THE D E Diffusion of W of Western Science and Technology Into
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AMBIX, VVooll. 3300, PPaartrt 22,, JJuully 11998833 SSIIR WILLIIAAMM BB. O''SSHAUGHNEESSSSY, PPIIONEERR CHEMIICCAL EEDUCATORR IN INDIIAA By MMEELL GORMAN ** THE dififffuusision of Weessteterrnn ssccieienncce aannd tetecchhnnoolloogy ininttoo ccoollooniniaall aarreeaas hhaas atattrtraaccteted ththee aatttteenntion ooff vvaarious schololarars'! LLess intererest hhaas been given to the dissemininaattiion ooff scieennccee eedduuccatatiioonn.. Therere wwerere many ssccieientntisisttss who laboouurered on the frfroonntitierers in the ccoollooninies and d whose technical achievementtss are morree oorr less remembered, only to have their contributionnss to scienncce teacchhining alalmosstt ccoommplpletetelely ffoorrggootttetenn.. Thiiss ppaappeer wwiill deeaal wwith a case studdyy ininvvoolvlvining ththe trtraannsfsfeerr ooff cchhemicicaall eedduuccatatiioon frfrom Brititaiain ttoo IInndidia in the fifirsrst hhaallff of thhee nineteen th century.. WWiilllliam BBrrooooke OO''Shaauugghhnneessy, membeerr of an aanncienntt clan,2 was bboorrnn in Limerick inin 1809. OOnnllyy frfraaggmmeenntatarryy iinnffoorrmmatatiioon is avaiailalabbllee ccoonncceerrnniinng hhiiss yyoouutthh, bbuutt hhiis lalastst residenncce in Irelaannd was in Ennis, Couunnttyy Clare, for he gaavve this locaattiion as his home wheenn he matrtricicuullatated aatt ththe Univiverersisittyy ooff EEdidinnbbuurrgh ffoor the 1827-28 term.33 He receivveed hihiss MM.D. oonn 1133 July 1829,3 bbuut registered aaggain for thee 1829-30 session.44 It It would be helpful to know of O'Shhaauugghhnnessy's chemissttrry teacchhers ssoo that the origins of his chheemiccaal pphhilosophy ccoould be traced. Howevveer, ththe Univiversity ooff EEdinbbuurrggh rereccoorrddss rerevveeaall ththaatt he was not eennrroolllled in the clclaassssees ooff aanny ooff ththe cchhemisistrtry pprrooffeessssoorsrs. OOtthheer r meaanns of obtbtaiainining kknnowleleddgge of chemisistrtry were avaiailalablblee.. IItt is poosssisiblble ththaatt he leaarrnneed d frfrom oonne or morree of the eexxtrtraa--murraal lelectctuurrerers,s,5 or perrhhaapps as an aasssisiststaannt ttoo PPrroofefessssoorr Robbeert Chrriissttiisson (meeddical jurisprruuddeennccee)) oorr PPrrooffessoorr JJ.. C. Hope (chemistryy)). Indeed, hhee was a clinical assistatanntt to Professor WWilliam AAllison (meeddiicciinnee).6 Such arraannggeementnts woululd d nnoot aappppeeaarr in the University minnuuttee bbooookkss.. J. B. Moorrrell names four extramuraral teacchhers ooff pprractical cchhemiissttrryy who taugghht while Hope was the ooffficial uunniviversity lecturer, aannd whiillee O'Shaugghhnessy was aatt EEdinburgh. 77 IInn aanny eevveennt, it is evidenntt from his subsequueenntt rereccoorrdd that he imbibed to the fullest all the fine attttrributes ooff ththe SSccototttiissh inintteelllectutuaall aannd scieennttiifficic eennvivirroonmeennt. He waass plplaiainlnly iinn ththe qquuaanntititatatitive trtraaddititiioon eesstatablblisishheed by Joosseepph BBllaacck k aannd the atatomiissttiicc aapppprrooaach ooff Thomaass Thomssoon.n. When O'Shaugghhnessy obtained his degree, interesstt in forensic medicine was in full bloom.. The ffiirrst chair in Great BBrriittaaiinn in thiiss fielldd was establblished aatt EEdidinnbbuurrgh inin 1806, and by the 1830S eevverery mmeeddicicaall sscchhooooll hhaad lelectctuurreess on the ssuubjbjeecct.t.88 Nevveertheless, toxicolology inin BBrritish law was in a parlous stattee..99 It was a situaattiion in which a yoouung investigigator ccooululd d eeaassiilly make a nnaame ffoorr hihimself. O'Shhaauugghhnnessy bbeeccaame thorroouugghlhly invololvveedd,, lecturing aannd d ddeemonnsstrating ffoorensic chemiissttrryy aannd medicine to a privattee class of nineteen ccaannddididates for ththe medidiccaal ddeeggrree aatt ththe Univiverersisittyy of Edininbbuurrggh as well as engaaggining in toxicicoollooggicicalal research on a variety ooff adulterants.llOO In the summeerr ooff 1830 h he moved to London where he reresumed his teaching aannd researarch iinn medicoo--legaall jujurriisspprruuddeennce. But he ffoouunnd ththaatt hhee ccoouulld nnoot pprraacctitissee medidicicine iinn LLoonnddoon bbeeccaauusse he was nnoot a liceenntitiatatee oo tt"" the Colllleege of Physicians.llll Also,, hhe was an unsuccessful candidate for the chair ooff medical jurisprudence aatt the Univerrssiittyy of Loonnddoonn..ll22 Consequently, inin 1833 h he joined ththe EEast IInndia Compaanny's service as assistatanntt surggeeon aannd was sent ttoo Calcuttttaa.. ** DDeeppaartrtmmeennt ooff CChheemmisistrtryy,, UUnniviveerrsisittyy ooff SSaan FFrraanncicissccoo,, SSaan FFrraanncicissccoo,, CCaaliliffoorrnniaia 94117, U.S.A. A shoorrtt vveerrsisioon oof thiiss ppaappeerr wwaas rreeaad aat tthhe XXVVI IInnteterrnnaatitioonnaal CCoonnggrreessss oof the HHisisttoorryy oof Scieiennccee,, BBuucchhaarreesst, RRoommaanniaia, SSeepptt.,., 1981. 