Sustainable Transport Solutions for Calcutta
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Sustainable Transport Solutions for Calcutta A report prepared by Professor John Whitelegg of the School of the Built Environment at Liverpool John Moores University, U.K. School of the Built Environment, Liverpool John Moores University, Clarence St, Liverpool, L3 5UG U.K. Phone: 00 44 151 231 3298 Fax: 00 44 151 708 7260 e-mail: [email protected] Address for correspondence in Calcutta: c/o Dr. D, Bhattacharya, 34/2 Mahim Halder St, Kalighat, Calcutta, 700026 Phone: (33) 48 5321 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to thank Dr. Debashish Bhattacharya and Mr. Sondip Chattopadhyay for their assistance, support and encouragement in this project. Without their help the work could not have been done. CONTENTS 1 THE BACKGROUND 2 THE ASSESSMENT 3 THE ASSETS 4 THE SOLUTIONS 5 THE NEXT STEPS 6 CONCLUSION 7 SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS Appendix 1: List of organisations and individuals consulted in the course of this study SECTION 1: THE BACKGROUND 1 This report is a completely independent assessment of the transport and environment situation in Calcutta in August 1996. 2 The report has been produced at the request of Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in Calcutta and is made to them. A list of the NGOs involved in this commission is attached as Appendix 1. Their full co-operation and participation in this process is gratefully acknowledged. 3 The report has not been prepared in a policy vacuum. Both the report and the process that has produced the report take their conceptual orientation and context from sustainable development principles and the operational definitions of sustainable transport. These principles have been clearly articulated at the Rio de Janeiro conference on Environment and Development in 1992 and given more substance at the Habitat II conference in Istanbul in March 1996. The Indian government was represented at both these occasions and made its commitment to sustainable development. 4 It is important that we are very clear about what this policy context and orientation actually means. This can be summarised in a number of brief points: • the growth in the demand for mobility and the demand for motorised transport is the largest single source of greenhouse gases and the source that is growing the fastest; • transport is the largest single source of health damaging air pollutants in urban areas; • transport is the most important source of health damaging noise pollution in urban areas; • there is a measurable, direct, and statistically significant relationship between the volume of traffic in urban areas and the health of urban residents; • those who live in polluted cities have a shorter life span, an increased incidence of cancers and respiratory disease, more frequent absences from work and school because of illness and more frequent spells of hospitalisation; • the volume of motorised traffic will rise in direct proportion to the amount of road space and parking space that is provided; • the construction of new roads, new bridges and new tunnels and additional car parking capacity will increase the demand for private motorised transport and damage public transport and non-polluting modes of transport; • it is not possible to provide enough space, energy and financial resources to cope with the remorseless increase in demand for motorised transport; • a new equilibrium has to be struck through demand management (i.e. reducing the demand for transport), by improvements in accessibility through careful land use planning, and by improving the conditions for walking, cycling and public transport. Most journeys made in urban areas are short (<10 km). These journeys can best be catered for by improvements in the conditions for walking, cycling, non- motorised vehicles and public transport. High speed systems, expressways, and capital intensive modes of transport are not relevant to the vast majority of the population of large cities and especially not relevant to the needs of Calcutta with its income profile heavily skewed to the lower end of the scale. 5 Sustainable transport solutions are solutions that meet the need of all residents regardless of income; protect, preserve and enhance the health of the residents; and are not damaging to the present and future conditions for life. Sustainable solutions reduce energy consumption, reduce the space requirements for transport, reduce pollution and improve the welfare of disadvantaged groups such as the poor, the elderly, the handicapped and young children. Sustainable transport solutions are also economically efficient. They reduce dependency on imported oil, saving large amounts of valuable foreign exchange, they are capable of local development and local implementation, and they do not need Japanese, British or US technology. They maximise local input and local employment generation benefits. They are appropriate solutions and must be designed with a substantial local input. Sustainable transport solutions make the