November 2003 • NREL/TP-620-34783
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations
Larry Goldstein National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Bruce Hedman Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc.
Dave Knowles Antares Group, Inc.
Steven I. Freedman Technical Consultant
Richard Woods Technical Consultant
Tom Schweizer Princeton Energy Resources International
Prepared under Task No. AS73.2002
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Printed on paper containing at least 50% wastepaper, including 20% postconsumer waste Acknowledgments
This first edition of Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations was prepared through a collaboration of the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), the Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) and the Gas Research Institute (GRI). Overall project management for this multiyear effort was provided by Larry Goldstein (Energy Analysis Office, NREL) with funding support from Susan Holte (DOE EERE). Contributions were made by the following authors:
Introduction and Overview Larry Goldstein, National Renewable Energy Laboratory Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Reciprocating Engines Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Small Gas Turbine Systems Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Steven I. Freedman, Technical Consultant Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Microturbine Systems Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Steven I. Freedman, Technical Consultant Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Fuel Cell Systems Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Richard Woods, Technical Consultant Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Small Steam Turbine Systems Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc. Steven I. Freedman, Technical Consultant Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc.
Stirling Engine Systems Dave Knowles, Antares Group, Inc. Bruce Hedman, Energy and Environmental Analysis, Inc.
Financial Evaluations Tom Schweizer, Princeton Energy Resources International
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page i
The Gas Research Institute assigned the Gas Technology Institute (GTI) responsibility for a major collaborative role in developing and shaping this report. Critical review of draft material and contributions to the report content were provided by the following GTI staff, managed by Director John Kelly, Distributed Energy Resources:
Reciprocating Engines: Kevin Olsen, Todd Kollross, and William Staats. Small Gas Turbines: Kevin Olsen, Todd Kollross, Greg Rouse, and William Staats. Microturbines: Kevin Olsen, Todd Kollross, Greg Rouse, William Staats, and Richard Sweetser (EXERGY Partners Corp.). Fuel Cells: Mark Richards, Robert Remick, Leonard Marianowski, Charles Berry, and William Staats. Small Steam Turbines: Greg Rouse and William Staats. Stirling Engines: William Staats.
In addition to the named reviewers above, the project manager and authors wish to thank and acknowledge the contributions of the numerous invited peer reviewers that participated in an Internet-based review of the six technology characterizations and the individuals that attended the technical workshop and provided additional comment and review. Also, we would like to recognize Princeton Energy Resources International’s Tom Schweizer and John Rezaiyan for their added critical review of all the technology characterization drafts and DOE EERE’s Debbie Haught and Pat Hoffman for their many recommendations and contributions during the various stages of document development and peer review.
Document preparation and editing, as well as critical technical review, were performed by staff at NREL, including Larry Goldstein, Bill Babiuch, and Eldon Boes of the Energy Analysis Office; and Michelle Kubik of Communications.
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page ii
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments i List of Figures vii List of Tables viii
1. Introduction and Overview 1-1 1.1 Project Background 1-1 1.2 Technology Characterization Approach 1-1 1.3 DER Power-Generation Applications 1-2 1.4 Gas-Fired DER Applications and Markets 1-5 1.5 Technology Overview 1-5 1.5 Document Overview 1-9
