Protecting Florida's Springs

Acknowledgments

The Florida Departments of Community Affairs and Environmental Advisory Committee Direction for development of this manual was provided by the following Advisory Committee who dedicated Protection wish to express their appreciation to the following individuals: countless hours of their time to this effort.

Richard Deadman, Florida Department of Community Affairs, Project Manager Jeff Bielling Jim Stevenson, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, Project Manager Florida Department of Community Affairs

Maria Abadal Cahill, Florida Department of Community Affairs Richard Budell Walker Banning, Florida Department of Community Affairs Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services

Julia “Alex” Magee, 1000 Friends of Florida Bruce Day Withlacoochee Regional Planning Council Dan Pennington, 1000 Friends of Florida Steven Dwinell Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services

Charles Gauthier Florida Department of Community Affairs

Joel D. Jackson Special thanks to Paulette Bond, Florida Geological Survey, for her graphic contribution. Florida Golf Course Superintendents Association The manual can be found on the Florida Department of Community Affairs’ website: www.dca.state.fl.us/fdcp/DCP/publications John Outland Florida Department of Environmental Protection For additional copies of the manual, please contact: Division of Community Planning, Publications, Florida Department of Community Affairs, 2555 Shumard Oak Boulevard, Joseph Quinn Tallahassee, Florida 32399-2100, (850) 487-4545. Southwest FloridaWater Management District

A publication of the Florida Department of Community Affairs, Florida Department Pete Sleszynski of Environmental Protection and 1000 Friends of Florida. This publication was Florida Department of Environmental Protection prepared based on recommendations contained in the Florida Springs Task Force final report: Florida’s Springs: Strategies for Protection and Restoration and funded through a grant by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. Miles M. (Bud) Smart Audubon International

Table of Contents

3 INTRODUCTION 59 Encourage Appropriate Water Conservation Measures 4 Florida’s Geology Creates Our Springs 60 Increase Public Awareness 6 There Are Many Unseen Connections to a Spring 63 Additional Resources 6 Springs Contribute to Florida’s Economy 64 Attachment 1: Specific Policy and Permitting Considerations for Karst 7 Land Use Can Have a Negative Impact on Springs Areas 9 Planning Strategies and Best Management Practices Are Effective 66 Attachment 2: Non-Structural and Structural Management Practices Tools for Springs Protection 68 GOLF COURSE SITING, DESIGN AND 9 Additional Resources MANAGEMENT 10 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRATEGIES 69 Use a Springshed-Based Approach to Golf Course Siting and 12 Use Florida’s Comprehensive Planning Process Effectively Development 14 Establish a Working Group 72 Select an Appropriate Site 14 Adopt a Resolution of Support for Springshed Protection 74 Integrate Environmental Planning into Golf Course Design 17 Collect Data and Map the Resources 81 Establish and Follow a Construction Management Program 21 Establish Springshed Protection Zones 84 Create a Golf Course-Specific Natural Resource Management Plan 22 Create an Overlay Protection District 93 Additional Resources 24 Use Other Appropriate Land Use Planning Tools 94 Attachment: Elements of a Natural Resource Management Plan 28 Use Acquisition and Easement Strategies to Protect the Most Sensitive 96 AGRICULTURE AND SILVICULTURE Areas 98 Implement Agricultural BMPs 30 Establish Voluntary Stewardship Programs 101 Take Advantage of Assistance Opportunities for Agriculture 33 Adopt Comprehensive Plan Policies for Springshed Protection 102 Implement Silvicultural BMPs 34 Additional Resources 106 Take Advantage of Assistance Opportunities for Silviculture 35 Attachment: Sample Goals, Objectives and Policies 107 Additional Resources 40 MANAGING DEVELOPMENT IMPACTS 108 PUBLIC RECREATION 42 Select the Most Appropriate Site for Development 109 Develop a Management Plan 42 Design the Site Appropriately 110 Control the Impact of Public Use 46 Use Sensitive Landscape Design and Management Strategies 111 Additional Resources 50 Use Effective Erosion and Sediment Controls 112 GLOSSARY 53 Address Stormwater Management Issues 115 GRAPHICS CREDITS 56 Address Wastewater Management Issues 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY 58 Utilize a Combination of Best Management Practices

1 2 INTRODUCTION

ith over 600 freshwater springs, Florida is blessed with perhaps the largest concentration of these natural features in the world. Springs are intricately woven into the fabric of Florida’s history. For thousands of years, humans have been drawn to their

crystalline waters, as rich archeological remnants scattered on their banks attest. They W are supplied by the Floridan aquifer, the source of drinking water for much of Florida. Most of Florida’s springs

are located in the region stretching from Hillsborough, Orange,

Seminole and Volusia counties north and west to Walton County. This

manual focuses on this region’s springsheds— the land areas that feed

water to the springs.

Figure 1.1 Springs are important resources in Florida. 3 s Florida’s population continues to Most Florida springs exist where the grow, our springs are facing increasing Florida’s Geology Creates Our Springs limestone of the Floridan Aquifer is exposed at A pressures. This growth brings an the land surface and ground water is forced out inevitable rise in water use, as well as extensive lorida rests on a bed of limestone. from underground. This type of landscape is land use changes. Water shortages could become Rainwater, made slightly acidic by carbon commonly referred to as “karst.” a controlling factor in the location and timing of F dioxide picked up from the atmosphere, Within this very porous topography, soils new development. Each year, lands within slowly works its way through the limestone, are often sandy. Water passes through rapidly springsheds are developed, altering the quality dissolving channels and caves to form an and is poorly filtered, so pollution from the land and quantity of water flowing to the springs. underground drainage system. Where larger passes quickly into the underlying aquifer. Springs serve as windows into the quality of our cavities are created, the overlying rock Additionally, sinkholes, streams, and lakes act ground water, which continues to decline as sometimes collapses, forming a sinkhole or as conduits, further polluting the aquifer. These development pressures increase. spring. pollutants then emerge in the spring water.

Figure 1.2. Karst areas may resemble Swiss cheese when exposed. Figure 1.3. In a karst area, sinks and springs connect ground and surface waters.

4 INTRODUCTION

In recognition of the pressures facing

Florida’s springs, the Florida Springs The entire state of Florida is a karst region, is near the surface. Comparing Figure 1.4 with Task Force was convened in 1999 to resting on a limestone plateau formed millions of Figure 1.1 reveals the strong correlation recommend strategies for the years ago when the area was a shallow sea. Karst between areas with well-developed karst terrain activity is most visible in those areas where and the location of major springs. protection and restoration of these there is little to no overburden (clay and sandy Springs are classified by their rate of soils) on top of the limestone, and ground water discharge. First magnitude springs produce the fragile resources. Created by Secretary greatest amount of water—100 cubic feet per Figure 1.4. Although all of Florida is a karst region, in those areas Struhs of the Department of second or more. Eighth magnitude springs where the karst is more developed there is a higher potential for spring development. Environmental Protection, the task force was comprised of sixteen scientists, planners, and other citizens. After meeting for a year, their final report,

Florida’s Springs: Strategies for Protection Karst Terrain and Restoration, was issued in Areas with limestone lying at or near the ground November, 2000. It identifies a wide surface with thin overburden; well-developed karst is present. In some areas deep dewatering has variety of strategies, including outreach, occurred and sinkhole collapse is present. information, management, and funding Areas with limestone covered by moderate to thick approaches, and identifies roles for all overburden with the water table and/or piezometric surface lying below the top of rock levels of government and Florida basins; well-developed karst is present. residents in spring protection. The work Areas with limestone covered by moderate to thick overburden with the water table and/or by Florida Springs Task Force directly piezometric surface laying near or at ground surface. led to the development of this best management practices manual.

5 produce the least—less than one pint per contrast to a hot summer afternoon for young and minute. Florida has 33 of the nation’s 75 first Springs Contribute to old alike. Smaller springs and sinkholes serve as magnitude springs, more than any other state. Florida’s Economy important local recreation areas. Ginnie Spring is the most popular freshwater diving location in There Are Many Unseen prings have always played an important the world. Silver Springs, Ichetucknee Springs, Connections to a Spring role in this state’s history. Among Warm Mineral Spring, and Wakulla Springs S Florida’s first major “modern” tourist continue to be major tourist attractions. ust as a watershed for a lake or river can be attractions, the waters of many springs were Facilities like these play an important part delineated, the area of land that feeds a perceived to have therapeutic qualities. In the in local economies. The twelve state parks with J spring can also be identified. The extent of early 1900s, for example, Panacea Mineral springs bring in over $7 million in annual this recharge area, or springshed, is influenced Springs in Wakulla County was the site of a revenue. by topography and also by what is happening 125-room hotel, drawing visitors from all over A recent surge in the demand for bottled unseen under the ground—the presence of cave for their healing powers. water has inspired a renewed interest in spring systems, fissures and other karst features as well Florida springs continue to provide water. Some look at bottled spring water as as hydrological or water pressure. recreational opportunities for swimmers, having better health benefits than tap water. Many different features interact with a boaters, wildlife watchers, and cave divers. Several brands commonly found on grocery spring and its springshed. Water falling miles Their constant temperatures provide a cool away seeps into the ground water, eventually enters the cave system and emerges through a spring. A stream disappears underground, but can travel through the karst landscape and reemerge through a spring. Sinkholes can also be connected to a spring. Pollutants entering any of these apparently unrelated systems can travel underground to the spring. This movement can be relatively quick or can take years. Thus, in a karst landscape, what cannot be seen is just as important as what can be seen. Understanding the hydrology and geology of Figure 1.5. Other karst features around a spring these landscapes is important to developing can impact what effective strategies for springs protection. happens in the spring.

6 INTRODUCTION

The Florida Springs Task Force identified three major concepts that must be the foundation for education about Florida springs:

1. A spring is only as healthy as its recharge basin or springshed. 2. Activities within springsheds can and do have adverse impacts upon the quality and

Figure 1.6. Ichetucknee Springs is one of the state’s most popular tubing sites and has stimulated many local businesses outside the park. quantity of ground water. This affects spring flow, water shelves draw water from Florida’s springs. threats to a spring vary according to land use quality, and the health of Spring water is becoming an industry with an practices and the geology within each spring-run ecosystems. attached economic value; however, production springshed. What occurs on the land directly 3. Protection of spring water must puts additional pressures on the quantity of and indirectly affects the quality of water occur before the water reaches water withdrawn from the spring. moving through the subsurface karst matrix. the spring. The challenge is to preserve the values of Contamination is a major threat. Sulphur Florida’s springs while balancing the needs of Springs in Tampa, for example, is closed to (Florida Springs Task Force Report, 2000) the state’s many water users. public use due to poor water quality. Water can carry contaminants from the land surface into Land Use Can Have springs. Stormwater runoff can carry oil, a Negative Impact on Springs fertilizer, pesticides, and bacteria. Septic tanks and underground storage tanks can contribute he ground water that feeds springs is nutrients, bacteria and chemicals via seepage. recharged by seepage from the surface This contamination seeps to the ground water T and through direct conduits such as and travels to the spring. sinkholes. Numerous studies by Florida’s water Increased nutrients, including soluble management districts and the United States forms of nitrogen, essentially fertilize the water Geological Survey clearly demonstrate in springsheds. Nitrogen arrives from numerous contamination attributable to changes in land sources: urea and ammonia from animal wastes, use in springsheds. nitrogen and nitrates from automobile and The nature and magnitude of water quality industrial exhaust, and inorganic nitrates 7 Figure 1.8. The bottom line traces the increase in nitrate levels in Weeki Wachee Springs since the Figure 1.7. Increased nutrients can result in heavy algae growth in a spring or spring run. 1940s. This mirrors the population increase in the spring recharge basin during those same years. derived from lawn, golf course or agriculture within the aquifer, and the hydraulic gradient of environment as well. Reducing the amount of field fertilization. While these nutrients are the land. Flows can be reduced or eliminated by water discharged from a spring also reduces the required by aquatic organisms for growth and over-pumping water from the aquifer for flow in the river, creating additional impacts. reproduction, when they make their way into irrigation or potable water needs. Kissengen ground and surface waters at higher than natural Spring and Hampton Spring, once popular This manual recommends planning levels, problems often arise. Clear, low-nutrient swimming holes, have diminished to a trickle. strategies and best management waters that once sustained a diverse mix of Any of these negative impacts are unlikely practices to protect springs. plants and animals become clouded by algae to remain confined to a spring. Springs drain Individual chapters address: that thrive on the increased nutrient load, reduc- large amounts of ground water from the Floridan ing light and, correspondingly, the diversity of Aquifer, contributing to the relatively constant • Comprehensive Planning plant and animal communities. temperature and steady flow rate of many of Strategies The quantity of water feeding a spring and Florida’s spring runs—rivers that stem from the • Managing Development Impacts its corresponding discharge can also be outflow of a spring. Other rivers receive • Golf Course Siting, Design and dramatically affected by land use. The natural significant portions of their flow from seeps— Management flow of water to springs is controlled by complex water table springs that issue from the • Agriculture and Silviculture interactions. These include the amount and riverbank. Thus, contaminated spring water is • Public Recreation frequency of rainfall, the porosity and carried directly into the ensuing rivers and can permeability of the aquifer, the hydrostatic head dramatically impact the health of this riverine 8 INTRODUCTION

Planning Strategies and Best Management Practices Are Effective Tools for Springs Protection Be Sure To Check Out These Resources! pring protection is not a lost cause. Florida Springs, on the Florida Department of Environmental Protection website, Springs and spring runs once damaged by www.dep.state.fl.us/springs/index.htm, has a wealth of information on this subject. overuse have been restored through good S Springs of Florida, Geological Bulletin No. 31 Revised, published by the Florida Geological stewardship, including Madison County’s Blue Spring, Ichetucknee Springs in Columbia Survey, is a comprehensive look at springs in Florida. It can be viewed by going to County, and Blue Spring in Volusia County. www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/, then going to the List of Publications and clicking on Good stewardship includes using effective “Bulletins.” planning strategies and implementing best Florida’s Springs: Strategies for Protection and Restoration, is the report of the Florida Springs management practices (BMPs) to preserve and Task Force, issued in November 2000. It can be accessed at www.dep.state.fl.us/secretary/ protect the spring and its springshed. BMPs are info/pubs/FlSprings.PDF. actions, based on sound science and professional judgement, that can be taken to eliminate or Springs Fever: A Field and Recreational Guide to Florida Springs, by Joe Follmand and reduce adverse impacts to a spring. They can Richard Buchanan, is an excellent source of information about Florida’s springs. It can be include the way decisions are made, the way a found at www.tfn.net/Museum/Springbook/. project is designed and managed, the types of Floridasprings.com is a web site that contains information about springs, as well as many inputs (such as fertilizers or pesticides) that are beautiful pictures. Access it at www.floridasprings.com/sitemap.htm. added to the land, or specific structural improvements. The Florida Geological Survey has a publication, Sinkholes in Florida, which provides reliable A multitude of informational and financial information on this topic. Go to www.dep.state.fl.us/geology/geologictopics/ resources to assist in springs protection efforts are sinkhole.htm. highlighted in this manual. Each chapter includes a resource box identifying other sources of information. The bibliography contains even more resources.

9 hat happens on the land in a springshed determines the impacts on the spring itself. A variety of tools are available for Florida communities to manage impacts from the land. Florida’s comprehensive planning process provides the foundation Wfor any city or county land management activity. Chapter 163, Part II, Florida Statutes, the Local Government Comprehensive Planning and Land Development Regulation Act, legally empowers a local jurisdiction to plan for and guide future growth and development. Steps to plan for springshed protection include:

Use Florida’s Comprehensive Planning Process Effectively Establish a Working Group Adopt a Resolution of Support for Springshed Protection Collect Data and Map the Resources Establish Springshed Protection Zones Create an Overlay Protection District Use Other Appropriate Land Use Planning Tools Use Acquisition and Easement Strategies to Protect the Most Sensitive Areas Establish Voluntary Stewardship Programs Adopt Comprehensive Plan Policies for Springshed Protection

10 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

any of Florida’s springs exhibit signals of distress, including M increasing nutrient loads, turbidity, and lowered water flows. These impacts often can be attributed to the nature and intensity of Figure 2.1. This aerial development of the land in the springshed. of Seminole and Prudent land use planning decisions can protect Orange counties shows and improve water quality, quantity and upland Wekiwa Springs and State Park to the north resources of a springshed. and extensive Land use planning is best conducted at a development to the local scale where the connections between south within the particular land uses and water quality and springshed. Sand Lake and Lake Brantley can quantity impacts are strongest. Managing land be seen along with golf use types and their allowable densities and courses and residential intensities of development, followed by specific road networks. site planning to further minimize impacts, rank as perhaps the most important goals of a When developing a springshed protection • Devise an ongoing management structure to springshed protection effort. program: adopt, implement and periodically revisit the A local jurisdiction should recognize the • Obtain community consensus on the most springshed program. particular sensitivities of the springshed and use important water resource goals in the Starting a springshed protection effort can land management tools to minimize impacts to springshed; follow many paths. Almost all locally-based the springshed. These tools include the • Identify resources and assess the impacts of efforts begin when an individual or a group comprehensive plan, the future land use map, future land uses on water resources; become concerned with decreased water flow or land development regulations, overlay zones, • Develop future land use strategies including reduced water clarity, or when aquatic plant and and other best management practices to: identifing protection zones and designating algae begin to grow beyond the norm affecting TEGIES • Preserve sensitive areas; appropriate land uses that will meet these the quality of water in the spring. Often they • Direct development away from the goals; begin to recognize that there is a direct environmentally-sensitive areas and toward • Select the most acceptable and effective land relationship between land use changes and areas that can support a particular land use use management standards to reduce water quality and quantity impacts. Concern type and density or intensity of use; and nutrients and other pollutant inputs and may turn to action when a group of citizens take • Minimize impacts resulting from existing or minimize impacts from land uses; the initiative, or local, regional or state agencies approved development through the use of best • Use acquisition and easement strategies to recognize a threat and the need for protection. management practices. further protect the most sensitive areas; and 11 development regulations needed to protect Use Florida’s Comprehensive Key Practices for sensitive resources. The comprehensive plan is Planning Process Effectively Using the Planning Process the legal instrument to provide clear, rational starting point for any city or county is and specific guidance for the long term • Use the local government comprehensive Florida’s comprehensive planning pro- springshed protection. planning process and land development A cess. Chapter 163, Part II, Florida The comprehensive plan contains inter- regulations to develop a springshed Statutes, the Local Government Comprehensive related “elements” that deal with issues such as protection program. Planning and Land Development Regulation Act, intergovernmental coordination, future land use, • Establish a local working group or legally empowers a jurisdiction to plan for and conservation, recreation and open space, sanitary technical advisory committee to help guide future growth and development. This act sewer, potable water, stormwater management, gather and analyze available information. directs local governments to: natural ground water aquifer recharge, and capital • Educate landowners and the public about improvements. These elements include specific the springshed and its vulnerabilities— “preserve and enhance present ad- goals, as well as objectives and policies that this is crucial to a springshed protection vantages; encourage the most appro- outline how the local government will reach its effort. priate use of land, water, and goals. The process of comprehensive planning • Solidify support for springshed protection resources, consistent with the public begins with gathering and analyzing data, and by communicating with the public and interest; overcome present handicaps; adopting comprehensive plan goals, objectives drafting a springshed protection resolution and deal effectively with future prob- and policies. A future land use map that identifies for adoption by the local governing body(s). lems that may result from the use and the location of allowed land uses and establishes • Use a gradient approach to springshed development of land. Through the densities and intensities of use based on land use protection by establishing environmental process of comprehensive planning suitability is also adopted. overlay zones (primary, secondary, etc) in local government can work to pre- All local government land use decisions the comprehensive plan. serve, promote, protect, and improve must be consistent with the comprehensive plan the public health... prevent the over- and future land use map. The comprehensive • Locate conservation lands, parks and open crowding of land and avoid undue plan provides the basis for developing and space, low intensity silviculture lands that concentration of population... and adopting specific land development regulations, are less intense, low pollutant generating conserve, develop, utilize, and protect including development ordinances, programs land uses nearer the spring in a primary natural resources within their juris- and best management practices and government zone, and place land uses with greater dictions.” supported voluntary land stewardship programs. potential to contribute pollutants further The comprehensive plan provides the basis for away from the spring in a designated For all communities in Florida, the developing the springshed protection program. secondary zone. comprehensive plan provides the foundation for The rest of this chapter outlines the steps for • Implement voluntary and incentive-based developing programs, actions and specific land springshed protection. programs to protect a springshed. 12 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Florida Studies Link Land Uses to Impacts Nitrate pollution can be traced to two general cat- increases in nitrate concentrations in the springs likely increase nitrogen concentrations egories of origin: inorganic and organic. Inorganic that began in the 1960s,which correlates with the significantly. nitrate sources may include fertilizer runoff asso- increased coverage of citrus across the For each of these basins, stormwater runoff ciated with residential, golf course turf/landscape Brooksville Ridge in the decades preceding the in the karst terrain may be partially responsible and agricultural operations. Organic sources may increase. for conveying fertilizer-derived nitrogen into the include naturally occurring organic decay, sewage For King’s Bay, nitrogen releases resulting ground water system. effluent disposal, land disposal of sewage sludge, from land uses (residential and golf course turf Adapted from “Water-Quality and Hydrology of the effluent from septic tanks servicing residential fertilizers, septic tanks, and effluent disposal from Homosassa, Chassahowitzka, Weeki Wachee, and Aripeka and commercial development, land disposal of sewage treatment) are elevating ground water Spring Complexes, Citrus and Hernando Counties, Florida, septage sludge, poultry, dairies, and cattle. nitrogen concentrations. Ground water enriched Origin of Increasing Nitrate Concentrations, Southwest Florida Water Management District (SWFWMD), October For the Homosassa, Chassahowitzka, Weeki in nitrogen from both development-related and 1997 and, Origin of Nitrate in Ground Water Discharging Wachee, and Aripeka spring complexes in Citrus natural sources is moving toward the coast in from Crystal Springs, Pasco County, Florida, SWFWMD, June, and Hernando counties, nitrogen isotopic data well-defined plumes. Within 20 years, this 2000; and, Origin of Nutrients in Ground Water Discharging suggest that the dominant source of nitrate nitrogen will reach the King’s Bay Springs and from The King’s Bay Springs, SWFWMD, Revised Version, discharging in ground water from the springs is January 1998. inorganic. Residential and golf course turf and landscape fertilizations were identified as the principal source of such inorganic nitrate. Supporting data implicate the inorganic nature of the source, the close proximity of the source to the springs, and the rapid increases in nitrate concentrations in the springs that began in the late 1960s, which correlates with the development of large coastal residential subdivisions

containing the largest densities of residential and TEGIES golf course turf and landscape. For Crystal Springs in Pasco County, citrus fertilization was identified as the most likely source of nitrate in the basin. Supporting data include the inorganic nature of the source, the regionally extensive coverage of citrus which closely matches the distribution of nitrate in the Figure 2.2. Our activities upon the land within Karst areas are ground water of the recharge basin, and the rapid quickly reflected in the ground water and golf courses. 13 others. A mix of backgrounds will strengthen the should educate others about the environmental, Establish a Working Group resource base and effectiveness of the working historical and cultural values of the springshed, group. its condition, and the steps needed to better o initiate a springshed protection pro- The group can assist with collecting basic protect the resources. gram, a local government may establish springshed physical data and evaluating and a “working group” or “technical advisory T recording important cultural and historical facts committee” (TAC) to evaluate the threat to the about the springshed. The local government may Adopt a Resolution of Support spring system, gather and map information, and formalize this ad hoc group, as well as any for Springshed Protection recommend actions that the local government and future spring protection actions, through the others can take to protect the spring. preparation and adoption of a springshed o support the springshed protection pro- The value of a springs protection working protection resolution. gram, the local government may adopt a group cannot be overstated. Initially, an ad hoc Early in any springshed protection planning resolution for springshed protection. The group can consist of interested citizens and T effort it is important that the local governing resolution establishes the springshed protection representatives of local governments, the water body, local planning commission, and the public program and actions required to protect the management district, regional planning council, be aware and supportive of protection efforts. To spring system. local university or community colleges, and foster this, local advocates and working groups The Wakulla Springs Working Group

A working group was established in Wakulla County to look into the and informational gathering abilities and accessed expertise not found springshed protection needs of Wakulla Springs and Wakulla Spring within the county offices. State Park. Situated near Tallahassee, Wakulla Springs is one of A number of actions have followed to help protect Wakulla Florida’s largest first magnitude springs. The spring had been experi- Springs. Existing data was collected, organized and analyzed, the area encing reduced water clarity and increased algal and aquatic plant was mapped, and the Wakulla County Commission adopted a local growth. The Florida Department of Environmental Protection estab- resolution identifying the area as sensitive and noting its importance. lished a working group including federal, state and regional resource These initial actions led to the development of a specific agency personnel, the Wakulla County planner, adjacent Leon County environmental protection overlay zone to guide certain land use water quality personnel, local cave diving club members and other activities. In addition, after identification of particularly sensitive citizens. The group researched the threat to the spring system and parcels, land acquisitions have occurred and others are planned to helped develop recommendations to address identified problems. To provide additional protection around Wakulla Springs State Park and address the threat, this group expanded Wakulla County’s researching other karst features in the springshed.