best possible use of existing assets. Every city has assets and Calcutta has an abundance of assets (see Section 3). Sustainable transport solutions are identified by their linkage to targets and objectives. Transport planning and transport investment must have a purpose which must be clearly identified and reflect the views of residents and NGOs. There is a general level of agreement that these targets and objectives should include: • reducing air pollution; • reducing noise levels; • increasing the space, security and comfort for pedestrians and cyclists; • reducing the number of cars and lorries on the roads and increasing the proportion of journeys accomplished by walking and cycling; • developing and improving those modes of transport that are zero pollution on the streets (e.g. the tram); • establishing safe routes to schools, hospitals, workplaces, etc.; • reducing road traffic accidents; • reducing total energy consumption; • increasing the amount of green space in urban areas; • increasing the number of trees. All targets and objectives can be quantified in terms of the progress that is expected over a pre-defined time period. For example it is possible and desirable to plan to reduce particulate pollution (black smoke) in Calcutta by 10% (or more) each year for the next 6-7 years until a minimum level is achieved. SECTION 2: THE ASSESSMENT 6 There have been many assessments of the conditions of traffic, transport and pollution in Calcutta. The results are alarming and indicate that Calcutta is certainly among the top three cities of the world in terms of the seriousness of its traffic pollution. It may well be the most polluted city in the world. 7 An assessment of traffic, transport and associated environmental problems has to consider air pollution, noise pollution, congestion and road traffic accidents, as well as the health problems associated with each individual environmental factor. Evidence on health damage in Calcutta is not very extensive except in the work of Dr. Dipanker Chakraborti of the School of Environmental Studies at Jadavpur University, Calcutta. 8 Dr. Chakraborti’s work is based on extensive environmental monitoring in Calcutta. Some of his results and conclusions are very relevant to this study: • traffic levels have doubled in the city in the period 1985-1994; • particulate matter pollution in Calcutta is very severe. The WHO recommended level (which should not be exceeded) is 90 µg/cubic metre. Calcutta levels in winter are in the range 1,300-3,000 µg/cubic metre. Particulate matter and its health damaging effects have been extensively studied in the USA by Dockery and his colleagues at Harvard and it is possible to extrapolate from the USA data to predict the number of deaths that can be expected in Calcutta from these exceptionally high levels of particulate pollution; • benzene levels are also exceptionally high in Calcutta. Benzene is a carcinogenic compound. Measurements of benz(a)pyrene in several cities (mg/cubic metre) puts Calcutta in the top ranked position at 30-120, followed by Paris at 4.6-15.0, Brussels at 3.9-12.0 and London at 2.0-14.0. (Source: D Chakraborti: 'Calcutta City in Pollution Perspective' in Banabithi, Environment Special Issue, June 1996). 9 Noise pollution in Calcutta is severe. The combination of traffic volume, poor mechanical condition of most vehicles and universal use of the horn as a key part of driving behaviour produces noise levels frequently in excess of 90 dB(A). On most streets where there are four lanes of traffic and at all intersections it is physically impossible to hold a conversation and be understood unless the distance between the speakers is less than 0.5 m. These noise levels are considerably in excess of WHO recommended levels which indicate that in daytime a level of 55 dB(A) should not be exceeded and at night-time, 45 dB(A). In many parts of Europe even more stringent levels are applied in the vicinity of schools, hospitals, residential homes for the elderly, etc. These noise limits are designed to protect human health. Noise is not just a matter of aesthetics and its health damaging effects go far deeper than damage to hearing. Excessive noise levels are a direct cause of high blood pressure, stress and cardiological problems. They are associated with psychological difficulties, mental illness, loss of energy, difficulties in coping, learning difficulties in children and delays in recovering from illness. Noise is a serious health hazard in Calcutta. 10 Traffic congestion is a serious problem in Calcutta but its extent should not be exaggerated. Congestion levels (and time delays) are not as extensive as they are in Los Angeles, Bangkok or some South American cities. Many journeys in Calcutta of 5-10 km can be achieved by car or taxi in 30-40 minutes which compares very favourably with most cities around the world. Congested traffic also has an effect on reducing the severity of road traffic accidents. London has the lowest level of fatal and serious road traffic injuries in Britain precisely because it has congested traffic conditions.