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Tolstoy and the Making of the Inhuman Knut Stene-Johansen

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Tolstoy and the Making of the Inhuman Knut Stene-Johansen Tolstoy and the Making of the Inhuman Knut Stene-Johansen Abstract Texts about illness and death may show how something unreasonable in a given literary text may be its own, profound reason. The illness’ staging of a slow and escalating withdrawing of oneself, or, on the contrary, a fast and sudden end of life, teach us something about the fact that an ending can manifest itself long before the final, full point is set. This oscillation between life and death, where the unreasonable, accidental and causal unclear in the symptom’s appearance become the only reason for the text, is well illustrated in Leo Tolstoj’s short story ‘The Death of Ivan Iljitsj’. When the actual illness is impossible to define, as more than just an illness, a specific problem arises concerning the very role of illness in human existence. Ivan Iljitsj is an example. The short story’s subject is the ‘material’, inauthentic life of the bourgois. But it also deals with illness as a starting point for a change in the way of living, a change that breaks with the idea of death as only the death of ‘Man’ in a Heideggerian sense. Key Words: Death; diagnosis; sickness in literature; Tolstoy ***** A free man thinks of nothing less than of death, and his wisdom is not a meditation upon death but upon life. Spinoza, Ethics, IV, proposition 67 Sickness in literature teaches us how sickness in life is also an interpretation of the world. When the sickness thematized in literature cannot be defined or clearly diagnosed, it provokes the question of the role of disease in human life. Leo Tolstoy’s masterful short novel The Death of Ivan Ilyich offers an example of this. In a certain sense Tolstoy’s goal seems to be to show how the inhumane is created, with sickness as the leading metaphor. Texts about sickness and death can also show how something unfounded in the text can be its foundation. Sickness’s staging of a slow, gradual withdrawal from life, or on the contrary a quick and unexpected end to it, teaches us something of how an ending can manifest itself before a time is set for it. This exchange between life and death, where the baseless, random and causally uncertain in a set of symptoms become the text’s only foundation, Knut Stene-Johansen - 9789042029446 Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 07:24:17PM via free access 126 Tolstoy and the Making of the Inhuman ______________________________________________________________ becomes evident in The Death of Ivan Ilyich, one of Russian literature’s most famous novellas. The story open with Ivan Ilyich’s death and burial – more precisely with a report of Judge Ivan Ilyich’s death – followed by a lengthy analepse leading up to that death. The news of Ivan Ilyich’s death is received by his ‘friends’, including Piotr Ivanovich, who feels compelled to go to the memorial service. The widow is hypocritical, going around at the burial in a disturbed mix of authentic and inauthentic grief. Ivan Ilyich’s story is ‘the simplest, most ordinary and therefore most terrible’, as it was. Ivan is described as a hypocritical striver, who certainly is fully taken up with his work. At the same time, he is also a Job, chosen for what seems to be a painful testing. And as Daniel Rancour-Laferriere and Gary R. Jahn among others has remarked, Ivan is also a Christ-like figure, suffering for sins other than his own. Initially and like another adventure figure, Ivan Ilyich goes to Petersburg to find a new job and by chance he gets one through a light form of corruption, employed by one of his ‘friends’. Filled with enthusiasm he telegraphs his wife, he was ‘completely happy’. The couple live and maintain their home as well-off people, but they lead a superficial life. Tolstoy is persuasive on this point: ‘In reality it was just what is commonly seen in the houses of people who are not exactly wealthy but who want to look like wealthy people […].’ The life of Ivan Ilyich is filled with pettiness, climbing the ranks, bad moods and irritability. His job is described much like the medical profession. The descriptions of Ivan Ilyich’s life are thoroughly ironic. The furnishing of the new house in Petersburg, for example, is a showcase of unreality, which indeed might have a parallel in our contemporary design hysteria, with design that easily passes into self-parody. Ivan Ilyich manages to be so unlucky as to fall from a ladder. The fall, in which Ivan is struck in the side, constitutes an especially important episode in the story. The intermezzo is described with much understatment: ‘The bruise was painful but it soon passed off’. As a matter of fact, it changes his life. Or at least, it may be interpreted that way, namely as a first sign of a coming catastrophe. The fall has been read as a biblical reference,1 but it also has a comical element to it. Shortly after being thus upended while hanging some curtains, he must defend himself, and he tries to laugh at the episode: At tea that evening when Praskovya Fiodorovna among other things asked about his fall he laughed and showed them how he had gone flying and how he had frightened the upholsterer. ‘It’s a good thing I’m a bit of an athlete. Another man might have killed himself, whereas I got Knut Stene-Johansen - 9789042029446 Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 07:24:17PM via free access Knut Stene-Johansen 127 ______________________________________________________________ nothing worse than a knock here. It hurts if you touch it, but it’s wearing off already – it’s merely a bruise’. He laughs about his fall, but what kind of laughter is it? Is it the philosopher’s reflection and self-ironic chuckling? Evidently not. Ivan Ilyich’s fall has probably nothing to do with illness as such, unless it has caused internal injuries, to the spleen, for example. But the blow does not seem at all so great that it could have caused such injuries. If that is the case, the fall becomes mainly symbolic, or readable as a symbol. As a parallel to the illness it will be able to lead to a recognition of thingliness, of being a thing subjected to the force of gravity. To perceive one’s superficial existence is not the same as being cured of a lack of authenticity. ‘To know inauthenticity is not the same as to be authentic,’ wrote Paul de Man in ‘The Rhetoric of Temporality’. The fall takes place in the fourth chapter, with a crackling good opening: ‘The whole family was in good health. Ivan Ilyich sometimes complained of a queer taste in his mouth and a sort of unconfortable feeling on the left side of the stomach, but one could hardly call that illness’. He consults a number of doctors and is quite irritable. His illness intensifies, and the intervals between become shorter and shorter. We witness a dynamic between marginalization of and focusing on the illness, with detailed descriptions of the pain. Ivan Ilyich says that he cannot identify with the general run of humanity, and he undergoes a quick negative evolution, concurrent with a further time compression: ‘How it happened it is impossible to say because it came about step by step, imperceptibly.’ Has the illness begun to live its own inside the narrative? Has it begun to problematize its own Hippocratic course, which goes so well with the narrative’s beginning, middle and end? Or is it death that signals its arrival? Ivan Ilyich gets opium in any case, which progressively regresses him to childhood. In a scene at that point in the novella, the strange person Gerassim holds Ivan Ilyich’s leg on his shoulder. While in this most odd posture, Gerassim says: ‘We shall all of us die, so what’s a little trouble?’. In the end, in the tenth chapter, Ivan is totally isolated, yet in the center of his nearly Proustian redemption in memory. And so comes a change: for the worse, with bitter realizations. The doctor says that the moral pains are worse than the physical. The problem is that Ivan Ilyich realizes that he has not aimed high enough: ‘Yet if only I could understand what it is all for. Even that’s impossible. It might be explained if it could be said that I have not lived as I ought to have lived. But that could not possibly be said.’ Then he dies, with a three-day-long shriek. The twelfth chapter is the story’s shortest, with maximum intensity. Ivan Ilyich is ‘redeemed’ as death disappears and is replaced by light. He says: ‘‘Death is over,’ he said to himself. ‘It is no Knut Stene-Johansen - 9789042029446 Downloaded from Brill.com10/02/2021 07:24:17PM via free access 128 Tolstoy and the Making of the Inhuman ______________________________________________________________ more’.’ Thus ends the novella. But Ivan Ilyich has indeed been dead from the first chapter onward. Tolstoy has played with the form, thus also with time, which gives the theme and key word ‘death’ an extra meaning: Death is always already there. In a French edition, this text is included with two other novellas dealing with the theme of death in the most concrete sense, ‘Three deaths’ (1858) and ‘Masters and servants’ (1894). All three describe death through meetings with dead people – corpses, cold bodies – set before the living’s gaze. The theme is quite well-known in Tolstoy, and explained by himself in the autobiographical Childhood (1852), Boyhood (1854) and Youth (1857), in the Diaries and in A confession from 1880.
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