14 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Sample Local Springshed Protection Resolution

WHEREAS, springsheds are a rare and crucial component of the Florida WHEREAS, the Board/Council supports the protection of the water hydrogeologic landscape and the continued existence of these valuable quality, quantity and ecological integrity of the ______natural resources is important to the sustainability of local, state and Springshed so that the citizens of our jurisdiction and visitors alike global ecosystems; and may continue to enjoy this important natural resource; and,

WHEREAS, the State of Florida is endowed with a limited number of WHEREAS, the Board/Council finds it necessary and in the best in- pristine springsheds, including Spring located in______terests of the citizens of the County/City and the State of Florida to County/City; and protect the Spring and the Springshed;

WHEREAS, the Board of County Commissioners/City Council finds that BE IT RESOLVED that the Board/Council is committed to taking the Spring, Spring Run and the emanating Springshed (collectively, the those actions necessary to protect the Spring and the Springshed, “Spring” and the”“Springshed”) are valuable natural resources, recre- including: ational centers, and economic development assets to the citizens of the • Appointing a technical working group to help research and County/City and the State of Florida; and identify the particular areas of concern, collect relevant data, and produce a working base map and other maps showing the known WHEREAS, the Board/Council finds that land use and development springshed features of importance and sensitivity; practices have the potential to degrade the Spring and the Springshed; • Identifying reasonable springshed planning boundaries to assist

and efforts to preserve and protect the springsheds; TEGIES • Developing planning and land management strategies and other WHEREAS, conventional land use and development practices have the programs to protect springshed resources; and potential to threaten and diminish the natural health and integrity of • Suggesting amendments to the Comprehensive Plan and Land springsheds; and Development Regulations to implement actions of protection.

15 What is Happening in Other States?

Protection of springs is not just a Florida problem. is fed by 28 million gallons of water each day source drinking water aquifer. SBCA helped In springsheds across the country, similar prob- from several underground springs. Barton Springs write ordinances designed to protect the creeks lems are shared. Overwithdrawal of water, high nu- is part of 360-acre Zilker Park, located in the and watersheds and provides funding and trient and other pollutant inputs and alterations to heart of Austin. The water from Barton Springs scientific expertise for public education the natural springshed landscape are common and Barton Creek flows into the lower Colorado opportunities. problems. Here are summaries of efforts to protect River. The City has developed a very wide array springsheds in other parts of the country. of tools to protect to the system. These tools in- Mammoth Cave, Kentucky. The Mammoth clude water quality ordinances that limit the Cave Area Biosphere Reserve in Kentucky is a Nine Springs, Wisconsin. The Nine Springs amount of impervious cover that a development karst system of underground watercourses that watershed presented an opportunity for Dane can lay on the landscape, construction setbacks includes the longest cave in the world. Long- County and the State of Wisconsin to protect and to prevent building too close to creeks, caves, term hydrological studies have delineated the preserve a rare and valuable riparian ecosystem. springs and wetlands, and stormwater controls extent of the system. Mammoth Cave National The Nine Springs watershed consists of 8,144 like water quality ponds to capture contaminated Park is the core of the designated biosphere re- acres of land situated along the south border of the runoff and treat it before it is discharged back serve, and the ground water recharge area for City of Madison. The idea was to develop a model into waterways. the park’s cave is a designated zone of coopera- where natural and manmade areas are linked for The City’s efforts are further supported by tion. A Biosphere Reserve Cooperative, admin- the purposes of environmental education and en- the Save Barton Creek Association (SBCA) and istered by the regional development authority, vironmental issue identification. This model sys- the Save Our Springs Alliance (SOS), nonprofit monitors for water pollution sources, establishes tem is called the E-Way. “E” stands for citizen groups working to protect and conserve a regional geographic information system, and Educational, Ecological, Esthetic and Environ- watersheds. SBCA incorporated in September conducts educational and cultural heritage mental. The boundary has been delineated based 1979 in response to community concerns about projects. These complement ongoing park re- on a system of water, wetlands and steep topogra- the impacts of urbanization. Through research, search and have attracted considerable financial phy that create a buffer between urban areas. public education, and land conservation, SBCA support. and SOS both work to protect and conserve the Barton Creek/Springs, Austin, Texas. Barton flora, fauna and water quality of Barton Creek Springs, a natural limestone pool 1000 feet long, and the Barton Springs Edwards Aquifer, a sole-

16 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Collect Data and springshed area of water recharge. information and mapping have been assembled Map the Resources Base Maps and Sources. As a first and analyzed, it is likely that the detailed step, a working base map of the springshed, its delineation and evaluation of the springshed will he springshed protection working group extent as currently understood and known be far from complete. Additional resources will should collect and evaluate existing in- vulnerabilities should be created. Other be needed. These resources, when linked with T formation about the spring, spring run important geographic features to map include the geographic coverages, will increase the level and springshed. Some springshed features will wetlands, floodplains, soils and habitat areas of detail and certainty regarding the extent of the be easily identified—the spring, spring run, and to help identify flow ways and other spring springshed. larger sinkholes near and upgradient to the connections. Soils maps also help in A computer-based Geographic Information spring. Much less information may be available determining the rate of movement of surface System (GIS) helps display important regarding the overall extent of the springshed water to ground water through the soil where geographic features of the springshed. The and its detailed hydrogeology. Given limitations the aquifer is vulnerable because of high University of Florida’s GeoPlan Center, at on information, an incremental approach to col- permeability. www.geoplan.ufl.edu, has compiled GIS lecting data and mapping the springshed should Determining ground water movement and information that is available for a relatively low be pursued, starting from the spring and spring identifying potential pollution sources are cost. Water management districts (WMD), the run, and progressing upgradient into the complex activities. Even after the basic Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP), the Florida Department of Community Affairs (FDCA), the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, and regional planning councils also have GIS capabilities and should be consulted for help in mapping information about a springshed. These agencies can assist the working group in mapping critical geographic features and interpreting

Figure 2.3. USGS TEGIES topographical information. maps can be used There are a variety of useful federal, state, as base maps. local and private sources of data for mapping a Here, a Wakulla springshed. Some of the more valuable are Springs described here: topographical map is overlain with USGS Maps. One of the best starting digital aerials points for developing a base map is to use showing land use topographic maps produced by the United patterns. States Geological Survey (USGS). These maps 17 Figure 2.4. This aerial (left) of Crystal River Springs Bay and surrounding area shows the area upgradient of the spring is developing intensively. The second aerial (right) shows a sinkhole that developed in Winter Park. show major surface features, land elevation fea- limited and have no central repository. Possible Florida Department of Environmental Protection tures to determine surface water movement, sources of such maps include the National use models to determine aquifer vulnerability to roads, and county boundaries. Obvious Speleological Society, Florida Chapter Cave pollution. Such modeling can provide valuable springshed characteristics, such as sinkholes, Diving Section and the Global Underwater guidance when identifying the types of land uses closed depressions, stream-to-sink drainages, the Explorers (GUE) in High Springs, Florida. For appropriate for areas within a springshed. The spring and spring run, can usually be identified more information, visit their web sites at DRASTIC and FAVA models are discussed using these maps. www.cavediver.org and www.gue.com/info/ below. DRASTIC is used nationally while FAVA Aerial Photography. Basic aerial index.html. is presently being developed as a Florida- photography is also an extremely important tool in Sinkhole Data. Because of the karst specific model. land use planning within any springshed. Aerials geology found throughout Florida, sinkholes need DRASTIC. The U.S. Environmental are available from the University of Florida’s to be considered in the data collection and Protection Agency (EPA) has identified the GeoPlan Center, the Florida Department of mapping effort. They occur when overlying following seven key factors that determine Transportation, or from the county property sediment collapses into underground cavities and aquifer vulnerability: (1) Depth to ground water; appraiser’s office. The photos can be used as an can result in a direct connection to the aquifer. (2) Recharge rate to ground water; (3) Aquifer image backdrop for planing purposes and feature The Florida Geological Survey maintains media; (4) Soil type; (5) Topography; (6) Impact identification. The photos are generally of good information on sinkhole types and locations. This of the vadose zone; and (7) Conductivity of the quality with some having two meter resolution or information is available at www.dep.state.fl.us/ aquifer. Each of these factors is assigned a better. geology/geologictopics/sinkhole.htm. combination of weights and ratings, and a Underwater Cave Maps. Maps of Aquifer Vulnerabilty Models. Both the numerical index, called the DRASTIC index, is underground caves, conduits and caverns are very U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the computed. 18 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

The DRASTIC index is then used to evaluate Other Sources of Springshed Data the relative vulnerability of different aquifers or • Federal Emergency Management Agency, • Florida Department of Transportation road different segments of a given aquifer. The Flood Prone Area Maps (available from the coverages; methodology utilizes existing hydrogeological Florida Department of Community Affairs, • County geological maps and sinkhole information to produce color-coded maps which Division of Emergency Management); display areas that are more or less likely to be location maps (available from FDEP, affected by pollution introduced on the ground’s • National Wetlands Inventory Maps; Florida Geological Survey); and Drainage Basin Maps (available from the surface. These maps depict areas of high ground • Vegetation and habitat maps (available from FDEP or WMD); water recharge sensitive to land use changes the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation which may affect ground water quality and • County Soil Survey Maps (available from Commission or the GeoPlan Center). quantity. the local agricultural extension agent or DRASTIC maps are useful as a generalized WMD); tool for assessing regional aquifer vulnerability rather than for site-specific analyses. Most of the source maps used to create the DRASTIC maps were regional in scale. Nevertheless, they are a good source of information for the working group KARST SINKHOLE HYDROLOGY to begin a springshed vulnerability assessment, PERCHED LAKE IN especially with regard to identification of the DRY DRAINAGE SINK SINK springshed areas with high ground water CL recharge. AY ND DRASTIC index values range from 0 to SA about 250; the larger the index, the greater is the relative vulnerability of the aquifer to TEGIES contamination. In some areas, the aquifer is overlaid with deposits of permeable sand and is easily and directly recharged. A high DRASTIC TE index of 224 suggests that ground water LIM RT E IA ST RY contamination is highly likely in this area. In ON ES contrast, a thick deposit of impermeable clay over SINK EXPOSING AQUIFER the aquifer will result in a lower DRASTIC index of 150, indicating a much lower vulnerability to Figure 2.5. This diagram depicts the formation of a sinkhole. 19 contamination. DRASTIC maps for Florida Florida Aquifer Vulnerability counties with karst terrain are available from Assessment the water management districts or the FDEP. Conceptual Model The Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment (FAVA). FAVA is an ongoing project to develop a Florida-specific model using existing GIS data to predict the Grid of the Digital vulnerability of Florida’s major aquifer systems Elevation Model to contamination. Model development is underway with a focus on small-scale pilot Grid of Hydraulic mapping projects in Alachua, Hillsborough Conductivity and Polk counties. The objective of FAVA is to develop a tool that can be used by environmental, regulatory, and planning Grid of the Depth to Water professionals to facilitate protection of Florida’s ground water resources, and thus the health and safety of Florida’s residents. For Grid of Environmental more information, contact the Florida Geology Geological Survey at www.dep.state.fl.us/ geology/programssections/hydrogeology.htm. Figure 2.7. The Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment process should provide a better tool for assessing the groundwater vulnerability than DRASTIC maps.

Hydrogeology Consortium This group was established to provide scientific knowledge about ground water resource management and protection. The Consortium’s primary goal is improved effectiveness and Figure 2.6. These DRASTIC maps of the north central Florida region efficiency of management and protection of water resources, particularly ground water, through (top) and Wakulla Springs (bottom) reflect the aquifer’s relative better understanding and application of scientific knowledge. The Consortium can also help the vulnerability to pollution. The darker the color, the higher the working group interpret springshed information useful for land use planning purposes. For more relative vulnerability. information go to www.hc.gfdi.fsu.edu/.

20 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE Woodville Karst Plain Project

The Woodville Karst Plain Project, an official project of the National Speleological Society’s Research and Advisory Committee, included extensive surveys of the underwater cave system Establish Springshed associated with Wakulla Springs. The Society developed three-dimensional maps of the larger Protection Zones underwater caves and conduits. SCUBA divers collected physical measurements such as depth, width, and height at he springshed usually covers an expan- multiple survey stations along linear paths through the conduits. These measurements were sive area that exhibits varying degrees of used to produce coordinates for points along the cave network. Through linear interpolation, ground water vulnerability. Using the data additional points were generated between survey stations. Using the coordinates and Earth T previously identified, the springshed should be Vision modeling software, relatively accurate three-dimensional geometric models were studied and then divided into zones with similar generated for the cave systems. vulnerability characteristics in order to identify ap- Hydrologic and topographic maps were then superimposed onto the three-dimensional propriate land uses and management strategies for conduit map to investigate the relationship between the land surface and underground the differing springshed zones. conduits. Through this process, the most significant local recharge areas—where the conduits The primary protection zone should include approach the land surface and are not overlain by confining layers of clay or rock—were more the most sensitive areas that are critical to easily identified. In addition, water chemistry and other data collected by researchers can maintaining the springshed’s health and physical easily be incorporated into these models. Similar mapping studies are being performed by the integrity. Not necessarily one contiguous area, this Global Underwater Explorers for other karst springshed systems along the Ichetucknee and zone may resemble an “archipelago” that follow Santa Fe Rivers in north central Florida. streams, lines of sinkholes or known surface or underground conduits that feed the spring. Outlying “islands” of known high ground water recharge that collect and pass water on to the spring should be included within the primary zone. Primary zone features should include: • Areas that provide significant water recharge to the springshed;

• Surface waters that link to the spring, either directly TEGIES or indirectly (stream-to-sink water connections); • Large underground conduits, caves or geological fractures that direct water to the spring; • Sinkholes and other surface depressions that link to the conduits and fractures that lead toward the

Figure 2.8. This three- spring; dimensional conduit map • The spring and the spring run; and shows part of the Wakulla • Buffers surrounding sensitive springshed features. Springs system. 21 Lands within the secondary protection zone are not as vulnerable to contamination as lands within the primary zone, but are important for Overlay Protection District collection, treatment and the release of water to the spring system. The secondary zone typically Dairy includes areas that contribute and treat water upgradient of the primary zone. To help establish SECONDARY the extent of both primary and secondary zones, ZONE Residential modeling can be used to determine the likely rate Range Land PRIMARY Sinkhole Buffer of ground water movement to the springs and natural ZONE Sinkhole Sinkhole treatments. In the absence of modeling, designating Cave System an adequate distance around critical springshed features until modeling can be completed is the accepted alternative. Golf Course

Spring The primary zone is the springshed’s major Sinkhole Spring Run veins, while the secondary zone is its kidneys. Rural Residential Each is vital to a springshed’s health and Maximum I Dwelling integrity, and cannot function as a healthy per 10 acres system without the other. PRIMARY Forest Habitat Urban Area ZONE SECONDARY Wetlands ZONE Create an Overlay Protection District

nce the zones have been identified, a Agriculture (Row Crops) recommended strategy is to create an overlay protection district to include in O Figure 2.9. The primary zone closest to the springshed should have the lowest intensity land uses, while the secondary the comprehensive plan and future land use map. zone can include slightly more intensive but still compatible uses. Arrows indicate the direction of water flow. Overlay districts allow differential treatment of land relative to its vulnerability to contamination. In addition to including the underlying land uses, this district should include special development 22 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

or redevelopment conditions for both the primary and secondary zones. These conditions, described more fully in the following section and other parts Overlay Districts in Developed Springsheds of this manual, can include provisions to shift development away from the most sensitive areas Many of Florida springsheds are located in • Use natural vegetation and xeriscape and to establish performance standards to limit or already developed or rapidly-developing approaches to lawn and landscape design; mitigate pollution impacts. areas. Examples include Weeki Wachee in • Employ active street sweeping; In the primary protection zone, land uses Hernando County, Crystal River in Citrus • Review existing land development codes include preservation, conservation, recreation and County, and a significant part of the Wekiva to determine if changes are needed to open space, unimproved rangeland or low Springs in Orange and Seminole counties. minimize impervious surfaces, preserve intensity, long crop rotation silviculture uses. In Even in a developed springshed, the local natural vegetation, require additional the secondary protection zone, in addition to government should identify the primary and planting of vegetation (especially as primary protection zone uses, land uses of secondary zone. In these areas, it is important riparian buffers), and promote low impact moderate density and intensity such as to manage development impacts using development design options; silviculture, rangeland, low density rural protection strategies and best management • Encourage water conservation and foster residential are also appropriate. Land uses to practices discussed in later sections. local stewardship through “adopt a spring” minimize or avoid within the primary and In springsheds heavily developed with programs, incentives, and volunteer secondary zones include mining, industrial, heavy residential and commercial land uses, springshed awareness and protection commercial, intensive agriculture, golf courses and excessive nutrient input problems require programs; urban uses with extensive impervious surfaces. careful land management, mitigation and • Develop and implement a stormwater The comprehensive plan and future land use minimization of existing pollution sources. master plan designed to reduce stormwater map need to be modified to include the protection In developed springshed areas, local pollution from development; district’s location, allowable land uses and governments should establish programs that: • Specify any land use differences from the density and intensity of uses, and special • Educate homeowners regarding proper underlying use; performance standards. These guidelines and lawn and landscaped area fertilization and • Specify permit, procedural and approval TEGIES standards should be used to develop land irrigation. This can be easily requirements for the district; and development regulations specific to the overlay accomplished by supporting local • Specify targeted overlay criteria or district. Using a district approach acknowledges a implementation of the Florida Yards and performance standards necessary to springshed’s vulnerable characteristics and Neighborhoods Program managed by the protect springs. creates a special area wherein land uses, land local county agricultural extension office; development regulations and special programs may be employed to protect springshed characteristics. 23 Use Other Appropriate Wakulla Springs Special Planning Area Land Use Planning Tools Wakulla County has designed the Wakulla Springs Special Planning Area to ensure ther land use planning tools can be additional water quality protection to ground water affecting Wakulla Springs. A used in conjunction with the overlay major component is the protection of mapped underground flow corridors which O protection district to protect water feed Wakulla Springs. The County’s Comprehensive Plan requires “that the land quality in a springshed. These tools work well in development regulations be amended to protect water quality at Wakulla Springs; relatively undeveloped areas, and can also assist educate the public on water quality issues; regulate land uses which may in areas that have already been substantially adversely impact water resources; identify toxic and hazardous materials, and developed. prohibit the discharge of pollutants.” Open Space Zoning. This involves the clustering of density on a site. It allows the on-site transfer of residential units in order to cluster Legend development away from environmentally-sensitive areas. The intent is to cluster development on Wakulla Springs S.P.A. small lots within a compact portion of the property, Major Springs leaving the remaining portion open. This Wakulla County Municipalities undeveloped portion is placed under a Railroads U.S. Highways conservation easement to preserve it as open State Highways Local Roads space. This reduces the development’s overall Hydrology (lines) Ditch or Canal impacts by changing the shape, orientation, size Stream Major Rivers and layout of residential lots. Open space zoning supercedes conventional zoning, which assigns a development designation and unit density to every

Figure 2.10. The acre of land and can lead to sprawling patterns of overlay zone to development that are more likely to negatively designate the affect sensitive landscape features. Wakulla Springs Wakulla Springs Special Planning Area Open space zoning is often applied as an Special Planning overlay district. It is especially useful where land Area in Wakulla County is depicted use densities and intensities have already been on the future land established at levels not particularly suitable for use map. springshed protection. A landowner or developer retains the right to develop at established 24 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

densities and intensities of use, but clusters that development on one portion of the parcel. The more sensitive springshed features such as the spring, spring run, sinkholes and streams can be set aside in a conservation easement. Thus, the open space area can buffer the more sensitive Cardinal Cardinal springshed features of the site. Meadows Woods On-Site Density Transfer. On-site density transfer, similar to open space zoning, relocates development away from a particularly sensitive portion of the site to a location more capable of accommodating development impacts. However, this tool does not require the special zoning designation that open space zoning does. Development is guided to locations suitable for growth while at the same time protecting areas that require preservation, and achieves the same beneficial results as open space zoning. This technique is usually applied early in the development review process. It is further discussed in the following chapter on managing development impacts within a springshed. Large Lot Zoning. Large lot zoning, Figure 2.11. The original 1984 site plan, and a hypothetical alternative tree-saving layout

produced 16 years later, show contrasting approaches to conservation design. When farmland TEGIES which lessens the impacts of development on and rural character preservation are the primary objectives, the original design illustrates a water quality, is commonly used throughout logical and skillful design solution. When the conservation of woodlands, wildlife habitat, water Florida. It involves zoning at very low densities quality, and aquifer recharge issues are of greater concern, a layout that minimizes forest to disperse impervious cover over very large disturbance is generally preferred. areas. Densities of one unit per 5 or 10 acres are not uncommon. From the standpoint of springshed protection, large lot zoning is more effective as lot sizes increase to the 10- to 40- acre range. 25 While large lot zoning does reduce the impervious cover and, therefore, the amount of stormwater runoff at a particular location, it also spreads development over vast areas, which represents a form of sprawl. Road networks constructed of impervious material reduce the benefits derived from dispersing residential impervious cover over large lots. Sprawl-like development increases the expense of providing community services such as fire protection, water and sewer systems, and school transportation. Sprawl also increases the amount of land converted from forest or farmland to golf courses and lawns, which are notable contributors to springshed pollution. Performance Zoning. Performance zoning evaluates a development plan on density, amount of open space provided, amount of impervious Figure 2.12. Land in a TDR’s sending area has development surface created, and the overall impact of the density, intensity or other rights from the “bundle of rights” reduced, while land in the receiving area(s) accepts the development on the area. It is designed to ensure transferred density, intensity or other rights. development achieves an acceptable level of performance within a given zoning district. Performance factors may include desirable density objectives. TDRs may involve transferring then increases the density on another piece of standards, open space standards for protection of development rights from a more property in the receiving zone (for example, going wildlife and vegetation, stormwater runoff quality environmentally-sensitive property (the sending from one unit per acre to four units per acre). The and quantity criteria and impervious surface zone) to another property more capable of higher the density that developers are able to standards. handling intensive development (the receiving realize, the greater the incentive for them to buy Transfer of Development Rights zone). The receiving area densities are development rights. (TDRs). TDRs put to creative use the premise established within the comprehensive plan. A second method allows a local government that ownership of land entails a “bundle” of There are two basic types of TDR to establish a TDR bank. In this method, property rights (e.g., mineral rights, air rights, programs. The most common allows the property owners who wish to develop at a higher water rights, etc.) and that individual rights can landowner to sell development rights on a piece density purchase development rights from the be bought and sold to accomplish various of property in a sending zone to a developer who TDR bank, often administered by the local 26 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

government. The local government can then use In support of creative land use and amendment to its future land use element. The these funds to purchase development rights of planning strategies, “transferable land use plan amendment will encourage visioning, properties in areas that it wants to protect from credits” will be assigned to Rural Land outline the criteria for designating receiving urban development. Stewardship Areas by the county in its areas, assign and distribute the transferable To work effectively, TDR programs comprehensive plan. The comprehensive plan land use credits and implement innovative generally require a high demand for housing or will include standards for designation of planning strategies within the Rural Land other development in the receiving zone, and an receiving areas. Transferable land use credits Stewardship Area. administering governmental unit capable of increase density and cluster development rights • The County must assign, by ordinance, a cer- overseeing the program. TDRs are most in receiving areas, while discouraging growth in tain number of transferable land use credits to appropriate for large-scale efforts where keeping environmentally-valuable sending areas. the Rural Land Stewardship Area and ensure land in private ownership is considered The process for the Rural Land Stewardship that the use of transferable land use credits desirable. This land use management technique Areas is as follows: includes the recording of all transactions as can facilitate springshed protection by • Selected counties will be authorized by the public records in the county in which the land transferring development potential from FDCA, through a written agreement, to de- is located. sensitive areas within the springshed to less velop Rural Land Stewardship Area designa- • Receiving areas for transferable land use cred- sensitive areas that have been identified as tion. Such an agreement will include the its within the Rural Land Stewardship Area suitable for development. rationale for authorizing, and criteria for are designated by land development regulation Rural Land Stewardship Areas. A new evaluating the success of the designation. and the density within the receiving area is program in Florida allows the FDCA, in • Once selected, the county designates the Ru- increased through a local development order cooperation with the Department of Agriculture ral Land Stewardship Area through a plan based on the assignment of land use credits. and Consumer Services, to authorize counties to designate certain lands as Rural Land Impervious Surface Overlay Zoning Stewardship Areas. A Rural Land Stewardship Impervious Surface Overlay Zoning, a specific type of performance zoning, limits the