2. Reciprocating Engines 2-1 1.0 Overview 2-1 2.0 Applications 2-2 2.1 Power-Only 2-3 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 2-4 3.0 Technology Description 2-6 3.1 Basic Process and Components 2-6 3.2 Types of Reciprocating Engines 2-7 3.3 Design Characteristics 2-12 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 2-13 4.1 System Performance 2-13 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 2-16 4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 2-18 4.4 Capital Cost 2-18 4.5 Maintenance 2-21 4.6 Fuels 2-22 4.7 Availability and Life 2-25 5.0 Emission Characteristics 2-26 5.1 Control Options 2-26 5.2 System Emissions 2-30 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 2-31 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 2-34 8.0 References 2-41
3. Small Gas Turbine Systems 3-1 1.0 Overview 3-1 2.0 Applications 3-2 2.1 Power-Only 3-2 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 3-3 3.0 Technology Description 3-5 3.1 Basic Process and Components 3-5 3.2 Types of Gas Turbines 3-6 3.3 Design Characteristics 3-6 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 3-7 4.1 System Performance 3-8 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 3-13
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page iii
4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 3-15 4.4 Capital Cost 3-16 4.5 Maintenance 3-20 4.6 Fuels 3-21 4.7 Availability and Life 3-22 5.0 Emission Characteristics 3-22 5.1 Control Options 3-23 5.2 System Emissions 3-26 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 3-27 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 3-32 8.0 References 3-39
4. Microturbine Systems 4-1 1.0 Overview 4-1 2.0 Applications 4-1 2.1 Power-Only 4-2 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 4-3 3.0 Technology Description 4-4 3.1 Basic Process and Components 4-4 3.2 Types of Microturbines 4-4 3.3 Design Characteristics 4-8 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 4-9 4.1 System Performance 4-9 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 4-17 4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 4-18 4.4 Capital Cost 4-20 4.5 Maintenance 4-23 4.6 Fuels 4-24 4.7 Availability and Life 4-25 5.0 Emission Characteristics 4-25 5.1 Control Options 4-25 5.2 System Emissions 4-27 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 4-27 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 4-31 8.0 References 4-40
5. Fuel Cell Systems 5-1 1.0 Overview 5-1 2.0 Applications 5-2 2.1 Power-Only 5-3 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 5-4 3.0 Technology Description 5-4 3.1 Basic Process and Components 5-5 3.2 Types of Fuel Cells 5-9 3.3 Design Characteristics 5-12 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 5-13 4.1 System Performance 5-13 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 5-18 4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 5-19 4.4 Capital Cost 5-19 4.5 Maintenance 5-21 Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page iv
4.6 Fuels 5-23 4.7 Availability and Life 5-23 5.0 Emission Characteristics 5-24 5.1 Control Options 5-24 5.2 System Emissions 5-24 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 5-25 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 5-28 8.0 References 5-37
6. Small Steam Turbine Systems 6-1 1.0 Overview 6-1 2.0 Applications 6-1 2.1 Power-Only 6-2 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 6-2 3.0 Technology Description 6-4 3.1 Basic Process and Components 6-4 3.2 Types of Steam Turbines 6-6 3.3 Design Characteristics 6-8 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 6-9 4.1 System Performance 6-9 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 6-11 4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 6-11 4.4 Capital Cost 6-12 4.5 Maintenance 6-13 4.6 Fuels 6-13 4.7 Availability and Life 6-13 5.0 Emission Characteristics 6-14 5.1 Control Options 6-14 5.2 System Emissions 6-16 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 6-16 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 6-17
7. Financial Evaluations 7-1 1.1 Introduction 7-1 1.2 Calculation of Levelized Cost of Energy 7-1 1.3 Gas Price Assumptions 7-2 1.4 Overview of Results 7-3 1.5 Calculation of COE with Constant Gas Prices 7-3
8. Appendix – Stirling Engine Systems 8-1 1.0 Overview 8-1 2.0 Applications 8-2 2.1 Power-Only 8-2 2.2 Combined Heat and Power 8-3 3.0 Technology Description 8-3 3.1 Basic Process and Components 8-3 3.2 Types of Stirling Engines 8-6 3.3 Design Characteristics 8-7 4.0 Cost and Performance Characteristics 8-8 4.1 System Performance 8-10 4.2 Combined Heat and Power Performance 8-10 Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page v
