BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group

HISTORY OF POST INDEPENDENCE

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First Edition: 2017 Second Edition: 2018 Third Edition: 2019

© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher. Contents History of Post Independence India

Chapter - 1 Amul...... 27 National Dairy Development Board...... 28 Nehruvian Era...... 1 Operation Flood...... 28 1.1 Integration of India...... 1 Critical Analysis...... 29 Classification of Indian States...... 1 2.5 Green Revolution...... 29 Integration of Princely States...... 2 Threat from the USA...... 30 Partition and its Aftermath...... 7 Towards Self-Reliance...... 30 Linguistic Reorganization of States...... 8 Critical Analysis...... 30 Integration of Tribals in India...... 11 Conclusion...... 31 Issue of Official Language...... 12 2.6 Food Corporation of India...... 31 Hindu Code Bill...... 14 Achievements...... 31 Criticism...... 15 Challenges...... 31 1.2 Political Developments...... 15 Prospects...... 31 Parliamentary Democracy...... 15 2.7 Years: Critical Analysis...... 31 One Party Dominated System...... 15 Achievements...... 31 Decline of ...... 15 Criticism...... 32 1.3 Foreign Policy...... 18 Conclusion...... 32 Bandung Conference (1955)...... 18 Non-Alignment Movement...... 19 Chapter - 3 The Panchsheel Agreement...... 20 Indira Gandhi Era...... 33 1.4 India-China Relations...... 21 3.1 Introduction...... 33 Tibetan Crisis...... 21 Challenges for Indira Gandhi...... 33 1962 War...... 22 3.2 Political Developments...... 34 1.5 Analysis of Nehruvian Era...... 23 Split in Congress...... 34 Achievements...... 23 Single Party to Multi-party System...... 34 Shortcomings...... 23 Era of Coalition Governments...... 35 Conclusion...... 23 Politics of Defections...... 35 Chapter - 2 J P Narayan and Total Revolution...... 36 Janata Government: Coalition at Centre...... 36 Lal Bahadur Shastri Era...... 24 Analysis of Coalition Politics...... 36 2.1 Introduction...... 24 3.3 Economic Developments...... 37 Challenges...... 24 PL-480 Program...... 37 Response...... 24 Nationalization: Banks and General Insurance...... 37 2.2 Political Developments...... 24 Public Distribution System (PDS)...... 38 Kamaraj Plan...... 24 Abolition of Privy Purse...... 38 Rise of Regional Politics...... 25 Garibi Hatao...... 39 2.3 Agreement...... 25 3.4 Other Major Developments...... 39 Indo-Pak War (1965)...... 25 The Naxalites...... 39 Tashkent Declaration...... 26 3.5 Bangladeshi Refugee Crisis...... 41 2.4 White Revolution...... 26 3.6 Indo-Pak War, 1971...... 41 Background...... 27 Strategy of War...... 42

(iii) ,1972...... 42 5.13 Operation Blackboard...... 60 Indo Soviet Treaty of Peace...... 43 5.14 Bofors Scam...... 60 3.7 JP Movement...... 43 5.15 Indian Peace Keeping Force...... 61 3.8 National Emergency...... 44 5.16 Rajiv Gandhi’s Assassination...... 62 Events that led to Emergency...... 44 5.17 Rajiv Gandhi Era: A Critical Appraisal...... 62 Course of Emergency...... 45 Tussle with Judiciary...... 45 Chapter - 6 Forced Sterilization...... 45 National Front Government...... 63 Jail Bharo Andolan...... 45 Raj Narain Case...... 46 6.1 Pre 1989 Coalition: Third Front...... 63 Election of 1989...... 63 3.9 Analysis of Emergency...... 46 Beginning of Coalition Government...... 63 Chapter - 4 6.2 Events during the National Front Government...... 63 Janta Government...... 47 6.3 Mandal Commission...... 64 Recommendation...... 64 4.1 Introduction...... 47 Aftermath...... 64 4.2 Rise of Regional Parties and Coalition Consequences...... 64 Governments...... 47 Analysis...... 64 44th Constitutional Amendment...... 48 Shah Commission Report...... 48 Chapter - 7 Food for Work Programme...... 49 Narsimha Rao Government...... 66 4.3 Analysis of Janata Government...... 49 Achievements...... 49 7.1 Introduction...... 66 Failures...... 50 7.2 Economic Crisis and Reforms...... 66 4.4 Returns of Indira Gandhi Government...... 50 Crisis...... 66 Preconditions...... 66 4.5 Unrest in Punjab...... 51 New Economic Policy (NEP)...... 66 4.6 Operation Bluestar...... 51 Analysis...... 66 4.7 Indira Gandhi's Assassination...... 52 7.3 Babri Masjid Demolition...... 67 4.8 Critical Appraisal of Indira Gandhi Era...... 52 Tension...... 67 Achievements...... 52 Events Leading to Demolition...... 67 Failures...... 53 Aftermath...... 67 Conclusion...... 53 Present Status of Title Suit...... 67 Chapter - 5 7.4 Bombay Bomb Blasts...... 67 7.5 Panchayati Raj...... 68 Rajiv Gandhi Era...... 54

5.1 Introduction...... 54 Chapter - 8 5.2 Punjab Crisis...... 54 Interregnum Years (1996-1998)...... 69 5.3 1984 Sikh Riots...... 54 8.1 Multi Party Era...... 69 5.4 Punjab Accord...... 55 8.2 New Aspirations...... 69 5.5 Aftermath of the Accord and end of terrorism in 8.3 Instability...... 69 Punjab...... 55 8.4 Gujral Doctrine...... 69 5.6 Assam Accord...... 56 Principles of Doctrine...... 69 5.7 Bhopal Gas Tragedy...... 56 Rationale...... 70 Causes of Tragedy...... 57 Application...... 70 5.8 India’s Computerization Program...... 57 Critical Analysis of Doctrine...... 70 5.9 Strengthening of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs).58 5.10 Jawahar Rozgar Yojana...... 59 Chapter - 9 5.11 Shah Bano Case...... 59 NDA Government...... 71