Area is intended to strengthen the county’s creation of impervious surface area. It is particularly useful in protecting water quality in TEGIES capacity to promote economic development, the springshed. In general, watersheds with excessive impervious surface coverage will maintain a viable agricultural economy, preserve not be able to support a high quality stream system. Large areas of impervious surface the environment and character of rural areas, may also contribute to erosion, sedimentation, decreased biological diversity, and poor and control urban sprawl. The program may water quality in the springshed. have applicability in rural springsheds where In this type of zoning, the environmental impacts of impervious surfaces are low intensity agricultural activities such as estimated, and limits are set on the maximum amount of impervious surfaces allowed silviculture or rangeland exists and there is a within a given planning area. Site development proposals and subdivision layout threat of land use change toward more options are then reviewed in this context. intense use. 27 Threshold requirements for the Rural Land conservation easements. public purposes (flood control, enhancement of Stewardship Areas include the following: Fee Simple Purchase. Also known as “fee air and water quality and offer recreation • Applies to lands classified in the future land simple acquisition,” this is the outright purchase oportunities); use element as predominantly agricultural, of land, and gives full control over all rights to the 2. The provision of necessary funds to finance rural, open, open rural, or equivalent land acquired property. Local governments that choose the purchase. Acquisition may be financed use; this option most always do so with a willing seller. through general revenue funds, bond refer- • Encompasses an area between 50,000 and However, if there is sufficient public need (such as enda, special taxation, government grants, 250,000 acres in size; and protecting drinking water sources) they may choose trust funds, land swaps and matching fund • Is located outside of municipalities and urban to exercise the power of eminent domain. Outright programs. Cost of acquisition may be reduced growth boundaries. purchase by a unit of government requires: by use of “bargain sale” in which the seller For more information on this program, go to 1. The determination that the land serves a public agrees to sell at below market value (the dif- www.dca.state.fl.us/fdcp/DCP/. purpose. In general, natural areas serve multiple ference is recognized by the IRS as a

Use Acquisition and Easement Strategies to Protect the Most TDR Success Stories Sensitive Areas • In the Washington, DC, area, Montgomery County, Maryland, established a TDR program he most effective strategy to limit the in 1980. By the end of fiscal year 1997, this program had protected 39,180 acres under impacts of development is to reduce the easement. Prior to 1980, the county lost an average of 3,500 acres of farmland per year to T amount of development allowed. This development. In the decade following the establishment of its program, the county only lost objective can be accomplished through: outright a total of 3,000 acres to development, a drop of approximately 92 percent. fee simple acquisition of the land (e.g., the local • The New Jersey Pinelands, an environmentally-sensitive area of about one million acres, government or a not-for-profit land trust buys was targeted for protection through the New Jersey Pinelands Protection Act of 1979. The and holds the land); purchasing an Pinelands Commission, the regional land use authority, established a TDR program in individual’s right to develop his land; or 1980. By 1991, 5,300 acres had been protected. buying a conservation easements on all or • In Washington, the Kings County Farmland Protection Program, considered one of the most some portion of a parcel of land. Below are successful programs in the country included a voter-approved bond to purchase descriptions of acquisition and easement development rights and establish exclusive agricultural production districts and a transfer tools that can be used in a springshed protec- of development credits program. tion program. It is recommended that the most • In 1997, the Minnesota legislature passed enabling legislation to explicitly allow local sensitive springshed features be acquired in units of government to develop and utilize TDR programs. The Green Corridor Project is fee simple, or be protected through the pur- working to develop Minnesota’s first formal Transfer of Development Rights program. chase of development rights or through

28 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Red Hills Conservation Program (RHCP) Through conservation easements the RHCP For a local program such as the RHCP to of the Tall Timbers Research Station in North be successful in preserving environmentally Florida has protected nearly 71,000 acres of sensitive areas and working landscape, the longleaf pine-wiregrass community that had voluntary cooperation and shared stewardship traditionally been used as hunting plantation ethic of individual landowners must be a lands. These private undeveloped lands from guiding theme. According to the RHCP Tallahassee to Thomasville, Georgia conservation easements offer several benefits Figure 2.13. Longleaf pine and wiregrass replenish the Floridan Aquifer and form a to landowners: communities have been preserved through significant area for wildlife and a relatively • Landowners retain title to their property and conservation easements as a treasured heritage for the region of the Red Hills. intact longleaf pine-wiregrass ecosystem. continue to live on it, sell it, or pass it onto heirs, knowing that it will always be protected; • Easements may eliminate or greatly reduce estate taxes, preventing the forced sale of properties; • Easements can also provide landowners with substantial federal income tax reductions; • Easements are flexible, adapted to the particular needs of the landowner and the resources of the property;

• Easements can reduce the potential for TEGIES disagreement among family members when lands are passed on to the next generation; and, • Easements offer permanent protection, applying to all future landowners.

29 charitable contribution for the seller’s income acquisition of development rights. A PDR Conservation easements may be used to: tax purposes); and program requires willing participation of the • Establish buffers around environmentally- 3. Financial and staffing resources to provide seller. PDR is appropriate for efforts where sensitive areas or to protect entire areas or for site management and maintenance. keeping land in private ownership is desired. working landscapes; Acquisition is considered a key to secure Conservation Easements. A conservation • Promote landowner stewardship and conser- core environmentally-sensitive springshed easement is a legally-binding agreement vation while keeping land in private areas, including the spring and spring run, between a landowner and a qualifying ownership and on the tax rolls; and larger sinkholes, critical recharge areas, and government agency or nonprofit organization • Ensure permanent protection of required buffers surrounding critical spring resources and (e.g., a local land trust), in which the landowner open space in subdivisions and other surface waters and other stream to sink water voluntarily agrees to specified terms that limit developments. connections. Federal, state, regional and local the use and development of a given property governments, along with nonprofit organizations, for the purpose of protecting agricultural, Establish Voluntary usually have the authority to acquire land under open space, cultural, or environmental values. Stewardship Programs a variety of natural, cultural and historical land An easement runs with the land’s title and is acquisition programs. binding on all future owners or for some set ommunities need to invest in ongoing Purchase of Development Rights period of time. The easement may be sold by springshed stewardship. The goals of (PDR). Federal, state and regional agencies, the landowner or donated. A donation of an C springshed stewardship are to increase local governments and nonprofit organizations easement provides a benefit to the landowner public awareness about management efforts, may purchase development rights to protect since it is a tax-deductible charitable gift. The and to get local landowners’ participation in environmentally-sensitive areas, open spaces or amount of the income tax deduction is equal the process to ensure good stewardship of agricultural lands. The purchase of the to the difference between the fair market their properties and homes. A number of pro- development rights is denoted in the land’s title value of the property without the easement grams may be considered to promote greater or through establishment of a conservation and its value with the easement. springshed stewardship. easement that runs with the land. Unlike In addition, many landowners take Springshed Education. Some of the most transfer of development rights or other density advantage of estate tax relief offered by effective springshed education programs merge transfer programs, the development rights are easements. Under the Taxpayer Relief Act of learning, the enjoyment of outdoor recreation, bought and “retired,” not to be transferred or 1997, heirs can exclude an additional 40 and personal involvement in stewardship placed elsewhere. PDR programs are generally percent of the value of the land, over and activities. Education programs can include: applied as part of a formal program with specific above the charitable gift value, for lands Springshed awareness – raising basic criteria used to select purchases. under easement. Contributions may be staged awareness using signs, storm drain stenciling, PDR programs require an administering over a number of years to gain the maximum sinkhole identification, stream walks, and maps governmental unit capable of overseeing the economic advantage for the landowner. and articles in local newspapers and magazines; program and a mechanism to finance the

30 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Funding Sources for Land Acquisition

Florida’s land acquisition programs are some of the largest in the country. under the Florida Forever Act, provides grants to eligible applicants for Since 1990, the state has purchased more than one million acres of envi- the acquisition of land for community-based parks, open spaces and ronmentally-sensitive land through Preservation 2000 (P2000), Conserva- greenways that further the outdoor recreation and natural resource tion and Recreational Lands (CARL), Land Acquisition Trust Fund (LATF) protection needs identified in local government comprehensive plans. and Florida Communities Trust (FCT). From 1990 to 1998, more than three This program pays particular attention to local government’s billion dollars was spent through P2000 alone, with bonding taxes collected comprehensive plan to see if there are goals, objectives and policies from every real estate transaction in the state. guiding or directing the local land acquisition. Springshed protection The Florida Forever Act, the successor to P2000, uses documentary activities closely tied to a local government’s adopted plan will provide stamp tax revenue for the acquisition of land. However, more money is an added advantage under scoring for FCT grants. being allocated for water source and resource lands and land purchases in In addition to these state programs, about one-third of the urban areas to establish or maintain open space and parks. Florida Forever counties in Florida have passed referenda to create and fund open distributes an annual allocation of $300 million to the CARL program and space, recreation and environmentally-sensitive land purchases. the Florida Recreational Development Assistance Program at the FDEP, the Some of these funds are used to match state program grants or private Water Management Districts; the Florida Communities Trust Program at the land conservation efforts. Land acquisition efforts, including FDCA; and to the Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission; the springshed protection, in counties with locally-funded acquisition Division of Forestry at the Department of Agriculture and Consumer programs have a distinct advantage because of their leveraging Services; and the Division of Recreation and Parks and Office of potential. They can meet monetary match requirements for regional, Greenways and Trails at the FDEP. Uses of these funds are set forth in the state or federal grant programs. Florida Statutes, Section 259.105, www.onlinesunshine.com. To find out At the federal level, the USDA Forest Service has a program to

about how lands are selected for purchase, contact the Florida Department acquire land to provide a route for the Florida National Scenic Trail TEGIES of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Land Acquisition at (FNST). The Florida Trail Association works with the USDA Forest www.dep.state.fl.us. For information about the Florida Communities Trust Service to build and maintain this and other hiking trails in Florida. For program, contact them at www.dca.state.fl.us. For information about the more information contact the Florida National Scenic Trail liaison, Greenways and Trails Program, call visit www.dep.state.fl.us/gwt. Florida Trail Association in Tallahassee or visit www.florida_trail.org. Florida Communities Trust (FCT), one of the major programs funded

31 Personal stewardship – educating residents critical “maintenance” functions include Springshed Indicator Monitoring. An about the role individuals can play in management of conservation areas and buffers, ongoing stewardship responsibility is to springshed protection, and communicating stormwater and wastewater treatment facilities monitor key indicators to track the health of a specific messages about positive and negative and septic systems. Additionally, maintenance springshed. Public agencies, as well as private behaviors (e.g., limiting nutrients and other of the quality of springsheds may require corporations, citizen groups, and even pollutants); replanting of natural vegetation cover, providing landowners, should seriously consider Professional training –educating the another opportunity for public involvement and monitoring to provide appropriate indicator development community on how to apply the education. Springshed maintenance and data and analysis. Monitoring water quality can tools of springshed protection; and restoration are activities well suited to include assessing flow, the quantity and quality Springshed engagement – providing participation by volunteer organizations where of aquatic biota, pollutant levels, and many opportunities for the public to actively engage in group projects can be arranged to clean up other characteristics as appropriate to the type protection and restoration activities. areas, remove exotic species, replant native of water body and its problems. City and county Springshed Advocacy. Advocacy is very vegetation, mark trails, and undertake other governments may also consider working with important because it provides the foundation for group activities. local land trusts to help monitor and manage public support and greater stewardship. One of Springshed Pollution Prevention. Some lands under conservation easements. the most important investments that can be businesses may need special training on how to Registry Programs. Registry programs made is to seed and support a management manage their operations to prevent pollution and are a way to acknowledge and encourage the structure to carry out the long-term stewardship thereby protect the springshed. In some cases, voluntary protection of natural features by function. Often, because of their local focus, use local or state government may have a regulatory private citizens. Landowners make a non- of volunteers, low cost and ability to reach into responsibility and may also have to develop binding agreement to protect their land by communities, grassroots organizations are pollution-prevention programs for certain enrolling in a registry. In turn, they are uniquely prepared to handle stewardship businesses and industries. FDEP has such a provided with information and technical functions. Such organizations can be effective program, and offers on-site technical assistance assistance regarding appropriate conservation advocates for better land management and can through its Pollution Prevention Program. It offers practices for their particular site. Local develop broad popular support and involvement site visits to provide companies with the ability to governments may either start their own registry for springshed protection. Local governments solve their future environmental problems in a program, or educate citizens about the also can play an important role in such advocacy more cost effective manner than traditional end availability of registry programs offered by as they create or help direct the management permitting. The “Retired Engineers” segment of other government agencies or nonprofit structure. the program often lends a hand and valuable conservation organizations. Springshed Maintenance and industrial expertise. Program information is Special Designation. High quality Restoration. Most springshed protection tools available at (850) 921-9227 or at natural areas may qualify for special require maintenance if they are to properly www.dep.state.fl.us/waste/categories/p2/ designation under a state, regional or a federal function over the long run. Some of the most default.htm. program, such as the National Natural 32 COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE

Landmark Program (Code of Federal legally empowers a local government to plan protection program. The proposed Regulations: Title 36, part 62), or Florida for and guide future growth and development amendment should map protection zones and Regional Planning Council’s Strategic to protect sensitive natural areas. Through address land uses within the protection Regional Policy Plan designations for “regionally this process, strategies can be developed for zones, development controls and standards significant natural resources.” Special a springshed’s protection, and be publically appropriate for the springshed, and designation may increase legal protection, as well debated, adopted and implemented. Every standards for the design and management of as the potential for financial support for springshed is unique and requires strategies development. acquisition and management of selected sites. to meet specific protection needs. The sample goals, objectives and For sites appropriate to special designation, an The attachment on page 35 contains policies for springshed protection presented outside agency may be interested in acquiring the sample goals, objectives and policy in the attachment on page 35, should be property and managing it for protection of its suggestions to draw from when developing tailored to site-specific conditions and natural features. This allows the local community specific strategies and actions. They cover a community needs. They should be supported to benefit from protection of a site without being range of potential actions that may be used. by appropriate data and analysis to justify obligated for the cost of acquisition or Each jurisdiction will ultimately determine and explain their use. Supporting information management. Special designation is only the planning tools appropriate for their use. should discuss the importance of the appropriate for natural areas with features of The following chapters address land springshed to the community and describe a regional, state or national significance. development management actions that vision for future protection, levels of implement the comprehensive plan policies development and include, for example, maps Adopt Comprehensive Plan for springshed protection. The chapters move depicting the springshed and important karst Policies for Springshed Protection from managing larger landscapes to managing features, the principal areas of ground water development impacts on particular recharge, and the water resource impacts to sing Florida’s comprehensive planning development sites and from particular land be addressed by any proposed development process effectively is key for the protec- use types. guidelines and strategies. tion of springs and springsheds. In assisting the local government in

U TEGIES Protection strategies need to be incorporated developing comprehensive plan policies for into the local comprehensive plan by the local springshed protection, the earlier-described government. Differing landscape types— ad hoc working group should evaluate the developed, not developed, agricultural or adequacy of existing measures included in suburban—require local governments and the local comprehensive plan. In cooperation landowners to evaluate their particular with the springshed protection program circumstances and craft appropriate partners, the working group should propose protection strategies. revisions to the comprehensive plan that are The comprehensive planning process needed to help implement the springshed 33 Be Sure to Check Out These Resources!

The Stormwater Center, www.stormwatercenter.net/, offers resources to technically assist decision-makers and the public on stormwater management issues. Resources include publications and manuals, slide shows, ordinance information, monitoring and assessment methods, and best management practices fact sheets.

EPA’s Watershed Academy, www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/wacademy.htm, provides online training courses and educational materials on the basics of a watershed approach. There are six training modules: overview; watershed ecology; watershed change; analysis and planning; management practices; and community/social context.

Design with Nature, by Ian McHarg, is a seminal book introducing the foundation of the ecological landscape planning method. It can be ordered on-line from the publisher by going to www.wiley.com.

Landscape Ecology Principles In Landscape Architecture and Land-Use Planning, (Island Press, 1996, ISBN 1- 55963-514-2) is a concise handbook that lists and illustrates key principles in ecological landscape planning and presents specific examples of applications.

Planning for TDR: A Handbook for New Jersey Municipalities, designed to provide assistance at the local level, is available from the Burlington County Office of Land Use Planning by calling (609) 265-5787.

Purchase of Development Rights May Become A Valuable Farmland Protection Tool in Wisconsin in the Next Century looks at the role purchasing development rights can have in farmland protection. It is found in the Law of the Land Review, November 1997, and is available from the University of Wisconsin Extension Service by calling (715) 346-2386.

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Attachment

and recharge, sinkholes, depressions and to minimize the impact of development on Sample Goals, “stream-to-sink” features, the buffer area springshed resources and provide the highest immediately adjacent to the spring and the standards for water quality protection. Land Objectives and spring run. To protect these sensitive areas, development regulations adopted to Policies land uses will be low density and intensity implement the springshed protection program uses including preservation, conservation, will specify the required practices. recreation and open space. In addition, low- Policy: In the event existing or previously Future Land Use Element intensity, long-crop rotation silviculture and approved development fails to meet unimproved rangeland uses are appropriate recommended standards, LID and best oal: Recognizing the economic, within the primary zone. management practices are required. recreational and environmental values G Secondary Zone. The secondary zone is Policy: Throughout the siting, design, spring resources provide the community, protect, land outside the sensitive primary zone but construction and management of the golf maintain and where possible enhance the re- is also vulnerable to contamination. Land course, all golf courses will implement the source quality of spring systems. uses will be moderate density and intensity prevention, management and monitoring including: conservation, recreation and open practices, detailed in the Golf Course Siting, Objective: Define and delineate space, silviculture, rangeland, or very low Design and Management Chapter of the environmental overlay protection zones to density rural residential (no more that one Protecting Florida’s Springs Manual. These protect the springshed and spring system unit per 10 acres or greater). practices are derived from the Audubon resources and designate appropriate land uses Policy: Within the primary and secondary International Signature Program. Local in these zones. protection zones, avoid mining, industrial governments will incorporate these practices Policy: In and around critical springshed and heavy commercial land uses, golf into their Land Development Regulations. resources and sensitive springshed areas, courses, and urban uses with extensive low density and intensity land uses will be impervious surfaces. Intensive agriculture Objective: Regulate land use activities to

designated, including conservation lands, should be discouraged in the primary and avoid contamination of surface and ground TEGIES silviculture, parks and recreation areas, and secondary protection zones. water resources within springsheds. TEGIES pasture. Policy: All new development projects in Policy: Primary and secondary zones are Objective: Use development, design and designated springshed protection secondary geographic areas established to protect vital management practices that reduce impacts to zones will provide at least 50 percent springshed features. springshed resources. dedicated open space. Development will be Primary Zone. The primary zone includes Policy: New development that is allowed clustered on the least sensitive portion of the the springshed features that are most and the expansion of existing development development site. sensitive to contamination, including the throughout the springshed will employ Low Policy: Establish undisturbed buffer areas of principal areas of ground water contribution Impact Development (LID) practices in order at least 100 feet, adapted from those 35 developed for the Wekiva, Econlockhatchee, and Suwannee Rivers, for protection of Parks and Recreation Element Conservation Element sensitive karst features and to minimize stormwater impacts. oal: Within the springshed, establish a oal: Maintain and restore important en- Policy: Prior to development approval, iden- Ggreenway network to integrate critical Gvironmental features within springsheds tify all surface and sub-surface features that springshed resources, provide for resource man- and springshed protection zones. are potential pathways for contamination of agement and protection, resource-based recre- the aquifer. A hydrogeologic survey shall be ation, educational and historical interpretive Objective: Protect the most sensitive re- performed for the entire site with emphasis on opportunities, and pathways that connect these sources within the springshed, including the potential locations of stormwater management resources. principal areas of ground water contribution and facilities, such as swales and basins. A map recharge, sinkholes, depressions and stream-to- depicting limestone outcroppings, sinkholes, Objective: Delineate critical lands to be sink features, the area immediately adjacent to solution pipes and general depth of soil to acquired, preserved or otherwise included in the the spring and the spring run. limerock will be included. Borings shall be greenway network, and develop a management Policy: Use acquisition funding programs taken at potential locations of swales and ba- plan for the protection of the springshed such as the Florida Forever Program, Florida sins. These borings shall be made to the lime- greenway network. The management plan will Community Trust, Rural and Family Lands stone and then an additional 10 feet deep. address natural resource and habitat protection, Protection Program and others to acquire fee The overburden material shall be character- public access, recreation, education and oppor- simple or less-than-fee ownership through ized (grain size, percent organic matter) to tunities for economic development consistent conservation easements on land within the determine its permeability, filtering capacity with protecting the greenway network. delineated springshed that has been identified and ability to bind pollutants. [Note: local Policy: Connect existing dedicated open as critical or sensitive resources. governments may establish project size space areas, trails, pedestrian pathways and, Policy: Use other innovative approaches to thresholds for this requirement.] where appropriate, utility corridors to form a protect sensitive resources, such as the Policy: Using this information, require the greenway system. transfer of development rights, performance use of karst criteria, buffers, open space and Policy: Provide incentives to private land- zoning, open space zoning, on-site density other best practices to minimize impacts. Site owners to encourage their participation in the transfer and other techniques to maximize the swales and retention areas will only be al- creation and maintenance of the springshed establishment of open space areas. lowed in locations with the greatest depth of greenway system. overburden and the least potential for solution Policy: Adopt a greenway land acquisition Objective: Provide for periodic sampling pipe sinkhole formation. priority list to coordinate the acquisition and and testing of the surface and ground water protection of the system. quality within springsheds and springshed protection zones.