4.3 Performance and Efficiency Enhancements 8-10 4.4 Capital Cost 8-12 4.5 Maintenance 8-13 4.6 Fuels 8-14 4.7 Availability and Life 8-14 5.0 Emission Characteristics 8-15 5.1 Control Options 8-15 5.2 System Emissions 8-15 6.0 Key Technology Objectives 8-15 7.0 Advanced Technology Projections 8-16
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page vi
List of Figures
2. Reciprocating Engines 2-1 Figure 1: Existing Reciprocating Engine CHP – 801 MW at 1,055 sites 2-5 Figure 2: Part-Load Efficiency Performance (Spark-Ignition Engines) 2-15 Figure 3: Closed-Loop Heat-Recovery System 2-17
3. Small Gas Turbine Systems 3-1 Figure 1: Existing Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine CHP – 9,854 MW at 359 sites 3-4 Figure 2: Components of a Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine 3-5 Figure 3: Part-Load Power Performance 3-11 Figure 4: Ambient Temperature Effects on Performance 3-12 Figure 5: Altitude Effects on Power Output 3-12 Figure 6: Heat Recovery from a Gas Turbine 3-13 Figure 7: Effect of HRSG Stack Temperature on Total CHP Efficiency 3-14 Figure 8: Turbine Generator Package Costs by Size 3-17
4. Microturbine Systems 4-1 Figure 1: Microturbine-Based CHP System (Single-Shaft Design) 4-5 Figure 2: Typical Microturbine Efficiency as a Function of Compressor Pressure Ratio and Turbine Inlet Temperature 4-13 Figure 3: Microturbine Specific Power as a Function of Compressor Pressure Ratio and Turbine Inlet Temperature 4-14 Figure 4: Microturbine Part-Load Efficiency 4-15 Figure 5: Ambient Temperature Effects on Microturbine Performance 4-16 Figure 6: Altitude Effects on Microturbine Power Output 4-17 Figure 7: Microturbine Efficiency as a Function of Recuperator Effectiveness 4-19 Figure 8: Efficiency Comparison of Microturbines w/ Metallic and Ceramic Turbines 4-29 Figure 9: Specific Power Comparison of Microturbines w/ Metallic and Ceramic Turbines 4-29
5. Fuel Cell Systems 5-1 Figure 1: Fuel Cell Electrochemical Process 5-5 Figure 2: Effect of Operating Temperature on Fuel Cell Efficiency 5-7 Figure 3: Part-Load Efficiency Performance 5-18
6. Small Steam Turbine Systems 6-1 Figure 1: Existing Boiler/Steam Turbine CHP Capacity by Industry – 19,062 MW/582 sites 6-3 Figure 2: Existing Boiler/Steam Turbine CHP Capacity by Boiler Fuel Type – 19,062 MW/582 sites 6-3 Figure 3: Components of a Boiler/Steam Turbine System 6-5 Figure 4: Noncondensing (Back-Pressure) Steam Turbine 6-6 Figure 5: Extraction Steam Turbine 6-7
8. Appendix – Sitrling Engine Systems 8-1 Figure 1: Stirling Engine Fundamentals 8-3 Figure 2: Carnot Cycle Compared to the Stirling Engine 8-4 Figure 3: STM 4-120 PowerUnit Pacaged DG System 8-5 Figure 4: STM 4-120 Kinematic Stirling Engine Core 8-6 Figure 5: Stirling Engine Efficiency 8-11 Figure 6: Environmental Performance at Part-Load Conditions 8-11
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page vii
List of Tables
1. Introduction and Overview 1-1 Table 1: Applications and Markets for Gas-fired DG Technologies 1-5 Table 2: Comparison of DG Technologies 1-8
2. Reciprocating Engines 2-1 Table 1: Reciprocating Engine Types by Speed (Available MW Ratings) 2-11 Table 2: Reciprocating Engine Systems – Typical Performance Parameters (2003) 2-14 Table 3: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Reciprocating Engine-Generators in Grid-Interconnected Power-Only Applications (2003) 2-20 Table 4: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Reciprocating Engine-Generators in Grid-Interconnected CHP Applications (2003) 2-21 Table 5: Representative Overhaul Intervals for Reciprocating Engines in Base-load Service 2-22 Table 6: Typical Natural Gas-Fuel Reciprocating Engine O&M Costs 2-22 Table 7: Major Constituents of Gaseous Fuels 2-24 Table 8: Representative NOx Emissions from Reciprocating Engines (Without Add-on Controls) 2-26 Table 9: NOx Emissions versus Efficiency Tradeoff Example 2-28 Table 10: Reciprocating Engine Emissions Characteristics (Without Exhaust-Control Options) 2-30 Table 11: Current and Advanced Reciprocating Engine System Characteristics 2-36