5.12 National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986...... 60 9.1 Introduction...... 71

(iv) 9.2 Pokhran...... 71 Background...... 83 Pokhran-II...... 71 Protest...... 83 9.3 (1999)...... 72 Demands...... 83 Background...... 72 Government response...... 83 Course of War...... 72 Significance...... 84 Combat in Tandem...... 73 11.4 Silent Valley Project...... 84 Significance of War...... 73 Background...... 84 Conclusion...... 73 Protest...... 84 9.4 Communalism...... 73 Government response...... 84 Communal Violence in India...... 74 Significance...... 84 Riots (2002)...... 74 11.5 Jungle Bachao Andolan...... 84 ...... 74 Background...... 85 Patiya Massacre...... 74 11.6 Appiko Movement...... 85 Commission of Inquiry...... 74 Background...... 85 Supreme Court Monitored Inquiry...... 74 Protest...... 85 Objectives...... 85 Chapter - 10 Significance...... 85 Dalit Movements...... 75 11.7 Narmada Bachao Andolan...... 85 Background...... 86 10.1 Introduction...... 75 Sardar Sarovar Project...... 86 10.2 Caste System...... 75 Protests...... 86 10.3 Untouchables and Untouchability...... 75 Government response...... 86 10.4 Pre-Independence...... 75 Significance...... 86 Adi Hindu Movement...... 75 11.8 Environment and Women...... 86 Gandhi and Dalit Movement...... 76 11.9 Critical analysis of environmental movements...... 88 Ambedkar and Dalit Movement...... 76 10.5 Post-Independence Developments...... 76 Chapter - 12 Constitutional Provisions...... 76 Land Reforms...... 89 Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 (Formerly 12.1 At Independence...... 89 known as Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955)...... 77 Punishments for Offences...... 77 12.2 Phases...... 89 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes First phase...... 89 (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989...... 78 Second phase...... 89 10.6 Ambedkar and Dalit Buddhist Movement...... 80 12.3 Kumarappa Committee...... 89 10.7 Dalit Panthers...... 80 12.4 Zamindari Abolition...... 89 Impact...... 90 10.8 Bahujan Samaj Party...... 80 Limitations...... 90 10.9 Dalit Capitalism...... 81 Critical Analysis...... 90 10.10 Other developments...... 81 12.5 Tenancy Reform...... 90 10.11 Impact and Analysis...... 81 Security of tenure...... 90 Chapter - 11 Regulation of rents...... 91 Rights of ownership...... 91 Environmental Movements...... 82 Constitutional safeguards...... 91 11.1 Introduction...... 82 12.6 Land Ceiling...... 91 11.2 Historical underpinnings...... 82 Limitations...... 91 Pre-History...... 82 12.7 Bhoodan Movement...... 91 Beginnings...... 82 12.8 Cooperatives and Community Development India in comparison to Western countries...... 82 Program...... 92 Reasons for the emergence of environmental Types of Cooperatives...... 92 movements in India...... 83 Limitations of Cooperativization...... 93 11.3 Chipko Movement...... 83 Positives of the Cooperatives...... 93 (v) 1 Nehruvian Era

1.1 Integration of India Union using both persuasion and pressure. But three states, that is Junagarh, Hyderabad and Jammu and India had achieved its Independence after a long struggle Kashmir posed problems for quite some time. and sacrifices of many freedom fighters. After the revolt Other than simplifying the political organization of India, of 1857, freedom fighters emerged from every nook the territorial integration of princely states brought and corners of the nation. Many times, freedom fighters uniformity, simplicity and viability in the units. Thus, when disagreed on means to be used to attain freedom, for the constituent assembly adopted the constitution, the instance some favoured Satyagraha, whereas others constitution contained the following four categories of preferred use of force (example-Indian National Army). states in the first schedule. But they all realized that for India to emerge out of her debilitating and pitiful situation, freedom must be attained. Part A States At the time of Independence, India was facing many Former provinces of British India, Ruled by an elected problems like communal violence, partition and Governor and state legislature. resettlement of displaced people, division of armed forces With a population of 19 million, 216 states were merged and bureaucracy as a result of partition, a weak economy, with the neighboring British Indian provinces and were depleted resources, need of stability at political front, etc. designated as Part A states. These included: (1) Assam One of the major issues was the integration of princely (2) Bihar (3) Bombay (4) Madhya