COMPREHENSIVE PLANNING STRA STRA PLANNING PLANNING COMPREHENSIVE COMPREHENSIVE

Policy: Coordinate with sampling and testing management practices outlined in Silviculture stormwater to protect water quality. programs of the USGS, State Department of and Agriculture Best Management Practices Environmental Protection and the Water Manuals (Florida Department of Agriculture Objective: Establish a water quality Management Districts and seek funding to and Consumer Services). protection strategy for the springshed. establish a local program. Policy: Promote low-intensity, long-crop Policy: Require the following actions within rotation silviculture and unimproved pasture the springshed: Objective: Establish programs to educate within the primary zone. 1. If not required by the regional water the public and community leaders about the Policy: Promote minimum tillage farming management district or FDEP, adopt design importance of the springsheds to their community within the springshed. criteria for stormwater management practices and region and how they can better protect them. that minimize the leaching or discharge of Policy: Coordinate with local colleges, the Natural Ground Water nutrients. Use karst area requirements similar school board and individual schools to develop Aquifer Recharge Subelement to those required by the SJRWMD or to the environmental education programs for school- criteria presented in the attachment on page aged children regarding springsheds. oal: Protect and maintain the 64; Policy: Formulate a media campaign to Gnatural functions of springsheds. 2. Provide funding for the Florida Yards and enhance the environmental literacy of the public Neighborhoods program to educate the public and community leaders with respect to the Objective: Minimize impacts from develop- about proper lawn and landscaped area natural values and threats facing local springs. ment by designating high recharge areas as part fertilization and irrigation; Policy: Encourage and assist farmers and the of the primary and secondary protection zones. 3. Incorporate the principles of the Florida agricultural industry within springsheds to use Policy: Avoid inappropriate development Yards and Neighborhoods Program into local best management practices that minimize use within high recharge areas as identified in the landscaping ordinances; of water, fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides future land use element. 4. Require frequent and active street and that reduce erosion. Policy: Direct incompatible land use away sweeping;

Policy: Encourage and assist residential and from high recharge areas, including mining, 5. Adopt water conservation programs; TEGIES commercial land owners within springsheds to industrial, heavy commercial, golf courses and 6. Educate the public about the proper TEGIES use best management practices as set forth in urban uses with extensive impervious operation and maintenance of septic tanks. the Florida Yard and Neighborhoods program to surfaces. Implement a local septic management minimize use of water, fertilizer, herbicides and Policy: Use best management practices program to assure that these systems are pesticides. and performance standards to maximize regularly inspected, pumped out, and brought open space, limit impervious surfaces and up to current standards whenever a parcel is Objective: Promote agricultural and silvi- turf grass areas, promote protection of sold; and cultural activities that protect spring resources. natural vegetation, promote the use of 7. Promote the local stewardship “adopt a Policy: Within the springshed, follow the best pervious parking areas, and treat spring” type program and other incentive and 37 volunteer springshed awareness and protection to incorporate karst stormwater management spreader swale shall be employed at the inflow programs. system design criteria similar to those used by location; the St. Johns River Water Management District. 7. Require regular inspection by developer/ Solid Waste Subelement Policy: The following general requirements maintenance entity to visibly check for apply to stormwater management systems existence or beginnings of solution pipes; and oal: Minimize springshed water quality throughout springsheds: 8. Remedial plugging activities shall employ Gimpacts from solid waste and hazardous 1. No direct discharge of stormwater to active methodologies acceptable to the applicable waste facilities. sinkholes; regulatory agency. 2. When soil and water table conditions Policy: Within the primary and secondary Objective: Avoid the siting of solid waste allow, require the use of offline retention protection zones, require the use of these and hazardous waste facilities within springshed systems for stormwater treatment. Promote the additional karst stormwater management protection zones. use of the BMP Treatment Train concept by criteria: Policy: Solid or hazardous waste disposal, promoting the use of swales and landscape 1. More than five feet of material between the treatment and transfer facilities are prohibited infiltration system; limestone bedrock surface and the bottom and within the primary and secondary protection 3. Swale conveyances shall be used to the sides of the stormwater basin; zones of a springshed. greatest extent possible; 2. Basin liners —clay or geotextile; 4. Projects in areas zoned for industrial land 3. Sediment sumps at stormwater inlets; Stormwater uses shall assure that industrial pollutants do 4. Off-line treatment; Management Subelement not enter the stormwater system or come in 5. Special stormwater system treatment train contact with ground water; oal: Maintain or improve the quality of design; 5. Natural depressions shall be used for stormwater within springsheds. 6. Ground water monitoring; and G stormwater management only when 7. Paint/solvent and water separators. hydrogeologic evidence shows that the Objective: Minimize erosion, sedimentation, geologic structure and soils are stable and In addition, stormwater systems in these areas and stormwater runoff within the springshed. unlikely to form a direct connection to the shall: Policy: Minimize land disturbance, clearing ground water. To verify geologic stability, an 1. Use swales, preferably with cross block or of native vegetation and removal of top soil. applicant shall provide soil boring information raised driveway culverts, to promote retention/ Utilize construction best management prac- and/or supplemental data such as ground infiltration within swale; and tices, such as use of silt fences and sediment penetrating radar; 2. Use shallow, vegetated, offline infiltration basins to retain sediment onsite. 6. If the hydrogeologic conditions are suitable systems that are incorporated into a projects and the depression is proposed for use as part open space/landscaping areas. Objective: Work with the regional water man- of the stormwater management system, a agement district and FDEP to modify current rules 38

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at least once every three years and maintained Objective: Springsheds often cover expan- Sanitary Sewer Subelement as needed to assure proper treatment. Require sive areas affecting multiple jurisdictions. Coor- existing systems to be inspected and upgraded dinate with all federal, state, regional, and local oal: Protect water quality within the to meet current standards whenever a property governing bodies in which the springsheds or springshed by using the necessary G is sold, modified or expanded to accommodate protection zones are located to develop consis- wastewater treatment processes to ensure water additional residents or at least every 10 years. tent springshed protection strategies. quality within the spring. Policy: Establish standards for the use of nu- Policy: Develop and adopt consistent plan Objective: Achieve and maintain a nitrate trient reduction OSTDS within the springshed. policies and strategies for protecting valuable value of less than 1 milligram per liter. springshed resources affected by multiple Policy: Avoid disposal of effluent from waste- Traffic Circulation jurisdictions. water treatment facilities within designated pri- or Transportation Element mary or secondary springshed protection zones. Economic Element oal: Protect springsheds and protection Objective: Remove nutrients from the G zones from sedimentation and siltation oal: Protect springshed water quality and springshed system by the central sewering of resulting from the construction of roads, ditches, Gquantity to maintain and protect the envi- existing developed areas and limiting the expan- and other transportation-related improvements. ronmental, aesthetic and economic values of sion of central sewer lines into the undeveloped spring resources. portions of the primary and secondary springshed Objective: Create and adopt low impact de- protection zones. velopment regulations applicable to all transporta- Objective: Recognize the economic value of Policy: Maintain recommended densities of 1 tion-related construction activities. the springs and protection zones. dwelling unit per 10 acres in the secondary zone. Policy: Low impact development standards for Policy: Create a greenway system leading Policy: Areas of high densities of on-site treat- the construction of all roads, ditches, and other through the most sensitive areas of the ment and disposal systems (OSTDS, commonly related improvements in or near the delineated springshed in order to draw visitors to spring referred to as septic systems) within springsheds or protection zones will be applied resources without jeopardizing the environ-

springsheds will receive high priority toward TEGIES to reduce the effects of increased sedimentation mental integrity of these valuable resources. TEGIES their central sewering to help reduce the input and siltation on the springs water quality. Policy: Market and educate visitors about the of nutrients into the springshed waters. springshed and greenway for use and enjoy- Objective: Minimize the impact of OSTDS Intergovernmental ment as a natural recreational and educational within the springshed, particularly within the des- Coordination Element center. ignated primary and secondary springshed protection zones. oal: Coordinate inter-jurisdictional Policy: Establish an OSTDS management pro- Gefforts to preserve and protect delin- gram to ensure that these systems are inspected eated springsheds and protection zones. 39 n undeveloped springshed has a natural equilibrium of water, nutrients and other chemical inputs and outputs. As a

springshed becomes developed, this equilibrium is progressively altered. To

minimize environmental impactsA in developed or developing springsheds, site design and management issues should be carefully addressed in the following manner:

Select the Most Appropriate Site for Development Design the Site Appropriately Use Sensitive Landscape Design and Management Strategies Use Effective Erosion and Sediment Controls Address Stormwater Management Issues Address Wastewater Management Issues Utilize a Combination of Best Management Practices Encourage Appropriate Water Conservation Measures Increase Public Awareness

40 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

tudies have shown that the cumulative be taken within a springshed is to identify and minimize specific impacts within a springshed impact of constructing homes and busi- designate sensitive features and areas, establish through hydrogeologic analysis, careful site S nesses changes the natural system, and primary and secondary zones of protection, and planning and sensitive site design. This chapter has a variety of negative impacts. A developed manage development to minimize impacts. discusses techniques that can be used to springshed differs from an undeveloped one in Springsheds are often quite large. Even minimize the impacts of development on water several important ways: with the establishment of protective zones, quality and quantity. • A developed springshed consists of modified extensive areas within a springshed may be natural landscapes, altered vegetation types developed. To protect water quality and quantity,

and much more impervious surface. Previously local governments and landowners must Figure 3.1. Impacts from development need to existing forests, wetlands and open areas are be managed to protect springs. replaced by roof tops, roads and parking areas interspersed with highly managed green spaces of lawns, golf courses, and managed landscapes. The increase in hardened impervious surface can decrease spring flows and increase pollutants. • A developed springshed tends to use more water. Through rapid runoff, evaporation and water transport, less water is delivered to the spring than the natural system. • A developed springshed imports and applies more chemicals and nutrients than a natural system. These chemicals can eventually impact the water quality of the spring. As a springshed develops, there is a need to carefully address specific issues such as stormwater, lawn and landscape management, excessive water use, nutrient and chemical applications, and to design landscapes to better mimic the natural springshed in form and function. As previously discussed, one of the most important land planning actions that can

41 Figure 3.2. In the last half century, nitrate concentrations in Juniper Springs (left) in the Ocala National Forest have remained low and relatively constant. In contrast, Lithia Springs (right) is surrounded by agricultural uses and its nitrate levels have risen considerably above Design the Site Appropriately the one milligram per liter (bold horizontal line) where water quality becomes degraded by out-of-control plant growth. ater is the common resource and carrier of pollutants within a W springshed, and its protection and management is a primary concern. Site-specific planning and design standards are instrumental in reducing the impact of development upon a springshed landscape. Property owners and local governments should view site planning and design from a pollution prevention-based approach to protect environmentally-sensitive spring and karst features. This prevention approach is much more cost-effective than relying on post-development structural treatments to correct problems. Select the Most Appropriate Site for Development Key Practices for Managing Development Impacts landowner or developer wishing to develop an area within a springshed • Select development sites that avoid karst features with direct or indirect connections to the A needs to choose an appropriate site for aquifer and other environmentally-sensitive features. that development. The cardinal rule is to evalu- • Design and develop the site to avoid or minimize water quality and quantity impacts. ate the landscape and geology of the land and • Use site design, stormwater treatment provisions and pollution prevention techniques to save seek locations that avoid karst features that have natural landscapes and functions, and create an environmentally-sensitive landscape which a direct or indirect connection to the aquifer and mimics natural features and ecological functions. other environmentally-sensitive features, such • Concentrate on reducing nutrient pollution inputs and over use of water. Increase public and as sinkholes, streams, wetlands, or major property owner awareness regarding their role in springshed protection efforts through prudent springshed recharge areas. Development should lawn and landscape fertilization and watering that minimizes pollutant inputs. be clustered on the portion of the property best • Plan and design buffers within development sites to prevent erosion and sedimentation and able to accommodate the development with stabilize sinkhole sides, streambanks and other surface-to-ground water conduit areas. minimal impact to water resources within the springshed. 42 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

There are a number of points to consider require the use of grassed roadside swales to in order to curb excess parking space con- when working to reduce developmental impacts maximize both onsite treatment of stormwater struction. Existing parking ratios should be through site planning and design, including runoff and stormwater seepage into the ground reviewed for conformance, taking into account street and parking lot design and conserving water. local and national experience to see if lower natural areas in the springshed. The following • Reduce the total length of residential streets ratios are warranted and feasible. Some park- summary is adapted from The Center for by designing street layouts to increase the ing standards are designed for peak holiday Watershed Protection’s Better Site Design: A number of homes per unit length of street. loads. This results in excessive amounts of Handbook for Changing Development Rules in • Wherever possible, design residential street paved impervious surface. Your Community, August 1998 and Consensus right-of-way widths at the minimum required • Parking requirements can be lowered where Agreement On Model Development Principles To to accommodate the travel-way, the sidewalk, transit is available or enforceable shared Protect Our Streams, Lakes, and Wetlands, April and vegetated roadside swales. Utilities and parking arrangements are made. 1998. These strategies are important for any storm drains should be located within the • Reduce the overall imperviousness associated community drafting land development pavement section of the right-of-way, wher- with parking lots by providing compact car regulations (LDRs) that address development ever feasible. spaces, minimizing stall dimensions, incorpo- within designated primary and secondary • Minimize the number of residential street cul- rating efficient parking lanes, and using per- protection zones. de-sacs. vious concrete or other types of pervious Residential Street and Parking Area • Where cul-de-sacs are used, either increase materials in the spillover parking area. Design. The following guidelines are designed the radius to incorporate a landscaped area in Pervious concrete has been successfully used to reduce the development footprint (total the center of the cul-de-sac to reduce impervi- in Florida since the mid 1970s. amount of impervious surface), and thus reduce ous cover and provide a vegetated stormwater • Provide meaningful incentives to encourage pollutant input and water usage. infiltration area, or reduce the radius to the structured and shared parking to make it more • Design residential streets with the minimum minimum required to accommodate emer- economically viable. Use the local develop- required pavement width needed for travel gency and maintenance vehicles. Alternative ment review process to suggest and initiate lanes, on-street parking, and emergency ser- turnarounds should be considered. shared parking opportunities for adjacent vice vehicle access. These widths should be • Where density, topography, soils, and slope properties. based on estimated traffic volume, not exist- permit, use vegetated swales in the street • Wherever possible, provide stormwater treat- ing requirements in local LDRs. right-of-way to convey and treat stormwater ment for parking lot runoff by using the BMP • Adopt a Traditional Neighborhood Design runoff. treatment train concept. For example, a park- (TND) ordinance as an option to promote more • Relax required parking space standards and ing lot could include pervious concrete for the compact community design and decrease the require shared parking between adjacent parking areas, and recessed (not curbed up) total amount of impervious surface. businesses. The required parking ratio gov- landscape infiltration. • In springshed karst landscapes, minimize the erning a particular land use activity should be Site Design. The location of development use of roadside curbs and gutters. Instead, enforced as both a maximum and a minimum on a parcel can affect environmental resources. 43 The cumulative impacts of many developed par- community and overall site imperviousness. will be managed over the long term and desig- cels within a springshed can impact the health Relax front setback requirements to minimize nate a sustainable legal entity responsible for and viability of the spring. The following site driveway lengths and reduce overall lot imper- managing both natural and recreational desig- design features can help reduce individual and viousness. nated open space. cumulative impacts: • Allow flexible design standards for residential • Direct rooftop runoff to pervious areas such as • Require open space design development that sidewalks. Where practical, locate sidewalks yards, swales and other vegetated areas. Avoid incorporates smaller lot sizes to minimize total on only one side of the street and provide routing rooftop runoff to the driveway and then impervious area, reduce total construction common walkways linking pedestrian areas. onto the roadway and the stormwater convey- costs, conserve natural areas, provide commu- • Reduce overall lot imperviousness by promot- ance system. nity recreational space, and promote ing alternative driveway surfaces and shared Natural Area Conservation. Often springshed protection. driveways that connect two or more homes individual karst features (e.g., sinkholes, • Relax side yard setbacks and allow narrower together. depressions, near-surface conduits, stream-to- frontages to reduce total road length in the • Clearly specify how community open space sink waters) scattered widely throughout the springshed are not in public ownership. These areas can be impacted by development activities. EPA’s Watershed Academy Web Local governments, land owners and developers can each work to protect these important The Watershed Academy provides a way to learn how to protect watersheds, including springshed assets by using the following natural springsheds. It provides a set of self-paced training modules that include a basic but broad resource conservation techniques: introduction to watershed management. The goal of the program is to provide useful • Preserve or create a 100-foot wide naturally- information on how to manage a watershed to improve water quality. vegetated buffer system along all streams that The training modules cover many important watershed management topics that watershed also encompasses critical environmental fea- managers, local officials, involved citizens, decision makers, and others should have at least tures such as the 100-year floodplain, sink- an introductory level of knowledge. Web modules include interactive “guest lectures” by holes, karst depressional features, leaders in watershed management. Unlike an average technical paper, many modules are stream-to-sink waters, slopes, and wetlands. visually rich and contain numerous color illustrations and photos. • Limit the clearing and grading of forested and Typically, a module contains internet links for those seeking greater detail, while module- native vegetation areas. Clear the minimum specific glossaries are there for beginners. Self-tests enable trainees to check their retention amount needed to build lots, allow access, and and see immediate results. The length and complexity of each module varies, but most are at provide fire protection. A fixed portion of any the college freshman level of instruction. Completing a series of 15 of these modules earns community open space should be managed as the participant the Watershed Academy Web Training Certificate. To access the Watershed protected green space in a consolidated man- Academy Web Training, visit www.epa.gov/watertrain. ner. The best situation is to have these open space areas dedicated and a permanent ease-

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ment established and recorded. In addition, the amount of time between clearing and construction should be minimized. • Conserve trees and other vegetation at each site. Plant additional vegetation where impacts have occurred, clustering tree areas, and using native plants that do not require excessive fertilization or watering. Wherever practical, manage community open space, street right-of-ways, parking lot islands, and other landscaped areas to minimize Landscape Infiltration hardened surfaces. Include shallow grassed One type of low impact development, retention swales and multipurpose retention and detention practices (also called infiltration practices) allow areas with natural biological filtering capacity stormwater to infiltrate into the soil or evaporate and vegetated edges. helping to maintain the site’s hydrology and • Use incentives such as density bonuses, buffer reduce stormwater pollutants. Retention averaging, property tax reduction, stormwater areas should be vegetated allowing the credits, and by-right open space development to plants and soil to trap and treat promote conservation of stream buffers, forests, petroleum products, metals, nutrients, meadows, and other areas of environmental value. and sediments. Retention areas, • Ensure that stormwater outfalls do not discharge integrated into a site’s landscaping, are untreated stormwater directly into sinkholes, wet- relatively inexpensive to build, easy to lands, springshed recharge areas, or other identi- maintain, and add aesthetic value to a fied sensitive areas. site. However, due to Florida’s sandy Low Impact Development. A new approach soils, organic matter may need to be Figure 3.3. Landscape infiltration should be incorporated into the design of parking areas to collect and treat to environmentally-sensitive site development that added to the soil to promote biological stormwater. The top two pictures show what it can look should be considered for springshed settings is breakdown of pollutants and prevent like to the user, while the bottom schematic depicts how called Low Impact Development (LID). The LID migration of the pollutants into ground landscape infiltration functions. approach focuses on designing and developing a water. What looks like a nicely-landscaped area is in fact an engineered system for the site to avoid or minimize impacts to the storage, infiltration, and biological removal of pollutants. Placing landscape retention areas environment, especially regarding water quality in parking lot islands, at the edge of paved areas, at the base of buildings, or in open space and quantity. LID uses a variety of site design, areas is easily accomplished. stormwater treatment train provisions and pollution prevention techniques to create an

45 environmentally-sensitive site landscape which In contrast to standard stormwater manage- preserves natural features and ecological func- ment, which collects and conveys water to a Use Sensitive Landscape Design tions. LID is often equated with environmentally- centrally located stormwater treatment and dis- and Management Strategies sensitive design, green development, ecological charge facility, LID’s principal goal is to ensure site planning, and conservation planning. maximum protection of the ecological integrity of anagement of pollutant inputs and LID integrates green space, native the receiving springshed waters by maintaining water withdrawal are major concerns landscaping, natural hydrologic functions, and the natural hydrologic regime of the developed in a springshed. Every individual other techniques to generate less runoff from site. Objectives of LID include: M and each piece of property contributes to the developed land. One of the primary objectives of • Generating less runoff from development; overall pollutant load from such activities as LID design is to reduce runoff volume by • Integrating stormwater management early in lawn fertilization, pest management and the over infiltrating rainfall water to ground water, site planning activities by such strategies as use of water for lawn and landscaping mainte- evaporating rain water back to the atmosphere clustering development and preserving open nance. after a storm, and finding beneficial uses for space; Maintaining or improving water quality water rather than exporting it as a waste product • Distributing small-scale practices throughout depends on how well landowners and local down storm sewers. the landscape of a development project; governments minimize their use of water, The result is a landscape functionally • Using natural on-site functions to capture and nutrients and chemicals. For developed lands in equivalent to pre-development hydrologic treat pollutants (i.e., interception, infiltration, a karst setting, the design, installation and conditions, which means less surface runoff and and evapotranspiration of intercepted management of the landscapes is critical to a less pollution damage to surface and ground stormwater to facilitate soil stabilization, spring’s sustainability. waters of the springshed system. Within the sediment removal and chemical and biological Site Analysis. The first step in sensitive context of the primary and secondary springshed filtration and volatilization of pollutants); landscape design and maintenance is to conduct protection zones described in the previous • Avoiding impacts rather than mitigating a site analysis. This consists of studying site chapter, development allowed within the zones impacts; characteristics, identifying features, and would greatly benefit from use of LID principals, • Emphasizing simple, nonstructural, low-tech, answering a number of questions regarding the especially when linked to on-site clustering of and low-cost methods; environmental conditions at the site: developed areas and concurrent preservation of • Managing as close to the source as possible; • What are the soil types, pH, drainage, etc.? the remaining open space. • Relying on natural features and processes; and • How far below the surface is the water table? LID not only minimizes environmental im- • Creating a multi-functional developed land- • What are known vulnerabilities of surface and pacts, but also saves money by addressing runoff scape to collect, treat and retain stormwater ground waters? close to the source. Developers save money along natural cycle lines. • Are there identifiable surface to ground water because LID reduces imperviousness (such as An understanding of local natural systems conduit features (fractures, sinkholes, depres- road widths, lengths) which reduces stormwater and a commitment to work within their limits is sion ponds and lakes)? runoff. essential. • Are there identifiable natural protective fea- 46

