DOCSLIB.ORG

Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Updated April 15, 2019 Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R40864 Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Summary The President and Vice President’s terms of office are prescribed by the Constitution and four of its amendments. Article II, Section 1, of the Constitution, which came into effect with the convening of the First Congress and inauguration of the first President and Vice President in 1789, sets the terms of these two officers at four years, and does not prohibit their reelection. Four amendments to the Constitution, ratified between 1804 and 1967, have added further conditions to presidential terms and tenure. The Twelfth Amendment, ratified in 1804, extended the qualifications for Presidents to the vice presidency. Section 1 of the Twentieth Amendment, ratified in 1933, sets the expiration date for these terms at noon on January 20 of each year following a presidential election. The Twenty-Second Amendment, ratified in 1951, limits presidential tenure: no person may be elected President more than twice. It also specifies that Vice Presidents who succeed to the office may be elected to two full terms if they served less than two years of the term of the President they succeeded. If they served more than two years of the predecessor’s term, they are eligible for election to only one additional term. The Twenty-Fifth Amendment, ratified in 1967, does not directly affect terms and tenure of the President and Vice President, but provides in Section 1 that the Vice President “shall become President” on the death, resignation, or removal from office of the President. This section clarifies original constitutional language on the status of a Vice President who succeeds to the presidency. Section 2 authorizes the President to make nominations to fill vacancies in the office of Vice President, subject to approval by a majority vote of both houses of Congress, a contingency not covered in the original language of the Constitution. The length of the President’s term and the question of whether Presidents should be eligible for reelection were extensively debated in 1787 at the Constitutional Convention. Late in the proceedings, the delegates settled on a four-year term for both President and Vice President but did not place a limit on the number of terms a President could serve. Following a precedent set by President George Washington (1789-1797), and reinforced by Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809), however, U.S. Presidents adhered to a self-imposed limit of two terms, a precedent that was observed for over 140 years. Although several Presidents during this period who had served two terms considered running for a third, Franklin Roosevelt (1933-1945) was the first to seek and be elected to both a third term, in 1940, and a fourth, in 1944. Following ratification of the four amendments cited above, additional amendment proposals to change the conditions of presidential terms and tenure were regularly introduced during the second half of the 20th century, but much less frequently to date in the 21st. Two categories of amendment predominated during this period: one variant proposed repeal of the Twenty-Second Amendment, thus permitting Presidents to be elected an unlimited number of times. Another category of proposed amendment would have extended the presidential and vice-presidential terms to six years, often in combination with a requirement limiting Presidents to one term. No measure to repeal the Twenty-Second Amendment or otherwise change the presidential term of office has been introduced to date in the 116th Congress. This report will be updated if events warrant. Congressional Research Service Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Contents Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 Presidential Term of Office: Current Provisions and Options for Change ...................................... 1 Current Provisions in Brief ....................................................................................................... 2 Contemporary Options for Change ........................................................................................... 2 A Single Six-Year Term for the President and Vice President .................................................. 2 For and Against ................................................................................................................... 3 History of Congressional Activity ...................................................................................... 4 Repeal of the Twenty-Second Amendment ............................................................................... 5 For and Against ................................................................................................................... 7 History of Congressional Activity ...................................................................................... 8 Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives................................................................................... 8 The Philadelphia Convention: Debate and Decisions on Terms and Tenure............................. 9 Vice Presidential Vacancies: A Constitutional Oversight? ................................................. 11 Historical Patterns in Presidential Tenure ............................................................................... 12 Presidential Tenure, 1789-1825: The Era of the Founders ................................................ 12 Presidential Tenure, 1825-1901: Decline of the Two-Term Presidency ............................ 14 Tenure in the Early 20th Century ....................................................................................... 16 Breaking With Tradition: A Third and Fourth Term for President Franklin D. Roosevelt .................................................................................................... 18 The Twenty-Second Amendment and After: Presidential Tenure Since President Franklin Roosevelt ............................................................................................................... 19 Constitutional Amendments Affecting Presidential and Vice Presidential Tenure.................. 20 The Twentieth Amendment: Beginning Presidential Terms on January 20 ...................... 