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CHAPTER FOUR Fiji http://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/ Research Commons at the University of Waikato Copyright Statement: The digital copy of this thesis is protected by the Copyright Act 1994 (New Zealand). The thesis may be consulted by you, provided you comply with the provisions of the Act and the following conditions of use: Any use you make of these documents or images must be for research or private study purposes only, and you may not make them available to any other person. Authors control the copyright of their thesis. You will recognise the author’s right to be identified as the author of the thesis, and due acknowledgement will be made to the author where appropriate. You will obtain the author’s permission before publishing any material from the thesis. The Impacts of Climate Change on the People of Vatukarasa and Sovi Bay, Viti Levu, Fiji A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography at The University of Waikato by NUR ALI 2021 ii Abstract Climate change is one of the biggest threats facing communities around the globe in the 21st Century. Small island developing states, including all Pacific Island Countries, are often represented as being among the countries that are most exposed to its effects. This thesis seeks to better understand the impacts of climate change on two coastal communities, Vatukarasa and Sovi Bay, on the south coast of Viti Levu, the main island of Fiji. These two communities are composed of iTaukei (indigenous Fijians) and Indo-Fijians, respectively. They share a number of current and likely future problems caused by climate change although there are some differences in their levels or types of exposure reflecting different cultural backgrounds, livelihood strategies and social networks. The effects of climate change are holding back the development aspirations of the communities, a process that is likely to worsen in the years ahead. Developing sustainable and effective adaptation strategies will need to consider both the commonalities between the two communities and the differences. Some contemporary resource management practices also contribute to the environmental degradation caused by climate change and changing these is already recognised by community members as important first steps towards adapting to climate change effects. The thesis explores the potential for traditional knowledge to be embraced in adaptation that is community based. It also recognises that some adaptation options are likely to be expensive and beyond the financial capacities of the communities without some forms of external assistance, from local and national government sources as well as the international community. iii Acknowledgements With the greatest and deepest appreciation and gratitude, I wish to thank every person who has helped, offered to help, inspired, guided and illuminated me through and completion of my PhD. I would also like to especially thank and express my utter most gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor John Campbell, for his support, suggestions, comments, contribution, patience and understanding. He always supported my research and provided me with an impetus to carry on. My parents always encouraged my interest and helped me to appreciate the sea and its coastal communities. My children, Tasleem, Moureen, son-in-law (Kaleem), my daughter- in-law (Fazi) and my five beautiful grand children had to tolerate and deal with a father, father-in-law and grandfather, who would appear sleepy in the morning from late hours of writing. No thesis like this could come to completion without losing sleep, missing meals, appointments, sacrificing your personal commitments and working tirelessly to the very last minute. I am so honoured, lucky and fortunate to be related to all of you. You all were a big help, madad and motivation during my studies. Throughout this thesis, I was lucky and fortunate enough to have the help, support and expertise of families, colleagues and friends. Truly it meant a huge deal to me personally. When we talk about something personal, I am very much indebted to my beautiful wife, Nazra, who has tolerated me for last 42 years and recently she has been a tower of kindness and inspiration throughout my years of research, writing and rewriting. I know she has missed so many of her shopping days as I was always busy, working and almost glued to my laptop. Nazra has always been there with a smile, cheerful and ready to encourage and provide that unique energy that kept me going. I could not have completed this thesis without her. Nazra never added any external pressure but helped me to recharge and always nudged me out of idleness. Acknowledgement also goes to all the participants and respondents of Vatukarasa village and Sovi Bay settlement for their time and investment in this research, without their help I would not have been able to collect the data for the thesis. Also a big thank you to the turanga-ni-koro of Vatukarasa village, who accepted my request and allowed me to carry out the research in his village. Vinaka vakalevu Ratu. I am also indebted to the headman of Sovi Bay, my two note takers, Nazra Bibi Ali (my beautiful wife) and (Rizu, my brother-in law, who passed away in 2015, mayAllah subhanahu wa ta'ala grant him jannat-ul- Firdaus) and Mr. Ifereime (who was my guide in the village). A big THANK YOU, SHUKRIA, VINAKA VAKALEVU and DHAN BAHD to you all. iv Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... iv Contents ............................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xv List of Boxes .................................................................................................................. xviii Glossary........................................................................................................................... xix Listof Acronyms ............................................................................................................. xxi CHAPTER 1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of the Research Topic ......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Evidence of global warming ............................................................................................... 2 1.3 Projecting future climate ..................................................................................................... 3 1.4 Pacific island countries at the frontline of climate change. ................................................. 4 1.5 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................... 6 1.6 Aims of the Research .......................................................................................................... 7 1.7 Research questions .............................................................................................................. 8 1.8 Thesis organisation ............................................................................................................. 9 1.9 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 10 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................ 11 Responding to climate change ........................................................................................ 11 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Climate change .................................................................................................................. 12 2.3 Climate variability ............................................................................................................. 15 2.4 Vulnerability ..................................................................................................................... 17 2.5 The impacts (consequences and outcomes) of climate change. ........................................ 22 2.6 Adaptation: Living with climate change. .......................................................................... 27 v 2.6.1 Proactive and reactive adaptation ............................................................................ 33 2.6.2 Top-down and bottom-up approaches ....................................................................... 34 2.7 System exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity .......................................................... 36 2.7.1 Exposure .................................................................................................................... 36 2.7.2 Sensitivity .................................................................................................................. 38 2.7.3 Adaptive capacity. ....................................................................................................
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