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tures (existing forested or vegetative buffers, protective clay layers between the surface and Lawn Fertilization’s Impacts the ground water)? • Is irrigation necessary? on Springshed Protection • Is water available for irrigation and what is the quality of the water? In a developed springshed, public education on how to manage property to minimize both • Can it be easily mowed? pollutant input and water usage is of critical importance. Part of the solution is to convince • Is it shaded or in full sun? home and business owners that they contribute to the problem, and that by altering their • Will it be shaded in a few years? behavior the springshed health will be protected. As the Florida Springs Task Force reported in Characteristics will most likely differ November 2000, the importance of developing best management practices for residential lawn between areas on the same property, with some fertilization is highlighted in studies conducted by the Southwest Florida Water Management areas more sensitive and others less. The larger District from 1995 to 1997. They determined that nitrate levels in water discharging from the the parcel the more likely it is that variations in Weeki Wachee, Chassahowitzka, and Homosassa Springs had increased from < 0.1 mg/l in the site characteristics will exist. 1960s to approximately 0.5 mg/l in the mid 1990s – a greater than a fivefold increase. The Landscape Design. The next step in the studies also determined that approximately 360 tons of nitrate were discharging from the landscape design process is to answer questions springs annually into the Weeki Wachee, Chassahowitzka, and Homosassa Rivers. Furthermore, regarding site expectations and impacts. In the studies found that the principal source of nitrate in spring discharge was inorganic nitrogen designing landscapes, the principles of the fertilizers applied to lawns. At that time, 440 tons were being applied annually to residential Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Program lawns in the portions of the springshed recharge basins closest to the springs. should be followed. The studies concluded that much of the fertilizer applied to residential lawns simply leached • What type of lawn and landscape is desired or through the soil into ground water without being utilized by the lawns, and that strategies must expected? Landscape plans that maintain ex- be developed and employed to increase the efficiency of fertilizer use and to reduce the need isting natural vegetation and features are pref- for fertilizers. The Florida Springs Task Force stated that outreach programs are necessary to erable to those that do not. That is, a change existing landowner behaviors. This is one reason FDEP has worked with IFAS and local landscape plan that minimizes use of large county extension offices to implement the Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Program. areas of managed lawns and which retains The report correctly notes that when citizens understand the problems and dynamics of a forested, scrub or natural open space areas is springshed, they will help protect it. The point is to educate students, citizens, and local better for the springshed than a landscape leaders about the values, function, and protection needs of springsheds. This strategy will plan that features large managed lawns and spread awareness of the problems faced and of the impacts each of us has on the water quality altered natural landscape features. of springs. Further, a strategy of education will foster teamwork, action and creative solutions • What level of maintenance can be provided? by landowners, citizens and government and will make a difference in springshed health To answer this question, think about the real- and vitality. ity of having professionally trained lawn and landscape managers versus having “average 47 citizen or local, nonprofessional workers” • Fertilization; and half compared to traditional irrigation taking care of the developed landscaped area. • Pest control. techniques. This could be the difference between a pro- These activities, and how they may be per- • Design for flexibility to meet a site’s peak water fessionally-managed golf course and subur- formed to minimize impacts to a springshed, are requirements and allow for modification of the ban/urban neighborhood. Where the described below. system’s operation to meet seasonal irrigation likelihood of marginally-trained lawn and Irrigation System Design. Nearly half of changes or local restrictions. landscape managers is the reality, the empha- all water withdrawn for public supply in Florida • Lawns and landscaped areas should be zoned sis should be on less acreage of lawns and is used to water lawns and landscaping. separately based on plant water requirements. retention of more natural vegetation. Irrigation consumes more water than any other Distribution equipment (sprinklers, rotors, • What are the likely impacts to surface and use category in Florida. More aggressive micro irrigation devices) in a given zone must ground waters from the desired landscape? programs by local government, industry and have the same precipitation rate. The answer to this question should focus on homeowners associations to encourage native • Non-planted areas, including impervious sur- protecting the site’s sensitive environmental landscaping around homes and businesses faces, should not be irrigated. features and assessing the expected level of would make a major difference in water • Include rain sensor and soil moisture devices fertilization, pesticide and water usage, and consumption and pollutant input. Wherever with an automatic switch to shut off the irriga- the level of landscape management over time. possible, it is important to design lawns and tion when it is not needed. This equipment will All managed landscapes will have impacts. landscapes using the existing native vegetation override the irrigation cycle of the sprinkler However, through early identification of on the site or to plant native vegetation before system when adequate rainfall has occurred or potential problems the area can be designed installing the irrigation system. This allows the there is sufficient soil moisture present, thus and managed to minimize impacts. Thus, for irrigation system to be designed to meet the avoiding the sprinkler’s-on-when-it’s-raining example, if there are sinkholes on a site, have needs of the plants. Irrigation design depends on problem. they been well buffered? Are lakes and several factors: locations, soils, landscape Fertilization. In karst areas, prudent stream edges well buffered? Has the land- vegetation, water supply, and water quality. The fertilization following prescribed BMPs is one of scape plan incorporated opportunities to clus- following BMPs summarize critical elements for the key actions with the potential to protect ter development and preserve sensitive areas? irrigation system design in karst areas. springshed water quality. In Florida springsheds, Landscape Management. Once a site • A system’s application rate must not exceed where the natural ground water nutrient values has been designed and developed to minimize the ability of the plants and soil to absorb and are very low, the importance of minimizing pollutant impact problems and especially to retain the water applied during any one appli- fertilization to limit leaching into the water cannot protect sensitive areas, then the principal ac- cation. This approach prevents runoff. be overstated. tions of landscaping and lawn management turn • A system should have enough flexibility to To avoid loss of nutrients to the surface or to: adapt to various water demands and local re- ground water it is important to apply a little • Irrigation system design and best manage- strictions. fertilizer at a particular time, irrigate and then ment practices; • Using micro-irrigation can cut water use in wait for results. Rate and timing of nitrogen 48 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

fertilization are dependent upon location, the that nitrogen does not leach from a well- maintained at adequate levels for optimum grass species, season of the year, level of managed lawn that has been fertilized at the growth. The potassium fertilization program maintenance desired, source of nitrogen applied recommended rate, frequency and has been should be based on a recent soil test. Potassium (for example, slow release inorganic granules, irrigated properly. Poor quality, slow-growing is highly mobile in most of Florida’s sandy soils, sprayed in solution). In general, other than when and improperly fertilized and irrigated lawns, on but an annual soil test is adequate for watering restrictions apply, irrigate an area with the other hand, leach significant nitrogen. For determining the fertilization requirement. As with one quarter inch of water following fertilization Florida lawns, the best yearly fertilization all highly mobile nutrients, careful, monitored to avoid loss of nitrogen to the ground water and program usually begins with a soil test to application in karst environments is necessary. to increase uptake efficiency. To measure the determine whether and what types of nutrients No matter which type or formula of fertilizer amount of water being applied, a pan or rain are needed. Usually, fertilization will include a is used, avoid dispersing fertilizer on driveways, gauge may be placed in the area being watered. combination of one or two applications of sidewalks and other impervious surfaces. This If water restrictions apply, irrigate as allowed. multiple nutrient fertilizers and several common mistake wastes fertilizer and results in More than one half inch may cause some supplemental applications of a nitrogen nutrient rich runoff during the next rain event or nitrogen to be leached past the root zone. fertilizer. Nitrogen fertilization is often based on irrigation that will likely not be available to the Lawns commonly require high rates and the desired growth rate and type of grass being targeted grass or landscape. Because springsheds more frequent applications of nitrogen-source grown. are hypersensitive to nutrient inputs, the general fertilizers. In most cases, slow-release nitrogen Due to past fertilization history and the guideline is to apply as little fertilizer as sources should be used to reduce the potential inherent nature of some Florida soils, necessary. for leaching. In order to obtain the desired phosphorus fertilization may not always be Pest Control. In the lawn and landscape growth and color response, in most cases a required. Use a recent soil test to determine if business, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has mixture of soluble and a slow-release nitrogen phosphorus is required for optimum lawn been translated into Targeted Pest Management source is recommended for use on lawns. Many management. If the soil test indicates an (TPM). TPM is a philosophy of managing pests to fertilizers available for homeowners have adequate level of extractable soil phosphorus, reduce expenses, conserve energy, and protect varying ratios of soluble to slow-release choose a fertilizer blend that does not contain the environment. TPM is a broad, nitrogen. Products with a relatively high slow- phosphorus as one of the supplied nutrients. interdisciplinary approach using a variety of release content, such as 30 percent, may be That blend would be represented by an X-O-X, methods to systematically control pests that preferable. such as a 15-0-15. Excess phosphorus adversely affect people and plants. TPM does not Although slow release fertilizers provide application can result in phosphorus runoff or mean, as many believe, that no pesticides are benefits in terms of less opportunity to leach and leaching into surface and ground waters. used. Rather, it means that pesticides are only longer term response from the fertilizer Second only to nitrogen in total fertilization one weapon against pests and that they should be application, it is important to realize that lawns requirement is potassium. Potassium influences used judiciously, and only when necessary. The may be very efficient nitrogen-absorbing ground root growth and water and stress tolerance goals of a TPM program are: covers. University of Florida research has shown relationships in lawns, and should be • Improved control of pests, through a broad 49 spectrum of practices that work together to and the effectiveness of corrective actions. regular street and parking lot sweeping program keep pest populations below significant Record and use this information when making to remove accumulated sediments and debris. thresholds; similar decisions in the future. Buffers. The areas in a springshed where • More efficient pesticide management, through less To determine which pesticides are most land and water meet deserve special protection frequent and more selective use of pesticides; appropriate to use, and when and how to use in the form of buffers, undisturbed vegetated • More economical plant protection, resulting them, consult the appropriate pesticide selection zones. Buffers should be placed along a stream, from reduced chemical costs and more effi- guides produced by the University of Florida sinkhole, any obvious surface-to-ground water cient methods of protection; and Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences conduits, and around wetlands. A buffer has • Reduction of potential hazards to people and (IFAS). The county extension agent, chemical many uses and benefits. Its primary function is the environment, through reduced pesticide distributor, product manufacturer, or an to physically separate and protect exposure. independent lawn maintenance consultant might environmentally-sensitive areas from a wide TPM accomplishes these goals using have additional information. variety of impacts. Buffers are especially resistant plant varieties, cultural practices, important because they: parasites and predators, other biological controls Use Effective Erosion • Help to prevent erosion and sedimentation such as Bacillus thuringiensis and more recently, and Sediment Controls and stabilize and protect sinkhole sides, genetic engineering, and other methods streambanks and other surface-to-ground including chemical pesticides as appropriate. ne of the most damaging times for sen- water conduit areas; The basic steps for TPM programs are: sitive springshed features, such as • Regulate light and temperature conditions, • Identify key pests and beneficial organisms, Osinkholes, stream-to-sink areas, spring improving the habitat for aquatic plants and and the predominant life stages and the factors runs and any wetlands associated with these fea- animals; and affecting their populations; tures, is when land is being prepared for devel- • Assist in removing sediment, nutrients, and • Select preventive cultural practices to minimize opment. Further, once developed, impervious bacteria from stormwater before it enters the pests and enhance biological controls. These areas such as roads and parking lots can add surface or ground water. practices may include soil preparation, resistant significant pollutants to a springshed from the Buffers vary in width depending on their varieties, and modified irrigation methods; day-to-day accumulation of oil, wearing tire ma- intended function and on site-specific • Evaluate economic losses and risks so that the terials, sand and sediments and other debris. conditions. A buffer is often subdivided into cost of various treatments can be compared to Local governments, land owners, businesses and three zones that differ in function, width, the potential losses to be incurred; home owners associations all have a part to play vegetation, and allowed uses. The streamside • Decide which pest management practice is in protecting a springshed by using BMPs to zone is vegetated and maintained as mature appropriate and carry out corrective actions; control erosion and sedimentation. It is impor- forest, with strict limitations on all other uses; it and tant to buffer sensitive areas, employ on-site should be a minimum of 50 feet wide. It • Continue with follow-up monitoring of pest techniques to provide erosion and sediment produces shade, woody debris and a good root populations to evaluate results of the decision control during construction, and to establish a zone for bank stability, features important to 50 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

stream quality and biota. A middle zone, typically a 50- to 100-foot wide forested area, is managed to allow some clearing. A third zone, usually about 25 feet wide, is ideally forest but also can include turf and shrubs. Once established, the boundaries of buffers need to be clearly mapped, marked on the site, and enforced. A buffer that is well-designed and maintained can help provide many natural functions. Buffers are an integral part of any protection strategy, and complement other efforts to protect water quality. Local greenways and trails can be planned in coordination with the establishment of a buffer system. A linear system of buffers around major fracture lines, Figure 3.4. Springside, streamside and sinkhole buffers can serve as pollution prevention defense mechanisms within a springshed. sinkholes, limestone out-croppings, the spring and the spring run can form the backbone of a local greenway and trail system. overall health of the springshed. Under some There are numerous techniques to mini- Construction Techniques. Potentially circumstances, the mouth of a spring can mize erosion and control sediment. Avoidance the most destructive period in the development become blocked or severely restricted. of impacts is the first rule of thumb, followed process is the time between when vegetation is State and federal stormwater permits by minimizing impacts, and then mitigating cleared and a site is graded to create a buildable require erosion and sediment control during where impacts do occur. The most effective area. During this time period, stormwater runoff construction. Local governments can help means are to: can easily erode the bare soil. The eroded soil assure this effort is effective by not issuing • Schedule construction in the dry season if may be deposited into surface waters, sinkholes, building or grading permits until state or water possible; or other sensitive karst features. These management district permits are obtained. • Minimize and phase clearing, leaving much of sediments can cover or destroy important They can also conduct inspections to assure the original natural area undisturbed; springshed habitats such as fish and that the BMPs are working and being • Provide buffers adjacent to sensitive areas; invertebrate spawning beds or submerged maintained. Additionally, local government • Require exposed soil to be stabilized aquatic vegetation. And in many cases, these land development regulations can help assure within seven to ten days by planting quick sediments are laden with nutrients, heavy that conservation areas, buffers, and forests are growing ground covers, and spreading metals, and toxic chemicals that also affect the not cleared or otherwise disturbed. straw and mulch; 51 Leon Sinks Geological Area Seven miles south of Tallahassee on U.S. Highway 319, this unusual area of the Apalachicola National Forest features nine wet and ten dry sinks which have formed on the Woodville Karst Plain that extends from Tallahassee southward to the Gulf of Mexico. Hammock Sink, one of the wet sinks, has been explored and mapped by the National Association for Cave Diving. A loop trail that allows easy viewing of the sinks has been developed. The trail even crosses a natural bridge over a disappearing stream. The majority of the trail is hard packed dirt or sand with the exception of a section of boardwalk that cuts through the center of a gum swamp. It is a major natural attraction in the region.

Figure 3.5. Forest areas left intact along streams can serve as buffers in agricultural settings.

• Install sedimentation basins and silt fences; and • Use PAM (polyacrilimide) to coagulate sediments and be sure only clean water is discharged from construction sites. Pavement Cleaning Practices. Pave- ment cleaning practices, such as street sweeping on a regular basis, can minimize pollutant movement to receiving waters. Street sweeping is practiced in most urban areas, often as an aes- Figure 3.6. Springshed features can become a valuable asset for an area. A trail can link sinkholes, spring and spring run and thetic practice to remove sediment buildup and become a “ecotourism” destination. large debris from curb gutters. But they also 52 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

remove sediment, debris, and other pollutants stream habitat extent and quality. Areas of par- is grassed or paved. The increased use of from road and parking lot surfaces that impact ticular vulnerability are springshed recharge chemicals around homes and businesses, waterways and open karst conduit features. In- areas, sinkholes, shallow underground conduit including fertilizers, pesticides, engine oils, and novations in sweeper technology, especially systems, contributing surface streams, the spring other products, increases the likelihood that those that use vacuum-assisted dry sweeping to and the spring run. stormwater runoff from the entire site will carry remove particulate matter, have improved the A characterizing feature of urban and pollutants. Stormwater management facilities ability of these machines to remove finer suburban development is the large amount of and strategies should be specific to each sediment particles. By using the most impervious surfaces. Wide streets, rooftops, cul- development site, but should be developed sophisticated sweepers in areas with the de-sacs, long driveways, and sidewalks are all within the context of designated springshed highest pollutant loads, greater reductions in aspects of site design that create impervious protection zones and the larger watershed within sediment and accompanied pollutants can be cover which, in turn, increases runoff and which the development exists. realized. For more information, see The reduces ground water recharge. To accommodate Special Stormwater Management Stormwater Manager’s Resource Center at the effects of land use changes, stormwater Concerns for Karst Areas. Stormwater www.stormwatercenter.net. management practices must be developed and management design can present special applied that do not exceed the natural problems in karst areas. For example, solution- Address Stormwater hydrologic system’s capacity to assimilate and pipe sinkholes tend to form in the bottom of Management Issues handle pollutants and retain water. Careful basins, including stormwater retention ponds attention to stormwater management during the and wastewater treatment lagoons. Solution-pipe he protection and management of water site planning process can sharply reduce the sinkholes create a direct connection between the needs to be a primary concern in impacts of development. Stormwater bottom of the basin, where design pollutants are T springshed protection efforts. All land management practices help control nonpoint concentrated, to the aquifer below. Water uses within a springshed will produce some source pollution through the use of nonstructural entering the aquifer by this route bypasses level of impact to water quality. Development and/or structural BMP techniques to intercept natural soil treatment and can funnel affects the balance of water by increasing the surface runoff from developed areas, filter and contamination directly into the aquifer. amount of stormwater runoff and generally low- treat this runoff, and then discharge it at a One solution is to construct larger, ering ground water levels. Likewise, develop- controlled rate. The attachment on page 66 shallower stormwater collection and treatment ment increases the overall pollutant load of outlines structural and nonstructural stormwater basins and to perform careful geological analysis nutrients, pesticides, metals and other chemi- management BMPs. of the site to predict the likelihood of solution- cals to surface and ground waters. It also leads The amount of impervious surface on a pipe sinkhole formation. An even better to a decrease in the infiltration of water into the property governs the quantity of stormwater approach, however, is to incorporate site design soil, an increase in surface water temperature, runoff. Stormwater quality, however, is and stormwater management strategies and increase in sedimentation, oxygen depletion and determined by the accumulation of pollutants on actions to reduce the quantity of stormwater decline in associated upland riparian and in- the entire surface area, regardless of whether it generated by projects. 53 Stormwater best management practices in- • Employing offline stormwater retention areas; ance for stormwater; clude: • Constructing many small retention areas rather • Constructing swales with cross blocks or raised • Holding runoff in shallow vegetated infiltration than only a few large retention areas; driveway culverts; areas; • Installing sediment sumps at inlets to retention • Fully vegetating stormwater retention basin side • Using clay or geotextile liners for wet detention and detention areas; slopes and bottom (recommend St. Augustine or ponds; • Using shallow grassed swales for the convey- Bermuda grass be used); • Using the treatment train concept and low impact development principals, discussed earlier; Problems Associated with Impervious Surfaces • Minimizing the amount of impervious surfaces; • Maximizing the amount of open space left in Understanding the effects of impervious correlation between the percentage of natural vegetation; surfaces is essential to understanding the impervious surface in a watershed and the • Maximizing the use of pervious pavement in management of stormwater. Impervious surface level of degradation to aquatic systems. Studies parking areas; is defined as the sum total of all hard surfaces have also shown that the greater the percentage • Maintaining existing native vegetation where within a watershed, including rooftops, parking of impervious surface, the less surface water is feasible; and lots, streets, sidewalks, and driveways. attenuated, or held within the watershed in • Buffering sinkholes and other surface-to-ground Impervious surfaces change the natural wetlands, lakes, ground water and slowly water conduits, stream channels and springshed landscape, and have a major impact on water- released over time. This results in a reduction recharge areas (unconfined or minimally con- based resources. Instead of allowing in ground water recharge and the lowering of fined ground water exposure areas). precipitation to permeate into the ground to be local ground water tables. It also causes The St. Johns River Water Management filtered, slowed and held (attenuated), streams to flow at full bank conditions much District has adopted stormwater management impervious surfaces foster rapid runoff, with more frequently, leading to stream channel guidelines for protecting karst areas (found in its little attenuation or treatment. The more erosion and loss of the riparian zone. Management and Storage of Surface Waters impervious surface there is, the less ground High percentages of impervious surface in a Handbook at: http://sjr.state.fl.us/search.html). To water recharge, the less pollutant treatment, watershed also make land more prone to larger further protect karst areas, FDEP, the WMDs and and the greater the volume of rapid surface and more frequent floods and lower base flows. local governments need to include such provisions water runoff following storm events, causing In addition, impervious surfaces raise the in their rules. Additional pre-treatment (in the flooding problems. temperature of stormwater runoff. All of these form of swales, berms, ponds, or dry basins) for Approximately 65 percent of total impacts harm fish and other aquatic organisms runoff that currently discharges into sinkholes, impervious surface in urban areas is for the use by reducing dissolved oxygen and promoting solution pipes or springs is also highly and storage of cars, including parking lots, excess algal growth. They also tend to reduce recommended. Specific policy and permitting roads, and driveways. Studies show a strong the aesthetics of the stream. considerations for karst areas are identified in the attachment on page 64. 54 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

Figure 3.7. Solution-pipe formations can form in the bottom of excavated basins, including stormwater retention ponds and wastewater treatment lagoons. Stormwater Treatment Train The term “stormwater treatment train” is used to indicate a connected series capture and treat runoff from the street and parking areas at the Florida of features, each planned and designed to treat a different aspect of Aquarium. Vegetated swales, narrow forested strands and wet detention stormwater runoff. These features are implemented together in a linear series ponds were linked together to provide treatment of stormwater prior to its (like a train) to maximize pollutant removal effectiveness for one or multiple discharge to the bay. constituents. In Tampa, Florida, the treatment train concept was used to

Figure 3.8. An integrated stormwater treatment train, including a wet detention pond, were used at the Florida Aquarium. 55 ties too high for the area’s natural suitability. The following are recommendations that can be incorporated into local ordinances for the design, siting, inspection and maintenance of OSTDS to reduce potential ground water impacts. When designing a system, considerations should include requiring the use of performance-based treatment systems rather than con- Figure 3.9. A ventional OSTDS. These are designed to diver looks up significantly reduce nutrient and pathogen in- from a the puts into the environment, as compared to stan- solution-pipe in a sinkhole. dard septic systems. The ANSI/NSF standard 40 class 1 aerobic treatment unit is an example of a phorus, and human pathogens in the form of OSTDS designed to increase the level of treat- Address Wastewater bacteria and viruses. Florida OSTDS rules are ment. An OSTDS that is designed to use re-cir- Management Issues not designed to protect water quality, only public culating sand filters can also achieve significant health. Consequently, within springsheds, local nutrient reduction. lorida springsheds are extremely suscep- governments should consider adopting more When siting a system: tible to nutrient pollution. Wastewater stringent OSTDS regulations. In karst areas with • Increase minimum lot size to one-half acre or F treatment and disposal systems such as a high ground water table or sandy soils, an larger to reduce system density; septic systems or centralized systems may present OSTDS can be a potential source of water pollu- • Require a four-foot separation zone between problems in a springshed setting even if they are tion. OSTDS have been shown, as documented the drainfield plane of discharge and the level designed and properly operating under the stan- in USGS Report 99-4252, to contribute up to 5 of the receiving ground water below, versus dard design. To protect water quality in springs, percent of total nitrogen loading in karst regions the standard two-foot zone of separation re- an added level of treatment or other measures of the state. Systems installed prior to1985 met a quirement. This unsaturated zone – the area may be necessary to minimize nutrient inputs. less stringent rule regarding surface water set- before the ground water level is reached, Septic Systems. Septic systems, or on-site backs and separation from the wet season water along with the drainfield “biomat” (the area of sewage treatment and disposal systems (OSTDS), table elevation. high microbial activity directly under collect, treat, and discharge wastewater from toi- Because of their widespread use in Florida drainfield discharge points) – provides very lets, wash basins, bathtubs, washing machines, and high volume discharges, septic systems have important nutrient treatment; and other water-consumptive items that can be the cumulative potential to pollute ground water • Require at least a 100 foot set back between sources of pollutant loads. Contaminants of con- and springs if they are improperly sited and are the edge of the drainfield and wetlands or cern include nutrients such as nitrogen and phos- not properly maintained or concentrated in densi- water bodies; 56 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