3. Small Gas Turbine Systems 3-1 Table 1: Gas Turbine Systems – Typical Performance Parameters 3-9 Table 2: Power Requirements for Natural Gas Compression 3-10 Table 3: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Gas Turbine Systems in Grid-Interconnected CHP Applications (2003) 3-18 Table 4: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Gas Turbine Systems in Grid-Interconnected Power-Only Applications (2003) 3-19 Table 5: Typical Gas Turbine (Non-fuel) O&M Costs (2003) 3-20 Table 6: Gas Turbine Emission Characteristics (Without Exhaust-Control Options) 3-27 Table 7: Current and Advanced Combustion Turbine Characteristics 3-35
4. Microturbine Systems 4-1 Table 1: Microturbine Systems – Typical Performance Parameters 4-11 Table 2: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Microturbine Generator Systems in Grid-Interconnected CHP Applications (2003) 4-22 Table 3: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Microturbine Generator Systems in Grid-Interconnected Power-Only Applications (2003) 4-23 Table 4: Microturbine Emission Characteristics 4-27 Table 5: Projected Microturbine Evolution Through 2030 4-34 Table 6: Current and Advanced Microturbine System Characteristics 4-35
5. Fuel Cell Systems 5-1 Table 1: Characteristics of Major Fuel Cell Types 5-10 Table 2: Fuel Cell Systems – Typical Performance Parameters (2003) 5-15 Table 3: Estimated Capital Cost for Typical Fuel Cell Systems in Grid-Interconnected CHP Applications (2003 $/kW) 5-21 Table 4: Typical Fuel Cell Systems (Non-fuel) O&M Costs (2003) 5-22
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page viii
Table 5: Fuel Cell Emission Characteristics (without Additional Controls) 5-25 Table 6: Projected Fuel Cell Evolution Through 2030 5-30 Table 7: Current and Advanced Fuel Cell System Characteristics 5-31
6. Small Steam Turbine Systems 6-1 Table 1: Boiler/Steam Turbine Systems – Typical Performance Parameters (2003) 6-10 Table 2: Typical Boiler Emissions Ranges 6-16 Table 3: Current and Advanced Steam Turbine System Characteristics 6-18
7. Financial Evaluations 7-1 Table 1: Example Calculation of Levelized COE (for 70kW Microturbines) 7-1 Table 2: Delivered Industrial Gas Prices Used in Cost of Energy Estimates 7-2 Table 3: Cost of Energy Trends for Selected Distributed Gas Technologies in CHP Applications 7-3 Table 4: Cost of Energy Trends for Distributed Technologies 7-4 Table 5: Cost of Energy Trends for Selected Distributed Technologies, Assuming Constant Gas Prices 7-4
8. Appendix – Stirling Engine Systems 8-1 Table 1: Stirling Engine System – Expected Performance Parameters (2003) 8-9 Table 2: Estimated Capital Cost for Stirling Engine in Grid-Parallel CHP Applications (2003) 8-13 Table 3: Stirling Engine Emission Characteristics 8-15 Table 4: Projected Stirling Evolution Through 2030 8-17 Table 5: Current and Advanced Stirlineg Engine CHP System Characteristics 8-18
Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations November 2003 – Page ix
1. Introduction and Overview
1.1 Project Background
The U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) is directing substantial programs in the development and encouragement of new energy technologies. Among them are renewable energy and distributed energy resource technologies. As part of its ongoing effort to document the status and potential of these technologies, DOE EERE directed the National Renewable Energy Laboratory to lead an effort to develop and publish Distributed Energy Technology Characterizations (TCs) that would provide both the department and energy community with a consistent and objective set of cost and performance data in prospective electric-power generation applications in the United States. Toward that goal, DOE/EERE – joined by the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) – published the Renewable Energy Technology Characterizations in December 1997.
As a follow-up, DOE EERE – joined by the Gas Research Institute – is now publishing this document, Gas-Fired Distributed Energy Resource Technology Characterizations. The Gas Research Institute (GRI) has long had a considerable program of R&D aimed at developing commercially viable natural-gas-fired distributed generation systems and transitioning them to commercial partners. Because of this R&D, DOE invited GRI to collaborate on this report, and GRI designated its primary contractor, the Gas Technology Institute, as technical reviewer of the technology characterization chapters.
This report describes the current status and future potential of six natural gas-fired distributed energy resource technologies through the year 2030. The six DER power technologies are: