their dialect, 40 (21.1 %) people see no benefit in teaching their children the dialect, while 7 (3.7 %) people do not know whether there is any benefit in learning or teaching the dialects.

Table 15, Question 32

Question Response

Variables Number Percentage

Is the dialect used for teaching in Yes - - schools in the area where it is spoken? No 190 100%

Total 190 100%

From table 14 above, 190 (100%) persons agreed that Orokam dialect is not used for teaching in schools in Orokam where the dialect is spoken.

4.2 Data Presentation

Research question 1 : How prevalent is the use of the dialect among indigenes?

Based on the responses gotten from table 3 and 6 above, the possible reasons why the dialect is not prevalent among Orokam indigenes are:

1. The use of Otukpo and Pidgin dominate the dialect;

2. The inability of the parents or older people to speak the dialect to their children and,

3. Orokam dialect is not used for instruction in schools within Orokam. 60

Research question 2: Do parents nurture their children with the dialect?

From the responses gathered from the respondents in table 3 and 10, the parents do not adequately nurture their children with the language, because they feel that their children cannot function with it in a social context and may also deny them some privileges or opportunities since the language is not recognized economically, socially, and politically.

Research question 3: Is there any effort to preserve Orokam dialect for posterity? Based on the responses obtained from table 4, 7, 9 and 14 respectively, no conscious or serious effort had been put in place to salvage or preserve the dialect for posterity.

Research question 4: Is the dialect used by the media? From the responses in table 11, 12, and

13 above, Orokam dialect is not used by the media because it is not a language of wider communication, though the indigenes could have preferred television and radio programmes that are culturally based.

Research question 5: How often is the dialect used at home by the parents? According to information provided by table 3 and10 respectively, the parents in Orokam homes are not friendly with the language or dialect because it confers on them no economic and political advantages. The inability of the dialect to have the same status with the Otukpo and English languages relegates it to the background, even at home.

Research question 6: Is the dialect used for teaching in schools in the area where it is spoken?

Based on the data gathered from tables 9 and 15, the dialect is not completely used for formal education and that is why there are no textbooks in the dialect which should have preserved the dialect for posterity. 61

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY

Orokam is one of the dialects spoken in Idoma land that have been relegated and treated as primitive, with a serious influence on it by the Pidgin, English and Otukpo languages and, as a result, subjected it to its current state of extinction.

Analysis from the data revealed that the mother tongue (Orokam dialect), with special emphasis on minority languages, has suffered drastic influence from English, which is Nigeria’s official language and Otukpo dialect, which is regarded as the ideal norm among some Idoma users of the language. Orokam dialect, therefore, has been relegated to the background due to the status consciousness of its speakers.

Further findings have revealed that the use of English or Otukpo dialect at home by parents instead of the Orokam has left many children as monolingual speakers of either English or Otukpo language. Moreover, the study has revealed that mothers use the language more frequently than the fathers to their children; preference is given to the use of English language in the primary schools rather than the Orokam dialect; therefore, no text-book exists to account for

Orokam dialect as well. Again, the Orokam people feel inferior using Orokam dialect in social environment and the language has never been used by the media any day to foster cultural-based activities. Significantly, The Orokam indigenes believe that the teaching of Orokam dialect will be of a paramount benefit to them but no step however has been taken to make their wish come alive even the old ones do not speak nor nurture their children in the dialect; hence, the dialect is not institutionalized. In fact, no effort has been demonstrated on how the dialect can be revitalize 62 and preserve for posterity. These reasons deduced from the study have placed the Orokam dialect in its present state of extinction.

The research has been shown as an aspect of development to ensure the survival of the

Orokam native dialect and culture. The language should be given a pride of place like the major languages. Publication of text-books and other materials in the local language should equally be patronized; parents should nurture their children in the Orokam dialect as well as encourage cultural-based activities on radio and television. Based on the tested hypothesis, sermons by clerics should be conducted in the dialect as its promotion can help in nation-building and if the

Benue State Government and Ogbadibo Local Government Council give the Orokam dialect its desired attention and recognition, it will greatly influence the attitude of the owners of the dialect and make them see the need to speak the dialect.