• Require failing systems to be replaced with wastewater by a central system or hybrid systems systems that meet new construction standards; A good source of options, management is needed to protect spring water quality. Ideally, • Use a lower density threshold for requiring tools, and technologies available for septic central wastewater treatment systems permit connection to central systems–this can also be system and small scale wastewater more efficient collection of wastewater, higher linked to open space zoning; and treatment design can be found at: levels of pollutant reduction and, if possible, • Require OSTDS to be inspected and, if out-of-springshed discharge. needed, maintained or upgraded whenever a The National Small Flows Clearinghouse Most community central systems with property is sold. (NSFC) available treatment capacity may be willing to The U.S. Environmental Protection National Environmental Services Center provide service to new developments within a Agency’s “Guidelines for Management of Onsite/ West Virginia University service area where the developer is willing to Decentralized Wastewater Systems” offers a PO Box 6064 pay for line extensions or where existing lines range of management options to consider, in- Morgantown, WV 26506-6064 are available. Nevertheless, though central cluding implementing a local septic system in- Phone: (800) 624-8301 sewering may solve existing problems of www.nesc.wvu.edu/nsfc/nsfc_index.htm spection program to identify and replace failing pollutant discharge in a springshed, the systems. A local septic system management pro- extension of sewer lines is not without risk The NSFC is a nonprofit organization that gram can be established, charging septic system because their extension into an area may induce helps America’s small communities solve users a yearly fee to support an inspection and more development than had been possible when their wastewater problems to protect the area was served by on-site sewage disposal repair program. Charlotte County is implement- public health and the ing a model program using DEP grant funds. environment. systems. Thus, a decision to extend lines into Such a program can also identify areas that undeveloped areas must be weighed against the should be centrally sewered. Existing develop- fact that the presence of sewers will allow ment within the primary protection zone should development at higher densities and intensities be required to come under a local OSTDS utility in the area serviced. system to ensure proper functioning of the sys- Another important consideration for the tems and to report and correct problem systems planning and development of any central waste- as they arise. Problem systems could be re- plied to help protect water quality. Escambia water treatment system within springsheds is quired to upgrade to more efficient systems, or County requires a septic system to be inspected how and where treated wastewater is to be dis- be linked into central collection and treatment and brought up to standard whenever a property posed. Even though such systems may treat to a systems. transaction (sale) is made. relatively high standard, the long-term discharge The Green Swamp in Central Florida, St. Central Sanitary Sewers Collection of treated wastewater within nitrate-sensitive George Island in the Panhandle, and the Florida and Treatment. In areas where development is springsheds may result in a gradual buildup up Keys are areas where OSTDS siting and perfor- planned or has already been permitted at subur- of nitrates and other constituents to levels that mance standards have been developed and ap- ban levels or higher, collection and treatment of pollute. Long-term studies of treated wastewater disposal via land application have shown a 57 Figure 3.10. The City of Tallahassee’s treated wastewater disposal sprayfields in southern Leon County may affect Wakulla Springs several miles to the south in Wakulla County. buildup of nitrates in the ground water at levels lutants out of the springshed. that would be detrimental to most Florida When a wastewater treatment plant must be water treatment, may be necessary to protect springs (above 2 milligrams per liter). Studies by located within a springshed, the point of dis- spring water quality. the USGS and the Northwest Florida Water Man- charge should be located as far as possible from agement District have detected the gradual that spring and its karst conduits. Since springs Utilize a Combination of Best buildup of nitrate in ground water (threefold in are extremely sensitive to increases in nitrates, Management Practices the 25 years prior to 2002) attributable to septic advanced levels of wastewater treatment should systems, livestock and fertilizers (estimated 49 be considered when allowing the disposal of ef- combination of land use planning and percent) and wastewater treatment facilities (es- fluent within a springshed. As noted above, even site-specific best management prac- timated 51 percent). properly designed and managed wastewater A tices can help minimize developmental Given the fact that springs are valuable treatment and disposal systems result in the impacts within a springshed. BMPs that reduce local resources, added nutrient impacts should gradual buildup of nitrates and other pollutant polluted runoff can be among the most effective be avoided. When considering wastewater treat- levels. Advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) and feasible practices to protect Florida’s ment and disposal options, preference should be options can reduce nutrient discharges. This springs, and can either be non-structural or given to keeping added nutrients and other pol- option, though more costly than standard waste- structural in form. 58 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

Non-structural BMPs reduce the generation way to manage stormwater runoff in your com- ing system” (Section 373.185, FS). As mandated of pollutants from a site through planning, de- munity. The chart is adapted from one prepared by the legislature, water management district sign, management and education strategies. by the National Wildlife Federation, which can rules require that all local governments consider Structural BMPs include engineered infrastruc- be found at www.nwf.org/northeastern/resources/ a xeriscape ordinance and that the ordinance be ture solutions to delay, capture, store or infiltrate bmp.pdf. adopted if the local government finds that stormwater runoff. xeriscape would be of significant benefit as a Both non-structural and structural BMPs Encourage Appropriate Water water conservation measure relative to the cost are necessary to protect a springshed. In many Conservation Measures of implementation. The xeriscape landscape or- cases, good planning and site design can be dinance affects new construction and landscapes more effective than structural BMPs at mitigat- s mentioned previously, over-with- undergoing renovations which require a building ing stormwater impacts to a spring. In areas that drawal of water within a springshed permit from the local government. Xeriscaping are already densely developed and have limited A eventually reduces the flow of water encompasses planning and design, soil analysis, open space opportunities, however, structural from the spring and increases the concentration efficient irrigation, practical turf areas, appro- BMPs are usually required to control polluted of pollutants in the spring. Water conservation priate plant selection, and mulching. The legis- runoff. By being familiar with options for reduc- measures should be used to minimize necessary lation requires that the water management ing the generation and accumulation of pollut- water withdrawals which will help maintain districts establish incentive programs and pro- ants at the development design stage, reliance spring flows. vide minimum criteria for qualifying xeriscape on more costly structural BMPs can be reduced. Water conservation is often implemented by codes. These codes prohibit the use of invasive Often non-structural BMPs may be best water management districts through the con- exotic plant species, set maximum percentages incorporated as amendments to the comprehen- sumptive use permitting (CUP) programs. of turf and impervious surfaces, include stan- sive plan. Specific goals, objectives and policies Applicants for water withdrawal permits may be dards for the preservation of existing native veg- are adopted to guide the placement of land uses required to implement conservation measures. etation, and require a rain sensor for automatic and specify infrastructure needs for sensitive The reuse of reclaimed water is a critical com- sprinkler systems. springshed areas. Environmental overlay areas ponent for meeting Florida’s existing and future While xeriscaping saves water it does not and the allowable uses, densities and intensities water supply needs while sustaining the state’s address water quality. The Florida Yards and within the springshed should also be incorpo- natural systems. Other actions that local govern- Neighborhoods Program, discussed later in this rated into the plan if utilized. Structural BMPs ments and developers should follow are dis- chapter, does both. FDEP, in cooperation with are often described in the local land develop- cussed below. the landscape industry, has just prepared a ment code and implemented through the local Florida Friendly Landscape Ordi- model landscape ordinance that local govern- land development review process. nance. Xeriscaping, as defined by the Florida ments can use to minimize irrigation and protect Attachment 2 on page 66 contains basic Legislature, means “a landscaping method that water quality. information about non-structural and structural maximizes the conservation of water by the use Rain Sensor Device Ordinance. This BMPs in a chart form to help identify the best of site-appropriate plants and an efficient water- type of ordinance would require any person 59 purchasing or installing an automatic sprinkler May, is charged a higher rate than water con- system to install, operate, and maintain a rain sumed in the off-peak season. The most fre- Regional Water Supply Plans sensor device or an automatic switch to override quently used conservation rate structure is In response to growing water demands and the irrigation cycle of the sprinkler system when increasing block rates. This generally has the uncertain supplies, all Florida WMDs are adequate rainfall has occurred. This avoids run- largest impact on heavy irrigation users. Users required to prepare water supply plans for ning sprinklers when it is raining. faced with higher rates will often use less water regions where water sources are deemed Ultra-Low Volume Fixture Ordinance. in order to save money. The responsiveness of inadequate to meet projected demands. In This would require ultra-low volume (ULV) the customers to the conservation rate structure these areas, the WMDs are to identify plumbing fixtures in all new construction. The depends on the existing price structure, the wa- potential sources of water to meet demands fixtures should have a maximum flow volume ter conservation incentives of the new price over a 20-year planning period while when the water pressure is 80 pounds per structure, and the customer base and their wa- protecting water resources and the square inch (psi) as follows: toilets, 1.6 gal/ ter uses. environment. The plans must be updated flush; shower heads, 2.5 gal/min.; and faucets, every five years. 2.0 gal/min. The normal standards for plumbing Increase Public Awareness Spring flows should be protected in the devices are: toilets, 3.5 gal/flush; shower heads, water supply planning process by identifying 3.0 gal/min.; and faucets, 2.5 gal/min. ULV fix- ducation is an important component of alternative water consumption sources to tures use less water to provide the services de- springs protection. The following re- ground water, such as surface water, sired. Available data indicate that the E sources already exist to help educate desalination, and reuse of reclaimed water. performance of these systems is such that the landowners, local governments and the general The plans should include conservation savings per flush or per minute will not be lost if public about the importance of springs and how measures to help reduce demand. Alternative users increase the number of flushes (double to protect them. water sources can be more expensive and flushing) or length of a shower. Thus, permanent Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Pro- difficult to develop than traditional ground ongoing water savings can be realized with or gram. This program educates home and busi- water sources. However, the statute without any behavioral changes by users. ness owners on pragmatic, Florida-based yard encourages utilities and local governments to Conservation Rate Structure. Utilities management. It was developed to address sur- develop alternative sources by providing can design their charging system to provide a face and ground water pollution, water over- water management district funding for these financial incentive for users to reduce demands. consumption and disappearing habitats. Special kinds of projects (sections 373.0831(4) and Water conservation rates are generally either: (1) educational activities help residents reduce 373.1961, F.S. and the Florida Forever Act). increasing block rates, where the marginal cost pollution and enhance their environment by Further, spring flows should also be protected of water to the user increases in two or more improving home and landscape management. through the establishment of minimum flows steps as water use increases; or, (2) seasonal Objectives include working with home and for springs and minimum levels for spring pricing, where water consumed in the season of business owners to reduce stormwater runoff, runs. peak demand, such as from October through conserving water and enhancing wildlife habi- 60 tats M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

through the creation of carefully designed land- Florida Green Industries, Best • Promote appropriate rates and methods of scapes. The Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Management Practices for Protection of applying fertilizer and irrigation; and program encourages homeowners and busi- Water Resources in Florida. Landscaping • Promote use-targeted pest management to nesses to do the following: and lawn best management practices for pro- apply appropriate amounts of chemicals. • Water efficiently; tection of a springshed’s water resource are a The publication details how best manage- • Mulch to help retain moisture and suppress critical need. This publication has been devel- ment practices for lawns and landscapes should pests; oped to provide guidance on landscape and integrate plant selection, irrigation, fertilization • Compost and recycle yard waste; lawn management. This publication was de- and pest management in a manner that mini- • Select the least toxic pest control measures; veloped through a collaborative effort of the mizes environmental impacts yet meets expecta- • Put the right plant in the right spot; lawn management and landscaping industries tions. The manual emphasizes that lawns and • Fertilize only when necessary; and state and regional water quality and quan- green spaces often predominate in developed • Provide food, water and shelter for wildlife; tity management agencies. As outlined in that landscapes, and that practices reducing environ- and document, the goals were to: mental stresses should be utilized. • Protect surface water bodies and minimize • Reduce nonpoint source pollution and Moderating Nitrogen Fertilization. stormwater runoff. promote efficient use of water; Nitrogen encourages the plant to form new tissue Yard managers are taught to cooperate with • Reduce off-site transport of sediment, and grow. When nitrogen is applied in excess, local natural conditions, rather than battle the nutrients, and pesticides through surface or the grass and landscape plants become more elements. The Florida Yards and Neighborhoods ground water; vulnerable to stresses. Less reserve material is program handbook describes the concepts, tools • Promote use of appropriate site design and then available for recovery from, or avoidance and techniques for creating a Florida Yard. The plant selection; of, other problems. program teaches the basics of designing a landscape featuring plants suited to Florida’s climate, natural conditions and wildlife. Tips on cost-savings and environmentally-friendly land- Citrus County’s Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Ordinance scape maintenance also are included to help Hoping to lead by example, this ordinance implements government facilities management procedures reduce water, fertilizer and pesticide use. A sec- that will result in the reduction of nitrate infiltration into ground and surface waters, and encourages tion on shoreline management assists waterfront practice changes by employees and citizens in the County through education. The ordinance establishes homeowners. Those interested in this program guidelines for managing existing and future lawns and landscapes at all Citrus County facilities using the should contact their county Agricultural Exten- educational guidelines of the University of Florida Extension’s Florida Yards and Neighborhoods sion Service office and ask about this program or Program, Environmental Landscape Management (ELM) principles and Best Management Practices. The go online to http://hort.ufl.edu/fyn/. ordinance is available online at www.dep.state.fl.us/water/stormwater/pubs.htm (then look for Nonpoint, Publications, BMPs; the ordinance is listed under Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Program).

61 What is a Florida Yard? Irrigating When the Grass and Land- With a Florida Yard you win and so does the environment. You don’t waste water, scaping Needs Water. Over-irrigating leads to fertilizers or pesticides and Florida’s springsheds are better protected. lawn failure by increasing fungal problems and limiting the root system to the top few inches of the soil. These lead to increased disease or insect problems, which are often treated chemi- cally. Mowing at Proper Heights. Mowing below recommended heights removes a large portion of the shoot tissue available for photosynthesis. This leaves the grass less able to support itself or recover from injury. Managed turf areas should be mowed regularly, with sharp blades at recommended cutting heights for the given environmental circumstances. Clippings should be left on the turf. Mulching. All landscape plants should be mulched to a depth of 2 to 4 inches. Mulch rings should extend to at least 3 feet around free- standing trees and shrubs. All mulch should be renewed periodically, and mulches kept at least 6 inches away from any portion of a building or structure.

Figure 3.12. This manual provides guidance on turfgrass and landscape management practices to conserve and protect Florida’s water resources. Figure 3.11. The Florida Yardstick Workbook guides homeowners through an evaluation of their yard and yard care practices. Each action taken earns “inches” on the Florida Yardstick. A yard that “measures up” to at least 36 inches is a “Florida Yard”.

62 M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

Be Sure to Check Out These Resources!

The Center for Watershed Protection, www.cwp.org/22 Sound Land and Water Management, is the state’s official urban BMP _principles.htm, has developed Site Planning Model Development manual. It summarizes nonstructural and structural best management Principles and A Technical Support Document, Better Site Design: A practices for erosion and sediment control, stormwater management, Handbook for Changing Development Rules in Your Community. They OSTDS, and site planning. It is available for free from the Stormwater include benchmarks to indentify where existing ordinances may be and NSP Management Section, FDEP. 2600 Blair Stone Road, modified to reduce impervious cover, conserve natural areas, and prevent Tallahassee, FL 32399-2400. stormwater pollution. The Low Impact Development (LID) Center, Inc., Stormwater Strategies, Community Responses to Runoff Pollution, a www.lowimpactdevelopment.org/, is a non-profit 501(c)(3) May 1999 report from the Natural Resources Defense Council, organization dedicated to research, development, and training for documents some of the most effective strategies being employed by water resource and natural resource protection issues. The Center communities around the country to control urban runoff pollution, which focuses on furthering the advancement of Low Impact Development is among the top sources of water contamination in the country today. Go technology, a new comprehensive land planning and engineering to: www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/default.asp. design approach with a goal of maintaining and enhancing the pre- The Environmental Protection Agency’s website, www.epa.gov/ development hydrologic regime of urban and developing watersheds. owow/watershed, includes a section on watershed protection. The EPA The Stormwater Resources web site, www.stormwater- also has Model Ordinances to Protect Local Resources, examples of local resources.com, is dedicated to providing a source of information ordinances directed at a number of resource protection needs, e.g. buffer, regarding stormwater pollution, treatment methodologies, and related erosion and sediment control, stormwater management and open space issues. With this on-line library you can download research papers development. The model ordinances can be found at www.epa.gov/ and information regarding Nonpoint Source Pollution, Best owow/nps/ordinance/. Management Practices, upcoming conferences, NPDES, TMDLs, and The Florida Concrete Products Association, www.fcpa.org/, has other stormwater topics. developed a manual and training video tape on the use of pervious The Stormwater Finance web site, stormwaterfinance. concrete to help reduce stormwater impacts. urbancenter.iupui.edu, is designed to help communities find ways to Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Handbook: A Guide to pay for stormwater management projects. The site includes: an Environmentally Friendly Landscaping, www.dep.state.fl.us/water/ annotated bibliography of existing stormwater finance materials; a stormwater/docs/nonpoint/fynxord.pdf, is published by IFAS and discussion of the financing options available to communities for describes how to minimize nonpoint source pollution from landscapes, stormwater management programs; a set of case studies that describe especially residential ones. This booklet is an integral part of the Florida successful finance mechanisms that have been used in seven Yards and Neighborhood program. communities around the country; and a group of other useful web sites about stormwater management. Published in 1988, The Florida Development Manual: A Guide to

63 Attachment 1

Specific Policy General Criteria for Siting Relic sinkholes or natural depressions and Design of Stormwater • Natural depressions should be used for and Permitting Management Facilities stormwater management only when in Karst Areas hydrogeologic evidence shows that the Considerations sub-geologic structure and soils are 1. Require the use of swales, preferably with a stable and unlikely to form a sinkhole for Karst Areas cross block or raised driveway culverts, to pro- that creates a direct connection to the mote retention/infiltration within the swale. ground water. Local governments with jurisdiction over karst 2. Require the first one inch of runoff in imper- • Soil boring information and/or areas can incorporate specific guidelines and vious area to be treated in shallow (generally supplemental data such as ground standards into their comprehensive plan to less than two feet deep), grassed retention areas. penetrating radar should be provided by better address stormwater management. FDEP These retention areas should be incorporated an applicant to verify geologic stability. has developed recommendations for special into a project’s open space/landscaping areas. • If the hydrogeologic conditions are design and performance standards for new Rather than concentrating the runoff into one suitable and the depression is proposed stormwater facilities constructed in karst areas large retention area, several small retention ar- for use as part of the stormwater or that discharge to sinkholes. These general eas should be used. management system, a spreader swale criteria are presented below. If the FDEP or 3. Manage Discharges to Sinkholes: should be employed at the inflow appropriate water management district have not Active sinkholes location. implemented these requirements in their • No direct discharge of untreated 4. Conduct a special review of projects in areas stormwater or environmental resource permitting stormwater is allowed. zoned for industrial land to assure that industrial rules, local governments should request that • Since sinkholes are conduits to ground pollutants do not enter the stormwater system or they do. If they do not, then local governments water, stormwater discharges to them come in contact with the ground water. should work with FDEP and their appropriate must meet primary and secondary 5. Require regular inspection by developer/ water management district office to incorporate drinking water standards. maintenance entity to visibly check for exist- these suggested criteria into local regulations. • Projects in areas zoned for industrial land ence or beginnings of solution pipes. Areas where special karst policies apply (for uses should assure that industrial 6. Require supplemental information for permit instance within designated springshed primary pollutants do not enter the stormwater applications in karst areas: and secondary protection zones) should be system or come in contact with ground indicated on the Future Land Use Map series. water. • A hydrogeologic survey should be performed for the entire site with emphasis

M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S T C A P M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I S G T A C N A A P M M I T N E M P O L E V E D G N I G A N A M

on potential locations of swales and • Site inspection upon completion to as- • Where small shallow depressions are basins. sure that vegetation (sod) is growing noted, these may be filled to pre-existing • A map depicting limestone outcroppings, well. grade with clayey sand materials, graded sinkholes, solution pipes and general •That all construction is according to and vegetated. depth of soil to limerock will be included. approved design (for detention and • If chimney-type solution pipes are Borings should be taken in potential retention areas, generally shallow depth exposed within the retention basins, these locations of swales and basins. These and flat bottoms). may be plugged in accordance with borings should be made to the limestone Depth to limerock considerations: acceptable water well plugging and and then an additional 10 feet deep. In areas where the overburden thickness is: abandonment procedures. Where these • The overburden material should be 0-5' Require clay liner to minimize features are small in diameter and of a characterized (grain size, percent organic downward percolation, encourage limited vertical depth, bridging of the matter). This information should then be lateral percolation. Minimize exca- pipe with indigenous limestone boulders used to site swales and retention areas in vation. is recommended. Once the bridge is in locations with the greatest depth of 5-10' Require geotextile liner. Restrict place, the pipe may be filled with clay overburden and the “strongest” limestone. excavation to maximize depth of and/or clayey sand back to the land 7. Require special permit conditions: overburden beneath retention areas. surface and then vegetated. • Acceptance of this permit requires the >10' Normal dual basin system, minimize • Remedial plugging activities should owner/maintenance entity to accept excavation. employ methodologies acceptable to the financial responsibility for the prompt 9. Require special operation/maintenance con- applicable regulatory agency. repair of solution-pipes should they occur. ditions to mitigate the potential for direct con- • The appropriate City/County department nections from on-site stormwater basins to the should approve and/or supply repair ground water: criteria. • Stormwater swales and retention basins 8. Require special permit conditions: should be monitored by visual • Site inspection by field personnel when observations following significant storm swales and basin are excavated to a final events. If open solutions or pipes and/or grade to visually inspect for limerock or sinkhole-like depressions are noted, this solution-pipes; information should be relayed to an on-site maintenance coordinator.

65 Siting, Design and Management

MILES M. (BUD) SMART, PH.D., AUDUBON INTERNATIONAL CHARLES H. PEACOCK, PH.D., NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY

o protect springs, golf course best management practices focus on preventing the movement of nutrients,

pesticides and sediments into these environmentally-sensitive systems. This Tsection covers the basic issues that must be considered when developing a golf course:

Use a Springshed-Based Approach to Golf Course Siting and Development

Select an Appropriate Site

Integrate Environmental Planning into Golf Course Design

Establish and Follow a Construction Management Program

Create a Golf Course-Specific Natural Resource Management Plan

68 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

olf courses are important amenities for Golf course best management practices focus Use a Springshed-Based Approach residents and tourists in Florida. With on preventing the movement of nutrients, to Golf Course Siting and G golf’s increasing popularity and the pesticides, and sediments from a golf course to the Development state’s ever growing population, more courses are spring, and minimizing ground water withdrawal. being built each year. In 2000, there were over Water is the primary vehicle for moving springshed-based approach applies 1,500 golf courses that encompassed over contaminants; therefore, both surface and ground scientific decisions to the siting, de- 200,000 acres. Golf courses may occupy a sig- water connections to the spring must be evaluated. A sign, construction and operation of golf nificant part of the springshed; individually golf Since water movement does not recognize property courses. This approach integrates environmental courses range in size from approximately 100 to boundaries, the golf course should be developed attributes and agronomic practices, and pro- 250 acres. in context of the entire springshed. motes managing golf courses within the context of the larger springshed ecosystem. The potential for negative impacts to springshed water Figure 4.1. Golf courses within a springshed need to be located and designed appropriately. resources is minimized with this approach. The objective is to design the course so that it functions as though it were part of the natural surface water drainage system. The springshed-based approach involves two key components: 1) implementing prevention, management, and monitoring practices throughout the siting, design, construction and management of the golf course; and 2) incorporating these practices into a natural resource management plan to protect the quality and limit the quantity of water moving from a golf course. Prevention, Management and Monitoring. Through the use of best management practices, these are implemented at each phase of golf course development, from siting through long-term operations. Prevention. This involves preventing potential environmental problems by reducing or eliminating the availability of pollutants to surface and ground waters. Selecting an 69 appropriate location for a golf course and periodic collection of water quality data to access operation. The management plan uses each of reducing pollutants at the source are critical to changes in water quality. these stages to build upon and support the protecting water quality within the springshed. Natural Resource Management Plan. various activities involved in developing an Management. A comprehensive The prevention, management and monitoring environmentally-sensitive golf course. The management program is essential in order to practices used to protect the spring are management plan ties all of the information and protect spring water quality. The program should documented in a golf course-specific Natural management practices together and ensures that provide appropriate management of all materials Resource Management Plan. This plan begins every action supports and enhances every other used in the day-to-day operation of the course with the site evaluation, and moves through action. The management plan becomes the (such as, fertilizers, pesticides, oil, gasoline and design and construction to daily maintenance and “owners manual” or “guidebook” for the golf solvents) and of maintenance and storage facilities so that environmental problems do not occur. Potential environmental problems may be minimized by incorporating BMPs into the Effective Strategies for Protection of Springs design, construction and operations of a golf course and its maintenance and storage • Implement prevention, management and monitoring practices throughout the siting, design, facilities. The management program must construction and management of the golf course. address materials used to maintain the turf, and facilities for the storage and mixing of fertilizers • Select an appropriate site; identify resources on the property, including significant site and pesticides, as well as equipment washing. characteristics that require protection; conduct a springshed scale investigation of the site. The objective of the management program is to • Employ nature-based course design that includes Special Management Zones, Best avoid detrimental impacts to water quality. A Management Practices (BMPs), and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) using ecological risk well-managed program involves the use of assessment to select pesticides for use. Integrated Pest Management. Implementation of • Develop construction guidelines to minimize disturbance and promote revegetation programs. BMPs should be included in each phase of golf course development. BMPs for golf course • Conduct a monitoring program. development are identified throughout • Prepare a Natural Resource Management Plan for the golf course. subsequent sections. Monitoring. An environmental monitoring • Participate in a nationally-recognized golf course certification program, such as Audubon program that evaluates the effects of International’s Signature Program. development on spring resources and associated • Conduct annual reviews and renew certification. natural resources is very important. Key components of monitoring include establishing base line data prior to site development and the 70 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

Figure 4.2. The springshed-based Avoid Impacts to areas or species. approach is comprehensive and These Areas 2. Examine the golf course and its includes analysis of the entire springshed, incorporation of natural surroundings relative to its position in the drainage systems instead of springshed. Land use changes must be traditional piped systems, and the understood in terms of the landscape and implementation of prevention, surrounding land uses. management, and monitoring practices and associated BMPs. This 3. Identify construction and springshed system functions as management practices that will afford though it were part of the natural protection for the spring or pathways to surface drainage system. the spring. Management practices that should be included in a comprehensive program include: construction management; conservation management zones; drainage; Best Management Practices; and Integrated Pest Minimize Impacts to These Areas by Using Management Zones Management including selection of pesticides and fertilizer and restrictions on the use of course developer, manager and superintendent certification and ensures that this oversight certain materials. These topics will be to follow at every stage of golf course continues for as long as the course is in development and operation. The Natural operation. Resource Management Plan should be updated Siting, Design, Construction and Key Points as part of a yearly review of operations. Management Overview. The following steps for Golf Course Uses An annual review of operations should be should be used to design, construct and manage • Protect ground water beneath the golf conducted, using the Natural Resource a golf course. The steps begin at a relatively course from fertilizer and pesticide Management Plan as the template for review of general level with siting and become contamination. all aspects of operations. The annual review progressively more specific through each should be conducted by a nationally-recognized development phase. The steps are: • Protect surface waters that flow into golf course certification program. Local 1. Identify the biological, chemical and sinkholes from the above contaminants. governments may not have sufficient in-house physical resources at the property. Knowing • Restrict/minimize pumping ground water expertise to evaluate plans, potential the characteristics of the site facilitates for irrigation to reduce loss of spring flow. construction impacts, operations of golf courses, informed decisions about the site. The first step • Avoid locating golf courses in the primary and conduct an annual review. As an example, is to identify environmental and ecological or secondary protection zones. the Audubon International Signature Program areas on the property that require protection. offers third-party oversight and ongoing re- Identification allows protection of the sensitive 71 Figure 4.3. A properly sited, designed, constructed and managed golf course can co-exist with nature and other land uses in the springshed. If the site is not appropriate for the activities associated with developing and maintaining a golf course, there are likely to be problems.

covered in the Design and Management Sections and management practices will work on the golf course, there are likely to be problems. As of this chapter. property. Before a site is selected for a golf shown previously in Figure 2.9, golf courses 4. Implement an environmental course, it is critical to work through this process should not be located in the primary or monitoring program. Done at all stages of golf to ensure that all phases and various practices of secondary protection zones of the spring. To course development and operation, this would golf development protect spring resources. avoid siting a golf course at an inappropriate establish a baseline of water and environmental location, a thorough analysis of the site should quality and provide data, over time, to determine Select an Appropriate Site be done to evaluate its suitability. if protection measures are properly functioning. Monitoring is discussed in detail in the ite selection and evaluation of potential BMPs alone will not be able to resolve Management Section of this chapter. golf course locations within a springshed environmental problems if the golf course is The first three steps should be conducted S is the first step in the golf course located in an unsuitable location. during site selection to make sure that the site development process. A properly sited, designed has the appropriate key characteristics—that and managed golf course can co-exist with Key indicators of the suitability of a site there is enough land to design a course and nature and other land uses in the springshed. If include geology, soils, and topography. protect water resources, and that the site is not appropriate for the activities Because of the karst geology of springsheds, environmentally-friendly construction, design associated with developing and maintaining a sinkholes, fractures, and fissures may link the 72 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

site directly to the spring, making the site site suitability and for design. Information that the investigations should focus on assessing key unsuitable for a golf course. Soils on a site should be gathered and evaluated includes: indicators of site suitability, including geologic should not be highly transmissive • Physical location of the site; connections, soil transmissivity, and the location (a transmissive soil allows materials to move • Topography; of aquacludes and surface water connections readily through the soil profile); rather they • Soils; with the spring. The presence and extent of should retard the movement of potential • Hydrogeology (presence of karst conditions, sinkholes, cave entrances, or fissure systems pollutants to the ground water and spring. depth to aquifer, direction of ground water connecting to springs can make the site Ideally, the site should be over an aquaclude flow); unsuitable. (a confining layer that does not allow downward • Surface water on site (including presence of movement of water). Regarding topography, sinkholes or springs); Site evaluation of potential golf course avoid sites with excessive slopes; surface runoff • Existing and surrounding land uses; locations is critical. A thorough analysis of the should not be directed to a karst feature. • Vegetation; site should be done to evaluate potential Additional indicators of site suitability • Sensitive areas; and pollution pathways to springs. The analysis include the presence of wetlands, important • Regulatory requirements (for example, for may include use of existing information and habitat areas and natural buffers. These site wetlands, buffers or setbacks). additional site-specific investigations. elements are important because they will Site-specific investigations may need to be determine the availability of enough suitable conducted, depending on the amount of Assessments may include geotechnical area for a course, they are critical in information available and the unique evaluations to determine soil structure, location determining natural drainage systems for water characteristics of each site. Within springsheds, of aquacludes and geologic connections to the management, and they serve to naturally filter water. An added benefit to preserving natural areas, buffers, and other significant site Important Site Characteristics elements is that they provide habitat for wildlife and connections between habitat area (uplands Geology—should not be in proximity to any feature ( such as a sink hole) that is a pathway to the and wetlands). When integrated into a well- ground water. designed course, these features can be an Soils—should not be highly transmissive (materials should not readily move through soil profile); important amenity for players. ideally, the site should be over an aquaclude (a confining layer that does not allow downward Site-Specific Evaluation. To determine movement of water). the appropriateness of a site, a site inventory and analysis is conducted. The site inventory Topography— avoid sites with excessive slopes and where surface waters flow directly to a karst provides a means of gathering information about feature. the site and its surroundings, and putting it into a form that can be used as a basis for assessing 73 spring. Identifying the pathways of surface water layered map or it can be used to model the natural ral and open space areas, greenways and trails, movement may augment the sub-surface system. Mapping tools are discussed in the and critical natural features located near the investigations so that all potential pollution chapter on Comprehensive Planning Strategies, course, floodplains, wildlife corridors, as well as pathways that may link the golf course site to the and should be used to evaluate the site. karst features that may extend through the site of spring are identified. This is an important step Areawide Evaluation. The golf course the proposed course or linkages that extend from and is often complex, time consuming, and location should be evaluated relative to its posi- the course to critical karst features. This can help therefore, costly. Once the potential pathways tion within the context of the springshed for two inform decisions about what features on the pro- are identified, site-specific data should be used primary reasons. First, the springshed-wide proposed site are important to conserve because of to determine the extent to which water can be cesses that directly influence spring water qual- their connection to features outside the site. In directed away from those pathways. If pollution ity operate throughout the entire springshed, not other words, the site design should attempt to pathways are too numerous or not able to be just within the site being evaluated. These pro- complement development and preservation ac- reduced, another location should be sought. cesses include drainage patterns, riparian corri- tivities that may exist or be planned for areas Other significant features to inventory dors, and other land uses in the springshed. near the golf course. The goal is to examine include the presence of wooded areas, other Secondly, potential pollutant pathways to the whether the course can be linked to a larger net- native or restored areas, water resources and spring may not be within a single political or work of existing or proposed open space areas. associated buffers, corridors or filter strips, and legal boundary, and thus to establish these path- wildlife habitat areas, especially for species of ways the entire springshed must be evaluated. If Integrate Environmental Planning special interest because these areas can be a golf course is located miles away from a spring into Golf Course Design important components of the natural drainage but over a connecting cave system, the course system for water management and serve to filter has the potential to adversely impact that spring. olf course design should be based on water. Not only should the specific site characteristics the detailed inventory and analysis of The FDEP, water management districts be taken into account, but the interaction of this G the site and the following basic con- (WMDs), US Geological Survey (USGS) and development with the greater springshed needs cepts: 1) design in context with the springshed many private companies often have the required to be considered. landscape; 2) use design to increase the ecologi- expertise to evaluate the site. Local governments cal sensitivity and biodiversity of the golf course should work with these agencies to collect and Examine the golf course relative to its posi- site; and, 3) design in an environmentally pro- map the above data. The information should be tion in the springshed. active manner. Applying these concepts will depicted on a series of maps, beginning with a result in a golf course that is a compatible land base map and adding layers of information. A map should be prepared to help under- use for the springshed, and the probabilities of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are stand how the site relates to features found on negative environmental incidents can be signifi- powerful and widespread tools for developing surrounding properties. This map is sometimes cantly reduced. the maps necessary to evaluate the suitability of called the context map or site context map. The Designing the course includes the following the site. GIS can produce a relatively simple map should depict surrounding land uses, natu- four components: 1) identification of special 74 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

management zones; 2) identification of Best ground water resources. During the design of the golf course, Management Practices (BMPs) to be used Even though some of the BMPs will not be identify environmentally-sensitive areas and during maintenance and operation; 3) implemented until the course is operational, karst features that provide direct connections to development of an Integrated Pest Management they should be identified during the design the spring. Once identified, these areas will (IPM) with an ecological risk assessment to phase. By getting the design “right,” the require protection, and the golf course should be select the pesticides that will be used; and 4) potential for negative environmental impacts is designed to avoid impacts to these areas, and to development of guidelines to minimize greatly reduced. Also, identification of special maximize the distance between the more disturbance during construction to protect management areas and BMPs early in the design intensively developed portions of the course and phase provides the greatest opportunity to these areas. As discussed later, special protect the spring for the least cost. Once management zones and BMP treatment trains Basic components implemented, these practices should work should be established during the design phase of for golf course design together to provide protection for the spring. golf course development to protect these Design Considerations. By designing in sensitive areas. • Design in context with the springshed context with the springshed landscape, overall Finally, the maintenance facility, including landscape; site disturbance is minimized. This is important a chemical storage building, equipment • Design to increase the ecological because clearing, dredging, filling, slope handling facility and fuel island, often gets sensitivity and biodiversity of the golf alterations, vegetation removal and other such overlooked in the design process. But it is course site; and activities can upset the ecological systems another area of the golf course where there is a • Design in an environmentally proactive related to springs, which can increase the high potential for pollution of soil, surface water manner. potential for pollutants to enter the spring, and and ground water. Here is where equipment, Including components decrease the site’s ability to filter stormwater. pesticides, fertilizers and fuels are stored. to protect the spring: Integrating natural diversity and biological Equipment is loaded with these materials and • Landscaping considerations; elements of the site into the course design should washed after use. Contamination can occur when • Integrated Pest Management (IPM) with be a priority. Allowing the site biology to dictate pesticides are spilled, containers or equipment an ecological risk assessment to select the design of the golf course will ensure greater cleaned and the rinse water dumped on the pesticides for use; harmony between the course and the springshed ground or discharged into surface water, or • Irrigation management for water and will result in greater protection of the improperly cleaned containers are stockpiled. conservation; and spring. In addition, post-development operation For ease of operation and maintenance, the • Construction guidelines to minimize and maintenance of the course can be positively facility should be centrally located. However, it disturbance and protect the spring and affected, and operational costs can be reduced. should be located as far from karst sensitive springshed. Maximizing conservation areas and open space features as possible. will also reduce land-use intensity and provide Landscaping Considerations. One way components of the stormwater management plan. to reduce the potential for pollutants to migrate 75 played (e.g., backs of tees, between tees, beyond the reach of accepted guidelines for width of rough). Use native vegetation in those areas. Reducing the amount of turf where golf is not played makes good environmental sense (native vegetation is less intensively maintained than turf areas) and economic sense (less cost for these materials as well as manpower, energy and wear and tear on equipment). Figure 4.4 Turfgrass is planted where the game is played, otherwise native vegetation is used. Tee boxes are examples of areas that should be maintained for use of native vegetation. to springs is to reduce the need for pesticides, Native Plant Selection. Choose plants Identifying Sensitive Features fertilizers and water on the golf course. The type that are native to a particular area. They will be of vegetation selected for use on the golf course better adapted to the site than non-native plants “When designing a golf course, it is is a key to reducing inputs to the course. The and thus require less water and pesticides. As a important to begin identifying sensitive design of the golf course should retain as much result, maintenance costs should be lower; features on the proposed site. Utilizing what native vegetation as possible. Vegetation Turfgrass Selection. Select turfgrass with nature has provided is both environmentally selection not only reduces the need for pesticide rapid recuperative ability, adaptability to and economically wise. Emphasizing the and fertilizer use, but also conserves water, and required cutting heights, tolerance to soil existing characteristics of the site can help maintenance costs are reduced on the completed compaction, and ability to wear. The turfgrass retain natural resources, allow for efficient course. As an additional benefit, native selected for use should have a low spreading or maintenance of the course and will likely vegetation will benefit wildlife on the site. Five creeping growth habit so that it can tolerate reduce permitting, mitigation and site primary areas should be taken into consideration close mowing heights and achieve rapid healing, development costs. Good design incorporates when addressing issues of vegetation. and it should be well adapted to the area; protection of ground and surface water and Natural Landscaping. Retain and Biofilters or Buffers. Establish transition existing sensitive features, as well as enhance areas of vegetation that are already part zones between areas of high golf course anticipates future maintenance needs and of the natural habitat of the property makes both maintenance and sensitive environmental areas. sustainability of resource use.” environmental (e.g., storm water management, Not only will these areas provide transition wildlife) and economic good sense. Such areas buffers, but they will also provide filtration for (Excerpted from Voluntary Environmental Guidelines Recommended for Golf Courses in Worcester County & the should contribute to lower-maintenance costs by water and cover for wildlife; and Delmarva Peninsula, Worcester County, Maryland) allowing self-sustaining vegetation in out-of-play Amount of Turfgrass. Do not use areas; turfgrass in areas where the game is never 76 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

In the design phase, areas and protocols for management practices that coincide with their erned by applicable rules and regulation must land clearing should be clearly defined. By position in the watershed. The management be identified. Activities within these zones must defining these protocols at this stage of the zones should be based on a springshed analysis be specified so that management activities are process, the spring will have the greatest amount and established during the design phase of the consistent with the applicable rules. of protection. development, implemented during construction, No-spray Zones. No-spray zones are es- Special Management Zones. The process and maintained throughout the life of the course. tablished around each resource identified for of constructing and managing a golf course in an Management zones work hand-in-hand with protection, and should include all resources that environmentally-sensitive and responsible establishment of Best Management Practices are potentially part of the pathway to a spring. manner involves establishing management zones and Integrated Pest Management to protect For example, no-spray zones should be estab- throughout the golf course. Management zones springs. Management zones include: lished at least 25 feet landward from the normal are areas on the course that have distinct Regulatory Zones. All areas that are gov- water elevation or edge of moist area. This

Golf Course Rough

Minimum of 25’

No Spray Zone

Figure 4.5. Special Management Zones are Figure 4.6. This is implemented adjacent to resources in the a plan view of springshed to protect the resource, which in turn potential Special Limited Spray protects the spring. This is a cross-section of Management Zone potential zones. Zones.

77 distance should be based on the site, with dis- Important Design Considerations tance increasing with slope of the land, and organic fertilizers only should be used. Similarly, Areawide Design Considerations no-spray zones should be established around • Site the course based on regional and site-specific elements (contextual design). habitat areas, corridors, or in areas of shallow • Meet both human and wildlife habitat needs (ecocentric design). ground water. • Minimize land clearing. Limited Spray Zones. Limited spray • Maximize preserves and open space, and connections between them (positive for wildlife and for zones are established 25 to 50 feet landward stormwater management and filtration). from the normal water elevation or edges of • Identify areas and protocols for protection of the intersection of golf and natural resources (e.g., moist areas. This distance should be based on wetlands, riparian corridors). the site, with distance increasing with slope of • Identify the footprint for the maintenance facility. the land. A limited set of pesticides should be Landscaping Considerations used in this zone, and a program that limits • Retain native vegetation in areas not in play and use native vegetation to replant disturbed areas not quantities and types of fertilizers that can be part of the golf course. applied at one time should be implemented. • Select turf best adapted to local environmental conditions. Light, frequent applications of water-soluble • Look for ways to reduce the amount of turf where golf is never played (e.g., backs of tees, between tees). materials or greater amounts of water-insoluble • Identify areas and protocols for land clearing (e.g., service roads, haul roads, mulch piles, limits of materials should be used. Pesticides that can be clearing). used must be identified and must be selected Water Considerations with appropriate risk assessment techniques. • Establish Special Management Zones to protect connections to springs. Additionally, when wind speed is greater than • Establish water quality protection with BMP trains for drainage and stormwater. 10 mph, a shroud should be used on spray • Use a proper irrigation system and locate heads to deliver the right amount of water to the right equipment to avoid drift. Similarly, limited spray place at the right time. zones may be established around habitat areas, • Do not drain directly into a surface water body. Try to maximize the contact between drainage water corridors, or in areas of shallow ground water. and vegetation (i.e., springshed-based water management). Hand Clearing and Maintenance of • Design the course to reduce irrigation demands where possible. Use water reuse strategies for Sensitive Areas. Sensitive areas (for example, irrigation when economically feasible, and when environmentally and agronomically acceptable. pathways to the spring, wetlands, streams) • Implement conservation measures on the golf course and in the club house. should be managed using hand tools only, unless • Monitoring Considerations a mechanical tool “arm” can reach into the sen- • Establish baseline surface- and ground-water conditions. sitive area to perform a task. No mechanical (From Sustainable Resource Management Guidelines, Audubon International, 1998) clearing should occur. Maintenance of sensitive areas may include siltation, erosion, and com- 78 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

paction. Accumulated silts should be removed, eroded channels should be filled, and com- pacted areas should be raked. Best Management Practices for Golf Course Drainage Best Management Practices. BMPs pro- Inlet Control Practices. Inlet control measures are designed to protect water quality by tect springs by either preventing or managing managing runoff before it is collected in the drainage system. Practices that can be used include: potential contaminants. The goals are: 1) reduc- • Inlets located in natural/unmanaged area ing the off-site transport of sediment, nutrients • Inlet protection (e.g., inlet covers) and pesticides; 2) controlling the rate, method • Inlet management plan (e.g., 25 foot diameter no-spray zones) and type of chemicals being applied; 3) reduc- (Under most circumstances, inlet controls must be selected in combination with one or ing the total chemical load; and 4) reducing irri- more practices from the following list of golf course BMPs) gation water needs. BMPs include preventive and structural controls which constitute the Vegetative Practices. Vegetation can be used to reduce the velocity of stormwater, which helps building blocks of the springshed protection promote infiltration into the soil and settling of solids. Plants also protect against erosion and program. As with management zones, BMPs remove pollutants through uptake. Options include: should be established during the design phase of • Dry/Wet Swale the development, implemented during construc- • Filter Strip/Outlet to Natural Area tion, and maintained throughout the life of the • Vegetated Buffer course. Infiltration Practices. Treatment structures promote water entering into the soil and recharging Preventive measures include nonstructural or replenishing ground water. If properly designed and maintained, infiltration devices can practices that minimize or prevent the genera- effectively remove pollutants through adsorption to soil particles. These include: tion of runoff and the contamination of runoff by • Infiltration Basin/Trench pollutants. Preventive measures are considered • Bioretention Area the “first line of defense” in an integrated storm • French Drain water management system. A system of preventive measures, if properly implemented, offer an Outlet Control Structures. Outlet control measures are designed to treat runoff collected and effective means of storm water management. transported to them through the drainage system. These control practices treat runoff at the point of Common preventive BMPs include use of discharge through settling, biological uptake of substances, and infiltration. Measures include: resistant crop varieties, cultural control of pests, • Constructed Wetland irrigation water management, soil testing to • Dry Detention Basin determine fertilizer requirements, timing and • Vegetated Outlet Structures placement of fertilizers, use of slow-release • In-Line Filter fertilizers, biological control of pests, pesticide (From Sustainable Resource Development Guidelines, Audubon International, 2000) selection, rotation of pesticides, correct 79 of a particular pollutant is increased. A stormwater management system should be considered as a “BMP train” in which the individual BMPs are considered the cars. The more BMPs incorporated into the system the better the performance of the treatment “train.” The first cars might include BMPs to minimize generation of runoff (e.g., irrigation management) and use of fertilizer (e.g., IPM) and the final car may include sheetflow through a forested area. Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM is an ecologically-based system that uses both biological and chemical approaches to control pest. IPM strategies should be incorporated

Figure 4.7. “BMP trains” in the springshed provide the optimum protection for springs, and are a critical component of effective surface water into every aspect of the Natural Resource Man- management. Coupled with a comprehensive systems approach that combines the use of natural drainage systems with preventive practices and agement Plan for the golf course. These strate- structural controls, the use of many different “BMP trains” in the design will provide maximum water quality protection. Above, for instance, gies should take into consideration the entire “green” drainage flows through a 40 foot swale, a detention basin and sheet flows through a native planting area. spectrum of golf course operations as they relate to environmental impact. application of pesticides, and correct pesticide throughout the golf course. The use of many Irrigation Management for Water Con- container disposal. different “BMP trains” in the design will provide servation. Irrigation system design and opera- Structural controls are capital improvements maximum water quality protection. tional strategy must fulfill all environmental designed to remove, filter, detain, or reroute po- The effectiveness of pollutant removal is a requirements for protecting the spring and re- tential contaminants carried in surface water. function of three interrelated factors: 1) the sources in the springshed. In addition, the irri- BMP controls are given in detail at removal mechanisms used by the BMP, which gation system should be designed to meet the www.audubonintl.org , the Audubon International include physical, chemical, and biological water requirements of the turf by supplementing website. processes; 2) the fraction of runoff treated by natural rainfall. Irrigation should be managed BMP Trains. The most effective way to the BMP; and 3) the nature of the pollutant with a computer-controlled system and inte- manage surface water is by using a comprehen- being removed. Thus, an effective BMP train is grated with a weather station. The weather sta- sive systems approach that combines the use of one that treats 100 percent of runoff by tion should monitor and record the following natural drainage systems with integration of physical, chemical, and biological processes. parameters: air temperature; soil temperature; preventive practices and structural controls. This By including as many removal mechanisms as wind speed; wind direction; barometric pres- comprehensive systems approach should be used possible, the probability of success for removal sure; rainfall; humidity; and solar radiation. 80 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