Pradesh (5) Madras (6) states without which the dream of one country would have Orissa (7) Punjab (8) Utter Pradesh (9) West Bengal. remained unfulfilled. At the time of independence, India consisted majorly of British Indian territories, which were Part B States directly administered by the Britishers and the princely Former Princely States states, which were 565 in number. Before independence, With a population of about 35 million, 275 states were although princely states enjoyed considerable freedom in integrated to create new viable administrative units and the internal affairs, the British crown exercised paramount were designated as Part B states. These included: (1) power over the states. Hyderabad (2) Jammu and Kashmir (3) Madhya Bharat (4) Mysore (5) PEPSU (Patiala and East Punjab States Union) Classification of Indian States (6) Rajasthan (7) (8) Travancore-Cochin. After Independence, the paramountcy of the British crown lapsed on these princely states, and they were free to join Part C States either , or India, or to stay independent. Many of Former Chief Commissioners Provinces and some the larger princely states began to dream of independence Princely states. and to scheme for it. They claimed that the paramountcy 61 princely states, not covered under above categories could not be transferred to the new states of India and due to their special conditions, were constituted into Pakistan. Centrally Administered areas and were called Part C They got further encouragement from M.A. Jinnah who states. These included: (1) Ajmer (2) Bilaspur (3) Bhopal publicly declared on 18 June 1947 that "the states would (4) Coorg (5) Delhi (6) Himachal Pradesh (7) Kutch (8) be independent sovereign states on the termination of Manipur (9) Tripura and (10) Vindhya Pradesh. paramountcy, and were free to remain independent if they so desired." Part D States It was quite formidable task to integrate all these princely Administered by a Lieutenant Governor appointed by states with the newly independent Indian Union. However, Central Government. under the skillful leadership of Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel, The islands of Andaman and Nicobar were placed under a most of the princely states were integrated with the Indian separate category called the Part D state. 2 Nehruvian Era BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group

Integration of Princely States of something like 565 states, the vast majority were The relationship of the princely states with the British India irretrievably linked geographically with the Dominion had been the product of different treaties signed with the of India. Even after the Congress leadership agreed to British East India Company and the British Crown, which partition and to the establishment of Pakistan, the political gave the British Raj varying degrees of control over foreign, geography of the new Indian state remained unclear. inter-state relations and defence. This happened over the Before the Independence, the development of trade, course of a century. commerce and communication had bound the princely Rulers of the princely states had accepted the suzerainty states with the British India through complex agreements. of Britain in India. Also, these princely states were Without integration of the Princely states, after the represented in the Imperial Legislative Council and the Independence, agreements relating to railways, customs, Chamber of Princes. Thus, the princes maintained a irrigation, use of ports, etc would lapse and thus, would channel of influence with the British Raj. have created a chaotic situation. At the same time, the people of these princely states had also, participated in In the run-up to independence, the important question the freedom struggle and wished to integrate with India. that emerged was the nature and shape of the new state or states that would replace the British Raj. The demand Instrument of Accession for the partition to create Pakistan was the central issue, Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon proposed an official though it was not the only one. However, the ‘partition treaty known as ‘instrument of accession’ to the princely plan’ did not deal with the fate of the princely states, as it states. According to the basic tenets of the treaty, the confined itself only with the provinces. would control only foreign affairs, Though the rulers of princely states were technically free defence and communications, leaving all internal issues to to join either Dominion, there were certain geographical be administered by the states. considerations which could not be wished away. Out History of Post Independence India 3 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group 4 Nehruvian Era BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group prevalent in Punjab and Bengal at the time. Sensing that his best interest lay in joining India, he