20 The Twenty-Second Amendment: “Term Limits” for the President ................................. 22 The Twenty-Fifth Amendment: Filling Vice Presidential Vacancies ................................ 26 Concluding Observations .............................................................................................................. 31 Contacts Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 31 Congressional Research Service Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Introduction The issue of the President and Vice President’s term of office is generally regarded as an accepted constitutional norm that arouses little controversy in the 21st century. Both the four-year term and the venerable two-term tradition, initiated by George Washington and ultimately incorporated in the Constitution in 1951 by the Twenty-Second Amendment, appear to be fixed elements in the nation’s political landscape. In marked comparison, the issues of tenure and reelection of the President, and of the Vice President (an office added almost as an afterthought during the Constitutional Convention of 1787), were the subject of intense and prolonged debate during the Philadelphia gathering. Delegates argued for three months over the length of the presidential term and whether the chief executive should be eligible for reelection before reaching a compromise package of provisions—a four-year term, and eligibility for reelection—several days before the convention adjourned. Since that time, a wide range of changes to these conditions has been proposed as constitutional amendments, but relatively few conditions have been added to the original provisions governing the President’s term of office. In addition to the Twenty-Second Amendment cited above, the Twelfth, ratified in 1804, set the same qualifications for the Vice President; the Twentieth, ratified in 1933, set January 20 of every year following a presidential election as the date on which the chief executive’s term begins; and the Twenty-Fifth Amendment clarified the question of vice- presidential succession to the presidency and authorized the President to nominate persons to fill vacancies in the vice presidency, subject to approval by vote of both houses of Congress. Proposals for a single term were popular in the 19th century, and for several decades before the Civil War, the concept of a voluntary limit of one presidential term in office drew wide support. Beginning in 1808, constitutional amendments were introduced that would have changed the presidential term to five, six, seven, and even eight years. By the 20th century, the single six-year term for Presidents had become a preferred option for such amendments, with multiple amendment proposals introduced in successive Congresses as late as the 1990s, while amendments to repeal the Twenty-Second Amendment to allow unlimited reelection were regularly introduced as recently as the 113th Congress. In the past two decades, however,
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change
    Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Thomas H. Neale Specialist in American National Government October 19, 2009 Congressional Research Service 7-5700 www.crs.gov R40864 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress Presidential Terms and Tenure: Perspectives and Proposals for Change Summary The terms of the President and Vice President are set at four years by Article II, Section 1 of the Constitution. The 20th Amendment, ratified in 1933, sets the expiration date of these terms at noon on January 20 of each year following a presidential election. From 1789 to 1940, chief executives adhered to a self-imposed limit of two terms, although only 7 of the 31 Presidents from 1789 through 1933 actually served two consecutive terms in office. The precedent was exceeded only once, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was elected to four terms, and served from 1933 through 1945. The 22nd Amendment, proposed and ratified following the Franklin Roosevelt presidency, provides that “No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice.” It also specifies that Vice Presidents who succeed to the presidency may be elected to two full terms as President if they have served less than two years of their predecessor’s term, for a theoretical total of 10 years’ service as President. If, however, they have served more than two years of their predecessor’s term, they can be elected to only one additional term, for a total of between four and eight years of service, depending on when the Vice President succeeded to the presidency.
    [Show full text]
  • 04-17-1961 Bay of Pigs.Indd
    This Day in History… April 17, 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion On April 17, 1961, a group of Cuban exiles launched an operation in Cuba known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion. It was an important event in the Cold War, and led to major changes between the US, Cuba, and the Soviet Union. The US and Cuba have long had a close relationship. Following the Spanish-American War, the US established a military government there from 1898 to 1902. Cuba’s 1901 constitution included a provision called the Platt Amendment, which allowed the US to intervene in Cuban affairs and buy or lease naval bases there. After the Republic of Cuba was formed, American forces were called back in from 1906 to 1909 to quell a rebellion and again in 1917 to protect American-owned sugarcane plantations. In 1933, army sergeant Fulgencio Batista overthrew the government and pursued friendly relations with the US. In 1934, the US and Cuba signed a treaty ending the provisions of the Platt Amendment, except the permanent lease of Guantánamo Bay for use as a naval base. Batista ruled Cuba through figurehead presidents from 1936-1940. In 1940, Overprinted US Batista was elected president – but with a one-term limit. He moved to Florida stamp issued during after his term ended, but returned to Cuba in 1952 to run for president again. When American occupation it became clear he was going to lose, he overthrew the government again and of Cuba. established himself as dictator with the support of the US. Batista allied himself the American owners of the largest sugarcane plantations, revoking the right of Cubans to strike, and many other political liberties.
    [Show full text]
  • Nber Working Paper Series De Facto and De Jure Property Rights
    NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES DE FACTO AND DE JURE PROPERTY RIGHTS: LAND SETTLEMENT AND LAND CONFLICT ON THE AUSTRALIAN, BRAZILIAN AND U.S. FRONTIERS Lee J. Alston Edwyna Harris Bernardo Mueller Working Paper 15264 http://www.nber.org/papers/w15264 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 September 2009 For comments we thank Eric Alston, Lee Cronk, Ernesto Dal Bó, John Ferejohn, Stephen Haber, P.J. Hill, Gary Libecap, Henry Smith, Ian Wills and participants at: a seminar on social norms at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton; a conference on “Australian Economic History in the Long Run;” the Research Group on Political Institutions and Economic Policy held at Princeton University; and a seminar at Monash University. Alston and Mueller acknowledge the support of NSF grant #528146. Alston thanks the STEP Program at the Woodrow Wilson School at Princeton for their support as a Visiting Research Scholar during 2008/2009 and The Australian National University for support as Research Fellow in 2009. We thank Eric Alston for research assistance. The views expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer- reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications. © 2009 by Lee J. Alston, Edwyna Harris, and Bernardo Mueller. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source.
    [Show full text]
  • Adopted Children and Children Coming to the UK for Adoption
    Adopted children and children coming to the UK for adoption Version 2.0 Page 1 of 38 Published for Home Office staff on 1 December 2020 Contents Contents ..................................................................................................................... 2 About this guidance .................................................................................................... 4 Contacts ................................................................................................................. 4 Publication .............................................................................................................. 4 Changes from last version of this guidance ............................................................ 4 Purpose ...................................................................................................................... 5 Use of this guidance ............................................................................................... 5 Other information about this guidance .................................................................... 5 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 6 Application types..................................................................................................... 6 The best interests of the child ................................................................................. 6 Background ...........................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • January 18, 1973 Issue 161
    University of Missouri-St. Louis January 18, 1973 Issue 161- Search begins for dean of students A search committee and adver­ sociate professor of music and The ad describes the position tisement in a national higher chairman of the Fine Arts De­ and states that the university is education journal wi II be attract­ partment; Dr. Jerry Pulley, as­ an equal opportunity employer. ing potential candidates for the si stant professor of Education; position of UMSL's dean of stu­ Chuck Call ier, student; Ellen Co­ "Since I a s t spring, many dents. hen, student. schools of higher education have The position was vacated prior Chancellor Walters hopes that been publicly advertising vacant to winter vacation by David R. the committee can present the administration and faculty posi­ Ganz, who served as dean of recommended candidates to him tion s, - explained Chancellor students since 1969. In resign­ by the end of a three month per­ Walters. ing, he did announce that he iod. around May I. ·UMSL is 'acting in accordance would be remaining as an in­ with present practices in higher structor of accounting in the An advertisement was also education, and is making its po­ Evening College. placed in the Chronicle of Higher sitions more accessible to mem­ J. Todd Dudley, assistant dean Education, a national magazine. ber~ of minority groups. ~ of students, has moved into the position of acting dean until the official administrator has been determi.ned. Ugandian aids delegation Photo by Steve Kator (See related feature page 5) The search committee, ap­ Ugandian foreign excbange stu- .
    [Show full text]
  • Legislative Process Lpbooklet 2016 15Th Edition.Qxp Booklet00-01 12Th Edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 1
    LPBkltCvr_2016_15th edition-1.qxp_BkltCvr00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 2:49 PM Page 1 South Carolina’s Legislative Process LPBooklet_2016_15th edition.qxp_Booklet00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 1 THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS LPBooklet_2016_15th edition.qxp_Booklet00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 2 October 2016 15th Edition LPBooklet_2016_15th edition.qxp_Booklet00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 3 THE LEGISLATIVE PROCESS The contents of this pamphlet consist of South Carolina’s Legislative Process , pub - lished by Charles F. Reid, Clerk of the South Carolina House of Representatives. The material is reproduced with permission. LPBooklet_2016_15th edition.qxp_Booklet00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 4 LPBooklet_2016_15th edition.qxp_Booklet00-01 12th edition 11/18/16 3:00 PM Page 5 South Carolina’s Legislative Process HISTORY o understand the legislative process, it is nec - Tessary to know a few facts about the lawmak - ing body. The South Carolina Legislature consists of two bodies—the Senate and the House of Rep - resentatives. There are 170 members—46 Sena - tors and 124 Representatives representing dis tricts based on population. When these two bodies are referred to collectively, the Senate and House are together called the General Assembly. To be eligible to be a Representative, a person must be at least 21 years old, and Senators must be at least 25 years old. Members of the House serve for two years; Senators serve for four years. The terms of office begin on the Monday following the General Election which is held in even num - bered years on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
    [Show full text]
  • Mauritius's Constitution of 1968 with Amendments Through 2016
    PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:39 constituteproject.org Mauritius's Constitution of 1968 with Amendments through 2016 This complete constitution has been generated from excerpts of texts from the repository of the Comparative Constitutions Project, and distributed on constituteproject.org. constituteproject.org PDF generated: 26 Aug 2021, 16:39 Table of contents CHAPTER I: THE STATE AND THE CONSTITUTION . 7 1. The State . 7 2. Constitution is supreme law . 7 CHAPTER II: PROTECTION OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS OF THE INDIVIDUAL . 7 3. Fundamental rights and freedoms of the individual . 7 4. Protection of right to life . 7 5. Protection of right to personal liberty . 8 6. Protection from slavery and forced labour . 10 7. Protection from inhuman treatment . 11 8. Protection from deprivation of property . 11 9. Protection for privacy of home and other property . 14 10. Provisions to secure protection of law . 15 11. Protection of freedom of conscience . 17 12. Protection of freedom of expression . 17 13. Protection of freedom of assembly and association . 18 14. Protection of freedom to establish schools . 18 15. Protection of freedom of movement . 19 16. Protection from discrimination . 20 17. Enforcement of protective provisions . 21 17A. Payment or retiring allowances to Members . 22 18. Derogations from fundamental rights and freedoms under emergency powers . 22 19. Interpretation and savings . 23 CHAPTER III: CITIZENSHIP . 25 20. Persons who became citizens on 12 March 1968 . 25 21. Persons entitled to be registered as citizens . 25 22. Persons born in Mauritius after 11 March 1968 . 26 23. Persons born outside Mauritius after 11 March 1968 .
    [Show full text]
  • Brazil: Background and U.S. Relations
    Brazil: Background and U.S. Relations Updated July 6, 2020 Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov R46236 SUMMARY R46236 Brazil: Background and U.S. Relations July 6, 2020 Occupying almost half of South America, Brazil is the fifth-largest and fifth-most-populous country in the world. Given its size and tremendous natural resources, Brazil has long had the Peter J. Meyer potential to become a world power and periodically has been the focal point of U.S. policy in Specialist in Latin Latin America. Brazil’s rise to prominence has been hindered, however, by uneven economic American Affairs performance and political instability. After a period of strong economic growth and increased international influence during the first decade of the 21st century, Brazil has struggled with a series of domestic crises in recent years. Since 2014, the country has experienced a deep recession, record-high homicide rate, and massive corruption scandal. Those combined crises contributed to the controversial impeachment and removal from office of President Dilma Rousseff (2011-2016). They also discredited much of Brazil’s political class, paving the way for right-wing populist Jair Bolsonaro to win the presidency in October 2018. Since taking office in January 2019, President Jair Bolsonaro has begun to implement economic and regulatory reforms favored by international investors and Brazilian businesses and has proposed hard-line security policies intended to reduce crime and violence. Rather than building a broad-based coalition to advance his agenda, however, Bolsonaro has sought to keep the electorate polarized and his political base mobilized by taking socially conservative stands on cultural issues and verbally attacking perceived enemies, such as the press, nongovernmental organizations, and other branches of government.
    [Show full text]
  • The Role of Parliaments in the Semi-Presidential Systems: the Case of the Federal Assembly of Russia a Thesis Submitted to Th
    THE ROLE OF PARLIAMENTS IN THE SEMI-PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS: THE CASE OF THE FEDERAL ASSEMBLY OF RUSSIA A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY RABĠA ARABACI KARĠMAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF EURASIAN STUDIES OCTOBER 2019 DEDICATIONTASLAK I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Rabia Arabacı Kariman Signature : iii ABSTRACT THE ROLE OF PARLIAMENTS IN THE SEMI-PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEMS: THE CASE OF THE FEDERAL ASSEMBLY OF RUSSIA Arabacı Kariman, Rabia M.Sc., Department of Eurasian Studies Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. IĢık KuĢçu Bonnenfant October 2019, 196 pages The purpose of this thesis is to scrutinize the role and status of the Federal Assembly of Russia within the context of theTASLAK semi-presidential system in the Russian Federation. Parliaments as a body incorporating the representative and legislative functions of the state are of critical importance to the development and stability of democracy in a working constitutional system. Since the legislative power cannot be thought separate from the political system in which it works, semi-presidentialism practices of Russia with its opportunities and deadlocks will be vital to understand the role of parliamentary power in Russia. The analysis of the the relationship among the constitutional bodies as stipulated by the first post-Soviet Constitution in 1993 will contribute to our understanding of the development of democracy in the Russian Federation.
    [Show full text]
  • Modern First Ladies: Their Documentary Legacy. INSTITUTION National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 412 562 CS 216 046 AUTHOR Smith, Nancy Kegan, Comp.; Ryan, Mary C., Comp. TITLE Modern First Ladies: Their Documentary Legacy. INSTITUTION National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC. ISBN ISBN-0-911333-73-8 PUB DATE 1989-00-00 NOTE 189p.; Foreword by Don W. Wilson (Archivist of the United States). Introduction and Afterword by Lewis L. Gould. Published for the National Archives Trust Fund Board. PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020) -- Historical Materials (060) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Archives; *Authors; *Females; Modern History; Presidents of the United States; Primary Sources; Resource Materials; Social History; *United States History IDENTIFIERS *First Ladies (United States); *Personal Writing; Public Records; Social Power; Twentieth Century; Womens History ABSTRACT This collection of essays about the Presidential wives of the 20th century through Nancy Reagan. An exploration of the records of first ladies will elicit diverse insights about the historical impact of these women in their times. Interpretive theories that explain modern first ladies are still tentative and exploratory. The contention in the essays, however, is that whatever direction historical writing on presidential wives may follow, there is little question that the future role of first ladies is more likely to expand than to recede to the days of relatively silent and passive helpmates. Following a foreword and an introduction, essays in the collection and their authors are, as follows: "Meeting a New Century: The Papers of Four Twentieth-Century First Ladies" (Mary M. Wolf skill); "Not One to Stay at Home: The Papers of Lou Henry Hoover" (Dale C.
    [Show full text]
  • Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University In
    371 /V8 A/O 'oo THE "VIVA KENNEDY" CLUBS IN SOUTH TEXAS THESIS Presented to the Graduate Council of the North Texas State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS By Joan Traffas, B.A. Denton, Texas December, 1972 Traffas, Joan, The "Viva Kennedy" Clubs in South Texas. Master of Arts (History), December, 1972, 132 pp., 2 tables, bibliography, 115 titles. This thesis analyzes the impact of the Mexican-American voters in south Texas on the 1960 presidential election. During that election year, this ethnic minority was strong enough to merit direct appeals from the Democratic presiden- tial candidate, and subsequently, allowed to conduct a unique campaign divorced from the direct control of the conservative state Democratic machinery. Formerly, the Democratic politicos in south Texas manipulated the Mexican-American vote. In 1960, however, the Chicanos voted for a man with whom they could empathize, rather than for a party label. This strong identification with the Democratic candidate was rooted in psychological rather than ideological, social rather than political, factors. John F. Kennedy seemed to personify machismo and simpatla. Perhaps even more impres- sive than the enthusiasm, the Kennedy candidacy generated among the Mexican-Americans was the ability of the Texas Democratic regulars to prevent a liberal-conservative rup- ture within the state party. This was accomplished by per- mitting the Mexican-American "Viva Kennedy" clubs quasi- independence. Because of these two conditions, the Mexican- American ethnic minority became politically salient in the 1960 campaign. 1 2 The study of the Mexican-American political behavior in 1960 proceeds in three stages.
    [Show full text]
  • (Tonwttnit Hatty (Eamjma I Serving Storrs Since 1896
    (tonwttnit Hatty (Eamjma i Serving Storrs Since 1896 . • VOL. LXVIII NO. 99 STORRS, CONNECTICUT Monday, April 19, 1971 sen. muskie: 'here to challenge policies9 By CATHY CONNOR The motor of a light plane droned over some 18,000 people gathered on the steps of the Rhode Island State House In Pro- vidence, Sunday, trailing a banner reading "YAF says 'Why Support Hanoi?' ■ Below, cars became littered wits green paper* that said, "Your wind- shield has been washed courtesy of the R.I. Federation of College Republicans. Now that you can see more clearly, we hope that you will join President Nixon In working for a full generation of peace." The bi-partisan "Dump Nixon" rally sponsored by Citizens for Alternatives Now, drew speakers and entertainers from all over the country including three prospective presidential candidates. Sen. Edmund S. Muskle, D-Malne, told blanketed, shivering crowds, "We are here to challenge policies, not person- alities — to seek solutions, not scape- goats." Rep. Paul N. McClosky, R-Cal., has pledged "to fight President Nixon in the primaries if Nixon doesn't move to end the war," and Sen. Birch Bayh, D-Ind. told the crown the nation 'can- not afford four more years of the bank- rupt policies of Richard Nixon." Muskle drew the loudest reaction from the crowd when he said that If America wants its problems solved, "then It must vote this administration out of office in 1972." He told the rain- soaked crowd that the single purpose of the rally was "to demonstrate our faith that the people's will can still determine our country's course." "We are here to restore moral leadership to our country," he said.
    [Show full text]