108 MEL GORMAN In order to understand the introduction of western chemical education into India, it is necessary to consider the impact of the prior reform of general instruction and especially medical education. Due to unsettled political and social conditions, the practice of medi- cine according to the ancient Hindu and Moslem traditions had deteriorated to a sorry state by the beginning of the nineteenth century, so that the great mass of Indians had very little access to proper medical treatment.13 During this era all commercial and sovereign func- tions of England were carried on by the East India Company, whose directors followed a policy of cooperation and non-intervention in the social, religious, and medical practices of the natives. But after 1800 liberalism, evangelicalism, and utilitarianism were spreading in the home country, and it was inevitable that these forces eventually would become paramount in India.14 They were made manifest by the Company's Act of 1813, which specified the promotion of literature and science for the natives.l5 Within about fifteen years two government-sponsored colleges in Calcutta included some medical classes; a third one was a medical institution for native doctors. The indigenous art of healing according to ancient medical traditions was learned in native languages, and some European concepts were introduced. In the meanwhile, after years of debate, a public controversy of monumental importance to all forms of education was reaching a climax. This was the famous Orientalist-Anglicist argument concerning what should be the content of Indian culture and the language which should be used to impart it. Although there were varying shades of opinion on both sides, in simple terms it may be said that the Orientalists believed that the indigenous culture was of a high order and should be preserved by teaching it in the native languages. On the other hand (and again somewhat oversimplified), the Anglicists main- tained that the heritage of India was not worth the effort to study; if the country was to progress in the modern world, the natives would have to be westernized by a European culture, and that included teaching in the English tongue.16 The man destined to end this controversy was Lord William Bentinck, governor-general of India from 1828 to 1835. His appointment was made primarily to improve the economy of the colony; education was not among his top priorities. But during his administration he could not help observing the terrible lack of medical services for the general population, and concluded that the first step in alleviating this condition would be an improvement in medical education. To this end in 1833 he appointed a special committee, which favoured the Anglicists,17 While this body was deliberating, Thomas B. Macaulay arrived in Calcutta in September, 1834, to assume his place on the Supreme Council of India. A force- ful Anglicist, he had a convincing influence on Bentinck. Other members of the governor's administration were of the same mind. On 28 January 1835 Bentinck gave his sanction to this view by ordering a cessation of medical instruction in two of Calcutta's government colleges; the third one devoted solely to teaching native doctors was closed. Additionally, he directed that a new institution, the Calcutta Medical College (later called the Medical College of Bengal), be established on the European model with all instruction in English.18 It is interesting to note that these decisions preceded the famous minute of Macaulay before the Supreme Council,192 February 1835, from which was derived Bentinck's more sweeping resolution of 7 March 1835, and which affirmed more strongly the Anglicist tenets by the provision that henceforth all money expended on education of all types must be devoted to the spread of English literature and science through the medium of the English language. 20 If a western type medical school was to be established it is obvious that a chemistry SIR WILLIAM B. O'SHAUGHNESSY rag course must be included. Thus the ultimate genesis of professional level chemical education in India was the decision mandating European learning, and the proximate origin was the need for improving the practice of medicine generally. However, it should be noted that some chemistry was taught before r835, but with very few exceptions it was of a rudimen- tary nature. H. J. C. Larwood has given an excellent overview and evaluation of science and science teaching before the mutiny of r857.21 Although very brief mention is made of O'Shaughnessy as a scientist, there is no treatment of his role as a teacher. The College was opened on r June r835 in temporary