acceded on 11th August 1947. In return of signing the Instrument of Accession, the princes were given handsome ‘privy purses’, the amount was linked to the revenue earned by each state. The Privy Purse was the incentive given to the rulers of the princely states as part of their agreements to integrate with India. However, in the strenuous process of integration, three More concessions were given by guaranteeing that princes major conflicts arose that posed a major threat tothe who signed willingly would be retained as constitutional Union: , Jammu and Kashmir and Hyderabad. heads of their state, although, they would be 'encouraged' to hand their power over to an elected government. Once Junagadh the Instrument of Accession was signed, the state would Junagadh was situated in the Kathiawar region of western be represented in the Constituent Assembly of India; India. Though over 70% of its population was Hindu, thereby, becoming an active participant in framing of the Junagadh was ruled by a muslim nawab Muhammad new Constitution. Mahabat Khanji III. Also, it did not have a shared land boundary with Pakistan. The Arabian Sea stood between it Thus, by employing a potent mix of charm, bullying and and Pakistan. Advised by Jinnah, the Nawab delayed the cajoling, Mountbatten, Patel and Menon managed to get discussion of accession with India and on August 15, 1947 most of the States to accede. Princely states were engaged declared its wish of acceding to Pakistan. through social meetings and unofficial surroundings, lobbying them to forestall potential conflicts and to accede Considering the fact that administrative and economic unity to the Indian Union in good faith before the deadline. Patel of Kathiawar would be endangered due to Junagadh’s invoked the patriotism of India's monarchs, asking them to accession to Pakistan, Indian leaders raised concerns, but join in the freedom of their nation and act as responsible both Junagadh and Pakistan did not respond. It was also rulers who cared about the future of their people, along with believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, issuing an implied threat, that rulers might face popular it would exacerbate the communal tension already uprising of their citizens for accession to Indian Union if simmering in Gujarat. Thus, India imposed an embargo of they did not do so before 15th August 1947. essential supplies on the state, including coal, petroleum and sugar. States Due to these efforts, from June to August 15th, 1947, 562 of the 565 India-linked states signed the instrument of accession. Before Independence, Travancore was ruled by C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, who wished Travancore to remain as an independent country. The communists of the state revolted against the idea and made an attempt on the ruler’s life. Sensing the threat to his life, Iyer resigned. He was succeeded by P.G.N. Unithan. After several rounds of negotiations, the state was acceded to India, in 1949, forming the state of Travancore-Kochi. At the time of India’s Independence, Jodhpur was ruled by a young King Maharaja Hanwant Singh. Exploring other options, he thought that Pakistan would give him a better deal then what India was offering and thus, delayed the accession. He even met Jinnah in Delhi where Jinnah promised him many concessions. Patel met with the King and discussed the future developments like imports of arms, need of grains and linking Jodhpur to Kathiawar by rail, etc. At the same time, Patel warned the King that If he decided to join Pakistan then India would not be able to Later, Pakistan accepted the accession of Junagadh. help the state during the communal violence, which was To resolve the impending issue, India proposed that a History of Post Independence India 5 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group referendum or a plebiscite be conducted to decide the the invaders occupied some areas of the state and armed future of the state by the people of the state. These kind conflict continued for a month. of instruments were used before also, in the North West Frontier Province and in the Sylhet district of Assam. But Pakistan refused the idea. Meanwhile, leaders of the state people’s organizations in Kathiawar went on to form a ‘provisional government’ of Junagadh— an organization that claimed to represent the people of Junagadh and actively worked to overthrow the Nawab’s administration. And, by the end of October 1947, it started occupying pockets of Junagadh territory. Due to this development, the Nawab of Junagadh panicked and fled to Pakistan. As Pakistan was reluctant to send troops to aid Junagadh, the Dewan (now, the in charge after the Nawab fled) asked the Indian government to restore the law and order situation in the state and take over the administration, to which Indian Government complied with alacrity. The Indian government approached the United Nation This move was strongly protested by Pakistan, which later Security Council against the aggression undertaken raised the issue at the United Nations Security Council. by Pakistan in Kashmir. However the UNSC converted Later, in February 1948, the Indian Government conducted ‘Kashmir question’ into ‘India-Pakistan dispute’. Following a referendum in Junagadh, which overwhelmingly favored a resolution of the UNSC,both India and Pakistan st merger with Indian Union. accepted a ceasefire on 31 December,1948 which is still prevailing. In 1951, the UN passed a resolution providing Jammu and Kashmir for a referendum under UN supervision after Pakistan In Jammu and Kashmir, the situation was peculiar. It had withdrawn its troops from the part of Kashmir under shared border with both Pakistan and India. Here, a hindu its control. The resolution has remained infructuous since king Maharaja Hari Singh ruled over a population that was Pakistan has refused to withdraw its forces from what is overwhelmingly muslim. The king was reluctant to join both known as Azad Kashmir. India and Pakistan. He delayed a decision on accession, Since then India has regarded Kashmir’s accession as final hoping to keep Kashmir independent and a neutral state. and irrevocable and Kashmir as its integral part. Pakistan The popular political forces led by the National Conference continues to deny this claim. and its leader Sheikh Abdullah, however, wanted to join India. Hyderabad The leadership in Pakistan organized a tribal ‘lashkar’ to Similar to Junagadh, in a way, Hyderabad was also ruled invade and capture Kashmir, because they feared that by a muslim leader, Nizam Usman Ali Khan, presiding over Pakistan’s security would be threatened if Kashmir went a population of nearly 16 million, over 80% of them being to India. As the army of the state was unable to cope up hindus. But Hyderabad carried much greater importance with this attack, Maharaja Hari Singh sought India’s military as it was the largest state at that time, completely assistance. surrounded by Indian Territory, located in central India. Thereby, without Hyderabad, there would be a large gap Though, Nehru was against accession without conducting in the center of the Indian Territory, potentially posing a the referendum in the state, India could send its troops constant threat to India’s security in the future. Thus, to Kashmir only after the state’s formal accession to Hyderabad was essential for India's unity. India under international laws, as pointed out by the then Governor General of India, Lord Mountbatten. Thus, After several rounds of negotiations, India signed a the Maharaja acceded to India on 26th October, 1947. “Standstill Agreement”, a temporary and year-long In accordance with its democratic principles, India agreement, maintaining the status quo. announced that it would conduct referendum on the India signed this temporary agreement, hoping that Nizam accession decision once the situation became peaceful. would introduce representative government in the state, After the accession, Indian leaders immediately took steps while the negotiations continued. But, Nizam’s intentions to fly troops to Srinagar. Srinagar was first held and then were to delay the process and expand his military strength the raiders were gradually driven out of the valley, though, so as to force India to accept his independence or succeed 2 Lal Bahadur Shastri Era

2.1 Introduction • Demand for separate state in Punjab too was not dealt with in a decisive manner under Shastri and the matter After the death of Jawaharlal was left to be solved by his successor Indira Gandhi. Nehru in 1964, a question • Though the state of Nagaland was created in 1963, regarding his successor arose. peace eluded the region, as result of increase in There were two main contenders insurgency. Under Shastri, no solution could be for the post of the Prime Minister achieved for insurgency in the state. namely, Morarji Desai and Lal • The issue of Kashmir started simmering during Lal Bahadur Shastri. Under a group of Bahadur Shastri’s Prime Ministership. The unrest in prominent Congress leaders known as Syndicate, it was the Kashmir valley was exploited by Pakistan which decided that Shastri will succeed to the post of Prime eventually resulted in a war between India and Minister. He was sworn in to the post in June, 1964. Pakistan in 1965. It is dealt separately in the following discussions. Challenges • As China successfully tested a nuclear bomb, Dr. When Lal Bahadur Shastri took the office of Prime Minister Homi J. Bhabha, the Atomic Energy Commission of India, he was faced with a number of challenges, which Director, who though personally stood for universal included the following: disarmament, said that India, in eventual situations, • Stagnating economy, worsening Balance of Payments may go nuclear. But, Shastri did not favour these and severe shortage of food. statements by Dr. Bhabha. • Protests in Tamil Nadu for continuation of English as official language, beyond the period of fifteen years as 2.2 Political Developments provided by the Constitution in 1950. Kamaraj Plan • Demands for separate states (like in Punjab) and After the defeat in the war against China in 1962, the image merger of Goa with . of not only the government but also that of the Congress • Naga demand for independence and associated Party eroded . Moreover, fifteen years in power made the insurgency in Nagaland. party complacent. There were signs that it had lost touch • Kashmir issue and Pakistan’s designs in Kashmir. with the ground realities. This was evident from the defeat • Growth in China’s power with nuclear test in October, in the by-elections and growing strength of the regional 1964. parties like DMK. The Chief Minister of Madras K. Response Kamaraj saw the threat from the • The problem of food crisis was dealt with the initiation DMK. In order to check its rise and of Green Revolution. It has been dealt in detail in the in order to rejuvenate the Congress following discussions. Party he recommended a measure • Prime Minister Shastri gave assurance to the non- known as ‘Kamaraj Plan’. Under it, Hindi speaking states that their right to transact he suggested that the senior party their business in their regional language would be leaders should leave their protected. He also assured them that the use of ministerial posts and should focus English as a language of correspondence between on party rebuilding. In order to walk the talk he resigned the center and the states would continue. However, he from the post of Chief Minister in October, 1963. Six Union failed to find a lasting solution to the issue because he Ministers and six Chief Ministers including Lal Bahadur could not get convergence in the views of pro-Hindi Shastri, Jagjivan Ram, Morarji Desai, Biju Patnaik and S.K. and anti-Hindi groups. Patil followed suit and resigned from their posts. History of Post Independence India 25 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group regional interests, with demands like jobs for sons of soil. Kumaraswamy Kamaraj In a similar way to protect the regional aspirations, various Kumaraswamy Kamaraj (1903-1975) belonged to Nadar other regional parties were formed in other parts of the caste, one of the most depressed castes amongst the country. For example, Telugu Desam Party was formed in Hindus and was a well known leader of the Indian early 1980s, Assam Gana Parishad was formed in Assam National Congress (INC). He played a leading role in in 1985 etc. shaping India's destiny since the demise of Jawaharlal Nehru till the split in Congress in 1969, and, is widely Impact of Rise of Regional Parties known as ‘King Maker’ due to his role behind the rise • The regional parties voiced regional interest which of two great Prime Ministers of India i.e., Lal Bahadur strengthened the Indian federation. Shashtri and Indira Gandhi. He was elected unopposed • They played a role in the formation of the coalition to the Madras Legislative Assembly in 1937. Later, he governments at the Centre. was again elected to it, in 1946. He was, also, elected • Their rise led to increase in the representation of the to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1946, and later regional interests in Lok Sabha. to Parliament, in 1952. • Often, the regional parties used violent means to protect the regional interests. This aroused the sub- national feelings which on various occasions created law and order problems. 2.3 Tashkent Agreement Indo-Pak War (1965) The unrest in the Kashmir valley during the 1960’s made He became the Chief Minister of Madras in 1954 and the Pakistani leadership think that the situation could be served till 1963 for three consecutive terms. On realizing exploited to annex Kashmir. They also thought to exploit a decline in INC’s enthusiasm, he resigned from his the military preparedness going on in India after the China ministerial post and also asked other senior leaders war. The dress rehearsal to the larger conflict came in the to do so. After resigning from the post, he became a form of skirmish in the Runn of Kutch region. prominent leader of INC and served as its President for In April 1965, the two militaries exchanged fire in the Runn. 4 years (1964-1967). Due to the nature of the terrain and the use of American tanks by the Pakistani army, India’s military response Rise of Regional Politics was weak. But with the interference by the Britain, both India being a diverse country, the aspirations of people the sides agreed to refer the dispute to international vary, which resulted in formation of various regional parties arbitration. Meanwhile, Sheikh Abdullah was arrested as in the country. he was going too far and was talking about possibility DMK in Tamil Nadu of independence for Kashmir. For this, he had met the Formed in 1949 by Annadurai, it was initially an anti- Chinese Prime Minister. brahmin, anti-north and anti-hindi party, with demand The arrest of Abdullah and the clash in the Runn put an for an independent nation-state of southern states, i.e. idea of infiltration in the mind of Pakistani President Ayub Dravidnadu. But, after realizing that its demand for the Khan. The fight in the Runn made him think that the Indian separate nation-state cannot be fulflled and it is possible government and the armed forces are not ready for the to protect the Tamil culture within the sphere of unity, war. it toned down its demands. They also underplayed their anti-brahmin movement because it led to flight of Offensive by Pakistan Brahmins which affected the development of science and : (Named after a famous Moorish technology in Tamil Nadu. They began participation in the victory in medieval Spain): Under it, the trained infiltrators elections and formed government in Tamil Nadu in 1967, were sent by the Pakistan in the Kashmir valley in August with Annadurai as the Chief Minister. 1965. The aim was to foment pro-Pakistan protests and to create conditions for military intervention. In order Shivsena in Maharashtra to counter this move, Shastri ordered the army to cross It was formed in 1966 by Bal Thackeray with an agenda the and to seal the passes through which of ‘Bombay for Maharashtrians’. It sought to protect the infiltrators were coming. 26 Lal Bahadur Shastri Era BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Operation Grand-slam: When the idea of fomenting (d) The orderly transfer of prisoners of war. unrest in the valley did not succeed, the reserve plan was (e) The resumption of diplomatic relations. launched by Pakistani army. Under it, Pakistan launched a (f) The disavowal of the force to settle future disputes. tank and infantry attack in Chhamb in south-west Jammu and Kashmir. Shastri ordered to not only defend Kashmir A Question [2013] but also to open a new front across Lahore and Sialkot. Analyze the circumstances that led to the Tashkent Agreement in 1966. Discuss the highlights of the International Response Agreements. (200 Words) The escalation of hostilities alarmed superpowers. The US along with Britain cut off arms, food and other supplies to both India and Pakistan. The Chinese weighed in towards Pakistan and declared India as an aggressor. However, the discouraged China from supporting Pakistan. The United Nations Security Council made both countries to sign ceasefire. Both the sides suffered significant losses in the form of military personnel and, also, tanks, aircrafts, etc. because of which the war is often considered inconclusive.

Gains for India (a) Infiltration of Kashmir was foiled. Reasons for Withdrawal from Haji Pir Pass (b) Indian force recovered pride, prestige and self- • The other option for India was the resumption of the confidence lost due to defeat in 1962. mutually disastrous war. (c) India emerged politically stronger and united. • Also, denial to agree on the withdrawal would have led to loss of support from the Soviets in UNSC on Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan the Kashmir issue and also loss of supply of defense During the Pakistan war the Prime equipments. Minister Shastri coined this slogan During the course of the meeting, Indian Prime Minister Lal hailing soldiers and farmers. Bahadur Shastri died on 11th January, 1966, due to heart Through this slogan, he wanted to attack. motivate the soldiers to fight the enemies and inspire farmers to 2.4 White Revolution produce more food grains to attain self-sufficiency in food production After independence there was an emphasis on the and reduce dependence on cooperatives as a means to improve agriculture and benefit imports of food grains. the poor. In agriculture, particularly in land-reforms, it could not achieve the desired results due to various reasons. The A Question [2013] most successful experiment in the cooperatives was the Write a critical note on evolution and significance of the milk cooperatives. The success of milk cooperatives in slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’. (200 Words) meeting the milk demands of the people and improving Tashkent Declaration the life standards of the people associated with milk After the cease-fire between India and Pakistan, the Soviet cooperatives has been termed as white revolution. Union offered to help reach a peaceful settlement. This led to a meeting of Shastri and with the Soviet Prime Minister as the chief mediator, in Tashkent. They agreed to Tashkent Declaration, in . Some of the important provisions of the declaration, are as follows: (a) Pakistan to give up on international arbitration of the Kashmir dispute. (b) India to withdraw from key posts like Haji Pir Pass and other strategic gains in Kashmir. (c) Withdrawal of forces by both the sides to the positions held before the war.