5.2 Recommendations There cannot be a problem without a solution; therefore, the researcher after a thorough research recommends the following, suggestions that will help to revitalize the Orokam dialect from its present state of endangerment or extinction:

(i) Parents from Orokam should actively use the Orokam dialect at home and as well compel

their children to follow suit.

(ii) Orokam dialect should be made compulsory in the nursery and primary schools within

Orokam and can be extended to junior secondary schools to bring about competence in

Orokam dialect among the children.

(iii)Cultural activities should be organized frequently where the children will actively

participate to show their potentials and command in the use of Orokam dialect. 63

(iv) Greater air space should be made available to incorporate programmes such as Orokam

songs, proverbs, dance, craft, debate on cultural issues, etc, on televisions or in the radio

stations within Orokam area.

(v) Orokam indigenes and elite should write text-books on Orokam grammar, plays, short

stories, novels, and many other books using Orokam dialect in order to fast-track the

learning and understanding of Orokam dialect.

(vi) Religious leaders such as pastors, Imam, etc, in Orokam should be encouraged to use

Orokam dialect in their sermon. Ogbadibo Local Government Council and well meaning

indigenes of Orokam who are financially buoyant should award scholarships and bursaries

to students who actively write, sing, dramatize, etc, in the dialect as a way of encouraging

the learning and speaking of Orokam dialect.

(vii) The understanding of Orokam dialect should be a prerequisite for the collection of state

of origin certificates and employment into public sectors in Orokam as this will promote the

use of Orokam dialect.

5.3 Conclusion

In conclusion, minorities are part of the cultural heritage of Nigeria and Nigerians will all lose out if their cultural diversity did not survive. Thus, the study set out to discuss the apparent endangerment of the Orokam dialect. It has revealed that the Orokam dialect is indeed endangered due to the attitude of its speakers, which is as a result of political and linguistic domination of Otukpo and English languages, and the inferiority complex the people feel in using their dialect. 64

However, this study work proposed that Orokam dialect can be salvaged and revitalized if Orokam people are encouraged to develop a positive attitude towards their dialect, evolve a literary tradition, and a media programme in Orokam dialect. It is hoped that the intervention strategies recommended above be taken seriously by all concerned. That way, we may yet save

Orokam dialect, culture, and people from inevitable death.

65

WORKS CITED

Abraham, R.C. The Idoma Language, Idoma Wordlists, Idoma Chrestomathy, Idoma Proverbs. (2nd ed ). London: University of Press, 1967. Print.

Akindele, Femi and Adegbite, Wale. The Sociology and Politics of English in Nigeria: An Introduction. Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University Press, 2005. Print.

Agbedo, Chris U. Problem of Multilingual Nations: The Nigerian Perspective. Nsukka: ACE Resources Konzults, 2007. Print.

Ali, Anthony . Conducting Research in Education and the Social Science . Enugu: Tashiwa Networks, 2006. Print.

Amfani, A.H. “Language and Literature and the Challenges of Socio-Economic Crisis in Nigeria.” Nsukka: 20-23 July, 2010. Address .

Apeh, Idoko. Personal Interview. Origin of Orokam .Orokam.29 January 2013.

Bamgbose, A. “Deprived, Endangered and Dying Language’’. Diogenes 16.4 (1993): N.pag. Print.

Bamgbose, Ayo. “English Language and the Nigerian Environment”. eds . Ayo Bamgbose, A. Banjo, A. Andrews. New Englishes: A West African Perspective . Ibadan: Mosuro Publishers, 1995. Print.

Bradley, D. and Bradley, M. Language Endangerment and Language Maintenance. London: Routledge, 2002. Print.

Ca hill, Michael. From Endangered to Less Endangered: Case Histories from Brazil and Papua. New Guinea: SIL Electronic Working Paper, 1996. Print.

Crystal, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Linguistics. 2nd ed. Cambridge: University Press, 1992. Print.

Dangambo, A. Tone and Vowel Length in Hausa. Kaduna: The Nigerian Language Teacher, 1977. Print.

Ehala, Martin . “Refining the Notion of Ethnolinguistic Vitality”. International Journal 66

of Multilingualism Forthcoming. 1.15.(2010):36-50. Web. 12 June 2010. Egbokare, F. “The Nigerian Linguistic Ecology and the Changing Profile of Nigerian Pidgin.” Ed. H. Igboanus. Language Attitude and Language Conflict in West Africa . Ibadan: Enicrownfit Publishers, 2001. Print.

Emenanjo, E.N. and B Leambo, K.P. (eds.) Language Endangerment and Language Empowerment in Nigeria: Theory and Reality . 1 Vol. Aba: NINLAN, 1999. Print.

……… Endangered Languages in Nigeria . Port Harcourt: M. &J. Grand Orbit Communications, 2010. Print.

…..... Multilingualism Minority Languages and Language Policy in Nigeria . Agbor: Central Book, 1990. Print.

Enenche, Ameh. Personal Interview. Origin of Orokam . 17 January 2013.

Erim, O.E. Idoma Nationality 1600-1900: Problems Studying the Origins and Development of Ethnicity . Enugu: Fourth Dimension, 1981. Print.

Faraclas, B. Nigerian Pidgin . London: Rutledge Books, 1996. Print.

Farinde, R.O. & Ojo, J.O. Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Ibadan: Lektay Publishers, 2005. Print.

Fishman, J. Language and Ethnicity in Minority Sociolinguistic Perspective. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1989. Print.

Fishman, J.A. Reversing Language Shift . Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd., 1991. Print.

Giles, H. and Johnson, P. “The Role of Language in Ethnic Group Relations.” Eds. J.C. Turner and H. Giles. Intergroup Behaviour . Oxford: Blackwell, 1981. Print.

Greary, J. ‘The Lost Tribe of Europe.” Time Magazine , 7 July, 2005:N.pag. Print.

Gumpertz, J. Language in Social Groups. Stanford: University Press, 1971. Print.

Haralambos, M. and M. Holoborn. Sociology: Themes, and Perspectives. 7th ed. London: Collins, 2008. Print. 67

Harrison, K. David. When Languages Die: The Extinction of the World’s Languages and the Erosion of Human Knowledge . New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Print.

Hartzerler, J.O. A Sociology of Language. New York: Random House, 1965. Print.

Ifeagwazi, P.A. “Language Endangerment: The Sociolinguistic Situation of the Igbo Language.” Department of Linguistics, UNN. 2013. Lecture.

Igboanusi, H . Languages Attitudes and Language Conflicts in West Africa . Ibadan: Enicrownfit Publishers, 2001. Print.

Lewis, M.P. Ethnologuel: Languages of the World 16 th ed. Texas: SIL International, 2009. Print.

MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers 7th ed. New York: The Modern Language Association of America, 2009. Print.

Moseley, Christopher, ed. Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger 3 rd ed . Paris: UNESCO Publishing, 2010. Print.

Murthy, J. D. Contemporary Grammar . Lagos: Book Master, 2007. Print.

Ndimele, O. A. First Course on Morphology and Syntax . Port Harcourt: M&J Grand Orbit Communication, 1999. Print.

Ohemu, Cecilia. Interview. Orokam Dialect . Makurdi. 6 July, 2013. Telephone.

Omeje, G.O. Language Attitudes of the Igbo: As Threat to Igbo Language.” Dess. University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 2008. Print.

Payne, G. and J. Payne. Key Concepts in Social Research. London: Sage, 2004. Print.

Trudgill, Peter. Dialect: Social and Geographical Perspectives . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983. Print.

Tasaku, T. Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization: An Introduction . New York: Mouton de Gruyter Berlin, 2006. Print.

The New Encyclopedia Britainica .15 th ed. Vol 22.Chicago: Chicago Encyclopedia Britainica Inc, 1989. Print. 68

United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Orgaanization . Ad Hoc Expert Group on Endangered Language ,Vitality and Endangerment. n.p : n.p, 2003. Print.

Unomah, A.C. “Kwararafa Confederacy C 1000- C1900: A Meeting Pot of Peoples and Cultures ”. Eds. J.I. Elaigwu and Erim, O.E. Foundations of Nigeria Federalism Pre- colonial, Antecedents Nigerian Federalism Series. Abuja: National Council on Intergovernmental Relations, 1996. Print.

Yagmur, Kutlay. “Ethnolinguistic Vitality”. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development . 32.1 (2011):111-120. Web.18 March 2011.

Williamson, K. (ed.) West Africa Languages in Education . Wein: Beitrage Zur Afrikanistik,1998.Print.

69

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

PART 1 – PERSONAL BACKGROUND

1. What is your sex? Male [ ] Female [ ]

2. What age bracket do you fall? Below 20[ ] 20-30 [ ]30 – 40 [ ] 40 – 50 [ ]

Above 50 [ ]

3. What is your status in Orokam? Full indigene [ ] Half indigene [ ] Visitor [ ]

4. What is your marital status? Single [ ] Married [ ] Divorced [ ] Separated [ ]

5. What is your highest level of education attainment? Below SSCE [ ] SSCE\GCE [

] OND\TCII\NCE [ ] HND\ BSC\B.A [ ] M.A\MSC and above [ ]

6. Place of birth ………………………………………………………………….

PART II: EXPERIENCE WITH YOUR MOTHER TONGUE

7. Are you an indigene of Orokam? Yes [ ] No[ ]

8. From whom did you get in contact with your mother tongue for the first time? Grand

parents [ ] father [ ] mother [ ] siblings [ ] Teacher [ ]

9. Can you speak Orokam dialect? Yes [ ] No [ ] partially[ ]

10. Do you think the Orokam dialect is widely spoken by the indigenes? Yes [ ] No [ ]

11. Can you read and write in Orokam dialect? Yes [ ] No [ ] 70

12. What is the medium of communication with your parents? English [ ] Orokam [ ]

Otukpo [ ] Pidgin [ ]

13. If you do not speak your dialect (Orokam) now, would you like to learn it? Yes,

definitely [ ] yes, probably [ ] no, definitely [ ] no, probably [ ] I don’t

know [ ].

PART III: YOUR MOTHER TONGUE (MT)

This section seeks your opinion about your dialect and ethnic heritage. Use the scale below in answering the question in this section (a) Strongly Agreed (SD) (b) Agree (A) (c)

Neutral (N) (d) Strongly Disagree (SD) (e) Disagree (D)

14. My language is worth learning [ ]

15. As a person, you should work hard to save your language at all cost [ ]

16. It is important that my children know their ethnic heritage. [ ]

17. Knowing how to use my language is of no use in this modern world. [ ]

18. My language is difficult to learn [ ]

19. Since almost all members of my ethnic group speak English or Otukpo dialect, it is a

waste to keep my dialect alive. [ ]

20. Preservation of my dialect is an unrealistic idea [ ]

PART IV- MOTHER TONGUE IN EDUCATION

This section seeks your opinion about the use of your mother tongue in education 71

21. What is the language used for communication in the following places in your

community?

English Pidgin Orokam Otukpo

Home [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Church [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

School [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Market [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

22. What language would you prefer to be used in teaching the child in primary school in

your community? His or her mother tongue [ ]any of the three major Nigerian

languages [ ] English [ ]

23. How do you feel when non-indigene uses your dialect? Happy [ ] sad [ ] very

shy [ ] indifferent[ ]

24. Is the dialect used for teaching in schools in the area where it is spoken? Yes [ ]

No [ ]

25. Are there text books in your mother tongue to facilitate the learning of the language? Yes

[ ] No [ ]

26. English should be used in all other subjects except the language or dialect

Yes [ ] No [ ] 72

27. I will look inferior if I use Orokam dialect in a social environment. Yes [ ] No [

] probably [ ].

28. Is the dialect used by the media? Yes [ ] No [ ]

29. Would you prefer radio or TV programmes in Orokam dialect? Yes [ ] No [ ]

30. What type of programme would you prefer? Religious [ ] cultural based [ ]

Entertainment [ ] News [ ]

31. Would there be any benefits teaching your children or wards your dialect?

Yes [ ] No [ ] I don’t know [ ]

32. Do you think there will be consequences in future for the children not knowing their

dialect? Sometimes [ ] often [ ] always [ ]