These are linked with a computer programmed This includes springs, wetlands, waters of the from disturbance. Care needs to be taken so that to calculate irrigation requirements based on United States; wildlife management or protection flagging does not fade, and that the different col- these parameters. This information is then used areas (e.g., eagle management areas); and pipe- ors do not fade and become indistinguishable. by the superintendent and irrigation technician lines or other right-of-ways. Significant site ele- 6. Develop an education program for con- to apply the amount necessary to replace soil ments are defined (e.g., old growth forest, struction workers. A 15- to 20-minute session moisture. specimen trees). These are identified on the with the contractor, including the supervisors Monitoring Considerations. The moni- plans so that they are insulated from any impact and operators, provides a common vision for the toring program should be established during the during construction. property. The program establishes expectations design phase of the development and continued 2. Identify areas involved with clearing and guidelines of the project. An effective way throughout the life of the course. The baseline vegetation for the golf course. The plan in- to present this is with an 8-1/2" x 11" brochure. conditions should be established during the de- cludes identification of the following: storage Bulleted points should highlight the major pro- sign phase, with monitoring during course con- area for wood chips; storage area for soil; area for tection areas, and clearly illustrate what the struction and operation to ascertain changes removal of all vegetation between the marked contractors should and should not do in particu- from baseline conditions. limits; area for removal of all undesirable or in- lar areas. vasive (exotic) vegetation; service roads; limits 7. Respect all wildlife as an important of second phase clearance; and wooded zones, part of the ecosystem. Avoid harming wildlife, Establish and Follow a Construction springs, wetlands, buffers, and corridors. both plants and animals, and call for help in Management Program 3. Identify service roads. Service roads to removing animals you are not comfortable with. the various areas associated with clearing and he following components of a construc- 8. Prevent any littering. Contain trash and construction are identified. tion management program should mini- remove it to an approved disposal site. T mize site disturbance and provide the 4. Mark and define all areas designated 9. Establish a nursery if quality landscape foundation for protection of the spring and natu- for clearing. This should be completed by the material is available on site for transplant- ral resources of the springshed: golf course project manager with input from ap- ing. Natural vegetation that is removed from the Prevention Practices. Prevention of en- propriate personnel, which may include a Natu- site should be appropriately potted and held in vironmental problems begins with a design that ral Resource Manager, Audubon International, the nursery until it is time to revegetate the clearly identifies areas that will be protected golf course architect, landscape architect, and property. The nursery needs to be in an area that during construction. Having the following items associated team members. Marked areas should has electricity and water, and that is convenient clearly marked will assist in providing continu- employ color coding that is consistent through- to revegetation locations. out the project. ity between the planning team and the construc- 10. Attempt to preserve specimen trees, tion team. Prevention practices include the 5. Identify clearing lines with a uniform significant sites, or other important features following characteristics: color coding. Clearing lines should be identi- wherever possible. In many cases, the final 1. Clearly define all jurisdictional limits. fied with a uniform color coding to protect areas 81 determination of what can be preserved successfully will not be made until clearing begins. This is the heart of adaptive Construction Management Considerations management, in which decisions are made based Prevention Practices on the results of previous actions. • Define all jurisdictional limits. Management Practices. Construction of • Identify areas that will be cleared of vegetation with a uniform color coding system. golf courses in a springshed often involves • Identify service roads. significant land areas. The average golf course • Respect all wildlife as an important part of the ecosystem. in Florida is approximately 140 acres. For each • Have an education program for environmental considerations during construction. golf course site in the springshed, the following • Attempt to preserve specimen trees, significant sites, or other important features. guidelines should reduce site disturbance and • Establish a nursery if quality landscape material is available on site for transplanting. potential environmental problems by • Don’t litter. incorporating BMPs into all construction Management Practices activities. • Clear in an iterative manner. 1. Make golf course clearing an • When clearing wooded areas, identify and protect specimen trees. iterative process. A golf course may initiate • Maintain, restore or create edge conditions. clearing of the first phase by starting with the • Mark haul routes and follow roads. center line of the fairways and clearing 50 feet • Follow an erosion control plan. on either side. Phase II may include selective • Follow guidelines for on-site fuel storage. clearing, and will begin only after Phase I has • Follow response procedures for containment and cleanup in the event of a fuel or chemical spill. been inspected and approved by the team. • Do not wash out concrete equipment in drainage ways or storm drains. Phase III will include selective removal of • Use appropriate BMPs to treat stormwater runoff. remaining vegetation, depending upon the • Follow approved dewatering practices. requirements of each golf hole. Throughout the • Treat surface and subsurface drainage from greens with BMPs before discharging to water. clearing process, all karst features are provided • Route drainage from fairways away from direct input to surface waters. adequate protection (these areas should be • Construct and locate the maintenance facility with regard to spring pathways. clearly marked on the site plan and flagged in • Build bridges at crossings that minimize environmental damage. the field). • Follow the same precautions for cart path construction as for the golf course. 2. When clearing wooded areas, identify and protect specimen trees. Monitoring Practices 3. Maintain, restore or create edge • Conduct environmental monitoring during golf course construction. conditions. This is particularly important with (From: Construction Guidelines for Communities and Golf Courses, Audubon International, 1999) proposed clearing within or adjacent to wooded 82 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

areas that contain karst features. Construction containment. At a minimum, an earthen berm practices are properly installed and functioning. activity (actual clearing as well as haul road must be constructed around the tank, and the 11. Direct surface and subsurface activity) should be kept within the specified containment area should be lined with an drainage from greens over vegetative boundaries and follow the prescribed pattern of impervious material. This berm must be sized to buffers, through vegetative swales, or into clearing. Regrading is to be kept to an absolute contain at least a third of the total tank volume sumps or similar devices before discharging minimum within these transitional areas. Where in case of a tank rupture or equipment failure. to water. The use of swales, sumps or other minor regrading is necessary, native topsoil 7. In case of a fuel or chemical spill, devices that retain or move drainage water away should be reinstated. Native topsoil contains a follow appropriate response procedures for from surface waters are meant to be protective of seed bank that will encourage the development of containment and cleanup. Report spills to on- spring waters or ground water (protect them from a natural edge. Plantings along these edges site supervisor, and if possible, collect unwanted chemical inputs). A combination of should allow for the rapid establishment of information such as type of fuel or chemical, prevention and control practices (BMP trains) appropriate native species. estimated volume of spill, and any other will provide protection. 4. Identify haul routes and follow the hazardous/safety information. 12. Route drainage from fairways away roads at all times. Unacceptable 8. Do not wash out concrete equipment from direct input to surface waters. This is environmental damage may occur if the vehicles in drainage ditches or storm drains. Conduct to protect the resource from unwanted inputs, deviate from the haul roads. For example, soil concrete wash out in contained areas, allow and it also protects the property owner. Best compaction may occur and cause stress to materials to harden, and remove them to an management practices can be used effectively. plants; habitat may be destroyed; and foraging approved disposal site. 13. Locate and construct the and nesting sites may be damaged. 9. Use appropriate best management maintenance facility with regard to spring 5. Prepare and implement an erosion practices to treat storm water runoff. The pathways. The location should be maximized control plan. The plan should be used each use of vegetated swales to direct runoff waters or for efficiency of operations, safe operations of time the golf course undergoes any type of buffers constructed from native plant materials equipment, correct siting of washpads, pesticide construction or reconstruction. are effective in minimizing the effect from the storage and mixing areas, fuel islands, 6. Follow guidelines for on-site fuel direct input of drainage waters. “Soft” equipment maintenance, etc., to minimize the storage. Fuel tanks that are temporarily stored engineering is preferred over the use of concrete potential for negative incidents, and ease of on site must be properly located and protected or “hard” piping of water, where this is deliveries. The maintenance facility should be to minimize the possibility of spills and appropriate for storm water management. located as far as possible from any pathway to environmental impacts. Fuel or chemical storage 10. Follow approved dewatering the spring. tanks should not be placed within 100 feet of practices. Dewatering activities must meet all 14. Build bridge crossings so that the any potential connection to the spring, or other regulatory requirements. Springs and potential impact to the environment is minimized environmentally-sensitive areas (lakes, creeks, pathways to springs should be protected from during construction. Erosion barriers wetlands, or stormwater treatment structures). dewatering discharges. Care must also be taken described in the Erosion Control Plan (silt fence All storage tanks should have secondary to ensure that erosion and sedimentation control with hay bales, and sedimentation ponds where 83 needed) will be in place for bridge crossings. continuously evaluated and the construction daily maintenance and operation stage, the man- Bridge construction will be conducted so that team must be ready to revise and adjust agement plan uses each stage and analysis to construction equipment does not enter a stream, practices should the data indicate negative build upon and support the various activities wetland or other waterbody; rather, only the lo- impacts during construction. involved in developing an environmentally-sen- cation of the footings will disturb the bottom ar- sitive golf course. The management plan ties all eas. The bridges are built with the bridge itself Create a Golf Course-Specific the information and management practices to- as the work platform. Clearing should be by Natural Resource Management Plan gether to ensure that every action supports and hand to avoid damaging the wetland or enhances every other action. The management waterbody with heavy equipment. s with siting, design and construction, plan becomes the “owners manual” or “guide- 15. When clearing for the cart path, golf course management must be ap- book” for the golf course developer, manager follow the guidelines for clearing of the golf Aproached holistically. Impacts to and and superintendent to follow at every stage of course. The cart path should be routed to avoid from a golf course do not respect property lines. golf course development and operation. The sensitive areas and areas that have been identi- Creating a golf course-specific Natural Re- Natural Resource Management Plan should be fied for protection (specimen trees). Erosion bar- source Management Plan is the best vehicle to updated as part of a yearly review of operations. riers described in the Erosion Control Plan (silt do this. Starting at the site evaluation stage, and Although not discussed in this here, the fence with hay bales, and sedimentation ponds moving through the development process to the management plan should also address wildlife where needed) will be in place for construction. conservation and enhancement, energy conser- Construction will be conducted so that equip- vation, and waste management. ment does not enter sensitive areas, or disturb Natural Resource Management Every new golf course in a springshed areas that are otherwise undisturbed. Plan Considerations for Springs should be required to prepare a Natural Re- Monitoring Practices. Environmental source Management Plan and should participate • Environmental Planning monitoring during golf course construction is in a nationally-recognized golf course certifica- • Integrated Pest Management conducted to establish environmental conditions tion program, such as the Audubon International • Water Conservation Management during construction and provide a basis for Signature Program or equivalent program. The (Irrigation) measuring compliance with environmental attachment on page 94 contains an outline of a • Water Quality and Environmental regulations. Data are also compared to baseline plan developed by Audubon International. Monitoring conditions established for the site during Environmental Planning. This portion of • Maintenance Facility previous phases. the plan focuses on identifying sensitive re- • Oversight and Ongoing Evaluation/ Results of the monitoring program will also sources on the site and developing the BMPs Response measure the success of the construction needed to protect them. The information gener- management strategies and practices on the (Natural Resource Management Plans for Golf Course Management, ated during the site evaluation and selection springshed. By ongoing monitoring, the success Audubon International, 1995) stage forms the backbone of this analysis. Addi- of the construction practices program is tionally, the design and construction activities, 84 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

described earlier, are incorporated into this portion of the management plan. Using the site evaluation information, pre- The Audubon International Signature Program ventive measures can be incorporated into the The Audubon International Signature Program is the only nationally-recognized golf course course design to protect sinkholes or other areas certification program for new golf courses. The program is based on a proactive, holistic, watershed which are a potential pollution path to a spring. approach that applies scientifically-based environmental decisions to siting, design, construction and Once the resources are clearly identified, spe- operations of golf courses. This approach integrates watershed environmental attributes and agronomic cific management zones can be delineated. practices and provides maximum protection of watershed water resources, and minimization of the These could include buffer zones, no-spray potential for negative impacts. Costs associated with this program have a payback of approximately one zones, limited spray zones or erosion control year, and annual savings in operations are realized for the life of the golf course. zones. BMPs should then be identified for implementation in each individual zone based The Signature Program involves: on the specific site characteristics and location. 1. Preparation and implementation of a Natural Resource Management Plan for a site; Examples of this are maintaining a undisturbed 2. Implementing prevention, management and monitoring practices throughout the siting, buffer zone around a sinkhole, or ensuring that design, construction and management of the golf course; the turf variety most suited to the specific cli- 3. Incorporating these practices in a springshed-based approach to water management that matic conditions of the course is utilized so that stresses optimum site planning and the use of natural drainage systems; pesticide/fertilizer needs are reduced. 4. Use of BMP trains, IPM, and environmental monitoring; and Integrated Pest Management (IPM). 5. Annual site reviews and re-certification. The primary cultural practices that produce and There are three levels of the Signature Program: Bronze, Silver and Gold. The primary difference sustain a healthy turf are mowing, irrigation, between the levels is based on the stage at which the project applies for membership, the complexity fertilization and cultivation. The best deterrent of the project, and the level of Audubon International involvement in the planning, design and to weed, insect and disease infestation is a oversight of the project. At the Silver level, environmental and agronomic experts at the Audubon healthy turf. Thus, maintaining hearty grasses International Institute actually prepare the Natural Resource Management Plan; and at the Gold will minimize the need to apply pesticides. The level, scientists from the Institute work with the developer in siting, planning, design, construction Natural Resource Management Plan should in- and operations, and they prepare the Natural Resource Management Plan, an Ecological Design, a clude detailed information on mowing, fertiliz- Community Education Program, and a Green Building Program. See www.audubonintl.org for ing, irrigation and cultivation, including a basic additional information. annual maintenance plan. Audubon International also has a program for existing golf courses, the Audubon Cooperative IPM uses information about turfgrass pest Sanctuary Program. problems and environmental conditions which Audubon International is a not-for-profit environmental organization that is not associated with any may precipitate these problems, and integrates other environmental organization. Audubon International is affiliated with the Audubon Alliance. this information with turfgrass cultural practices 85 and pest control measures to prevent or control list based on the pesticide risk assessment pre- unacceptable levels of pest damage. It is itself a viously noted should be compiled for each spe- IPM Approaches Best Management Practice. IPM is not a new cific pest problem. idea, as these practices have been an integral IPM programs rely on six basic approaches • Regulatory – using certified planting part of general agriculture for almost 40 years. for plant and environmental protection. These stock However, as concern over the protection of natu- include the following: • Genetic – selecting improved grasses ral resources has increased, it has become more Regulatory. Use certified seed and sod to • Cultural – proper implementation refined and taken more of a systematic ap- prevent unwanted weed contamination and select • Physical – isolating infected areas proach. This approach integrates a number of the best adapted turfgrass species. • Biological – using or favoring natural efforts including: Genetic. Select improved grasses which per- control • Development of a healthy turf that can with- form well in specific areas and show a resistance • Chemical – use of pesticides stand pest pressure; to pest problems. approved through risk assessment • Judicious and efficient use of chemicals; Cultural. Follow recommendations made for • Enhancement of populations of natural, ben- proper primary and secondary cultural practices eficial organisms; and which will maintain the turf in the healthiest aerification, vertical mowing, topdressing, main- • Effective timing of handling pest problems at condition and influence its susceptibility and tenance of proper soil nutrient levels, sound irri- the most vulnerable stage, often resulting in recovery from pest problems. Practices such as gation management and proper mowing reduced pesticide usage. techniques should produce a high quality turf. As a component of IPM, the golf course Physical. Clean equipment to prevent superintendent must make decisions about pest Components of the IPM Approach spreading of diseases and weeds from infected problems and develop control recommendations • Monitoring potential pest populations and areas. including the judicious use of pesticides. Strate- their environment Biological. For a limited number of pest gies must include identifying an anticipated pest • Determining pest injury levels and problems, use biological control whereby natural complex and understanding the biology behind establishing treatment thresholds enemies are introduced to effectively compete the pest. For example, determining the interrela- • Decision making in developing and with the pest. tionship of disease infection and expression of integrating all biological, cultural and Chemical. While pesticides are a necessary symptoms, noting temperature ranges when dis- chemical control strategies and beneficial approach to turf pest problems, eases are active, and identifying timing for opti- • Educating personnel on all biological and their use can be restricted in many cases to cura- mum insect and weed control must be chemical control strategies tive rather then preventive applications, thus understood. Thresholds should be set for each • Timing and spot treatment utilizing reducing environmental exposure. Pesticides specific local pest problem and then adjusted as chemical, biological or cultural methods selection is based on a risk assessment ap- necessary based on effectiveness of IPM options. • Evaluating the results of treatment proach. Pesticides selected for use on specific As part of the strategy, an approved pesticide pest problems should be limited to those which

86 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

have demonstrated a high degree of effectiveness, are not toxic to non-target species, act quickly and degrade quickly, and are not soluble and not persistent. Few pesticide applications will be made on a regularly scheduled basis. Exceptions may include preemergence herbicides and fungi- cides used to control certain diseases. Addition- ally, materials must be applied strictly in accordance with label instructions, at labeled rates, under appropriate environmental conditions (no spraying on windy days or when rain is forecast), with a low-volume sprayer to reduce the possibility of drift. Materials should be used on a rotating basis to deter the development of resistant strains of pests which may require more frequent and/or higher rates of pesticide applications. One of the most critical components to IPM programs is monitoring. A well-trained and experienced employee should scout on a daily basis to detect symptoms of a pest problem. A site specific history should be maintained. Other golf course superintendents in the area or specialists in turfgrass management should be consulted, as needed. A successful IPM scouting and monitoring plan must ensure that the following steps are followed: 1. Assign individuals to conduct the scouting, record the results, evaluate the information and make appropriate decisions based on this information. This may be done in a team approach with the scout consulting with specific Figure 4.8. There are a series of steps for decision-making using Integrated Pest Management. members of the staff, or it may be an individual IPM specialist. 87 2. Provide proper education and training of all level of irrigation will be required. Greens, for the siting, design and construction sections of involved in any aspect of the IPM program. example, would be given the highest irrigation this chapter. In this section, under IPM pro- This should include formal seminars, work- priority, while roughs or out-of-play areas may grams, cultural practices including careful se- shops, conferences, short courses, and other be given no irrigation. This prioritization will lection of materials for use on the golf course IPM training opportunities. In-house training help in the design of an appropriate irrigation were identified to provide protection to spring sessions for the maintenance crew should be system, as well as help managers determine water quality. The environmental monitoring held to inform them of IPM strategies. what should be watered in times of water restric- program is an important aspect of the overall 3. Review, at least annually, the complete tions or drought. Reducing the amount of irri- water protection program. An environmental program and evaluate its effectiveness. gated turf areas where possible can help. Where monitoring program should: Changes will constantly be made as the golf available, effluent water for irrigation should be 1. Establish a baseline of water and sediment course matures, changes in design are made, used. quality prior to construction; or as new information concerning handling of Irrigation patterns and control systems turf management or pest problems becomes should be planned and programmed to meet the available. needs of the plant and turf species. Using the Irrigation Management and Water Con- right plants initially can reduce irrigation re- Characteristics of servation. Water management, through irriga- quirements, so wherever possible, use native, an Environmental tion practices and conservation techniques, is naturalized or specialized drought-tolerant plant Monitoring Program important for golf courses in a springshed. As materials. Choose turf species that are well noted earlier, too much or too little water leads to suited to the local climate and soils. Addition- • Establishes a baseline maintenance problems, contributing to the need ally, make sure that the irrigation system distrib- for pesticide/fertilizer applications. Water is the utes the water uniformly over the designated • Provides data to assess compliance mode of transportation for contaminants into sur- area and only as fast as the soil can absorb it. • Provides information on management face and ground water resources, including Regularly inspect the irrigation system and springs, so the use of water on the course is im- quickly fix any leaks or operational problems. • Is developed in phases portant. Additionally, excessive water withdrawal Water at the appropriate time to minimize • Includes surface and ground water for irrigation can impact water levels in springs. evaporation and reduce disease potential. Avoid The overall management plan should watering at peak evaporation periods. Automatic • Identifies where samples are taken, address irrigation and water conservation prac- irrigation systems reduce unnecessary watering how often they are taken, what tices, with one of the goals being to reduce the and should include a shut-off mechanism if it should be analyzed, and what should demand for water. To assist in this effort, a num- begins to rain. be done if established criteria are ber of BMP strategies can be used. Initially, the Water Quality and Environmental exceeded various golf areas should be prioritized in terms Monitoring. Maintaining water quality at the of whether irrigation will be necessary, and what golf course includes the processes described in 88 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

2. Provide data that will establish environmental the golf course. If there are only a few, all of 6. Identify the laboratories to perform conditions, thus providing a basis for them may be sampled. Golf courses with many the sample analysis. Make sure that these labs measuring compliance with environmental water features may choose to sample representa- are certified by the State of Florida and have regulations; and tive water bodies. The number of sample loca- strong quality assurance and control practices in 3. Ensure that Integrated Pest Management is tions is highly site dependent. For ground water, place. Also, make sure that the lab can detect functioning properly. sample locations are chosen based on the pro- variables at appropriate concentrations as this is The golf course management program is jected flow of ground water. Three or four sample often a concern with pesticides. evaluated based on the results of the monitoring locations are the minimum number required to 7. Determine the data storage tech- program. Based on this evaluation, the manage- assess water quality. When establishing the pro- niques. Storage of data should be determined in ment plan may need to be revised and adjusted. gram, remember that sampling the same location the beginning of the monitoring program. Stor- This kind of adaptive management is a key to suc- over time is important so that comparisons can age should be both on a computer diskette and cessful conservation management. be made. on paper. The computer storage allows the data The environmental monitoring program is 3. Determine sampling frequency. Iden- to be easily analyzed and used to better manage usually established in three phases that coincide tify how often each location will be sampled over the course. with golf course development. Phase I is back- a year’s time. It is important to sample during 8. Establish criteria for management ground; Phase II is construction and develop- different seasons because the environment re- response. There should be specific criteria ment; and Phase III is the post-development, sponds differently during each season. against which the sampling results can be com- operational golf course. During each phase, 4. Determine the variables that will be pared. If a criterion is exceeded, then a problem samples are collected and analyzed, and the re- sampled. Test for general water characteristics is occurring and a management response is results evaluated. (temperature, pH, conductance, dissolved oxy- quired. Specific, step by step responses that will There are several steps to setting up a water gen) as well as nutrients (primarily phosphorus be undertaken if the criteria are exceeded monitoring program. and nitrogen) and pesticides. Select pesticides should be identified in Phase I of the monitoring 1. Identify what will be sampled. The for analysis based on their aquatic toxicity, water program. goals of the program will dictate what needs to be solubility and adsorption coefficient (Koc), using Maintenance Facilities. The importance sampled. In springsheds, it is important to sample the procedure for selecting pesticides to reduce of locating the maintenance facility in an appro- both surface and ground water resources because adverse water quality impacts in the Florida Co- priate location was previously discussed. Man- of the geologic connection between them. Consid- operative Extension Service’s Managing Pesti- agement practices should be implemented at eration should also be given to sampling shallow cides for Golf Course Maintenance and Water these maintenance areas that will prevent the sediment. Sediment generally accumulates mate- Quality Protection. Pesticides may also be se- contamination of natural resources by the material and is considered a good indicator of environ- lected based on an ecological risk assessment. rials that are stored or handled at these sites. mental quality. 5. Identify the sampling field methods. Prevention of problems is the goal and the gen- 2. Identify the sample locations. To deter- Clearly identify the methodology for taking eral approach to management of maintenance mine sample locations, survey the water bodies on samples. facilities involves three principles: 89 • Isolate all potential contaminants from soil and water; • Do not discharge any material, other than clean storm water, onto the ground or into surface water bodies; and • Minimize irrigation, fertilizer, and pesticide use requirements through use of Integrated Pest Management and native vegetation. The design of the maintenance facility must adequately address: equipment wash area (including, blowing-off equipment, clipping disposal, wash water disposal and recycling); pesticide storage, mixing, loading and pesticide equipment wash area; fuel island (including containment of spills and leaks, and mixing with rain water); and fertilizer storage, including application tanks. At the maintenance facility the areas that re- Figure 4.9. This pesticide storage, mixing and loading facility helps • Install a complete alarm system, with battery quire extra attention include the pesticide storage to prevent environmental problems by containment and recycling of rinsate water. backup, for burglary and fire; and mixing facility, the wash pad area, and the fuel island. Attention must also be given to degreasers, • Install a telephone; oil (new and used) storage, and battery storage. entering and exiting without backing. • Use locks and bolts should be of the highest Degreasers are usually supplied by a service that Pesticide Storage and Mixing. Pesticide quality materials available; removes and recycles used material and replen- storage and mixing should be in a separate room • Use high quality durable plastic or metal ma- ishes with clean material on a routine basis; used or building designated for these materials only. terials to avoid adsorption of chemical resi- oil and batteries should be recycled. This facility should be located away from the dues or vapors; and shelving must be sturdy Size and access to the maintenance facility spring, pathways to the spring, and other water and secured to avoid sagging and falling; are important considerations. The maintenance bodies (wells, ponds, streams). The building • Install an explosion-proof fan and explosion- area is generally 2 to 3 acres, and must be must be kept locked and posted as required by proof light; readily accessible. The layout of the facility law. All pesticides should be stored in their should allow easy and safe access by trucks with original containers with visible labels. • Ensure adequate ventilation; 10 wheels or more. One layout that works well The following are best practices for the pes- • Store pesticides at least 6 feet off the floor on allows large trucks to circle the facility, thus ticide mixing and storage facility: non-absorbent shelving; 90 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

• Segregate pesticides by liquid, powder or granular class; • Store all powders and granules above liquids; • Slope the entire floor to the center of the room with a centrally-located recessed sump; • Seal the concrete pad with a solvent resistant material (e.g., epoxy paint) to prevent leaching of any contaminants; • Locate a light and fan switch outside of the door entering the control center, as well as locating an emergency equipment box on the outside of the building and include a fire ex- tinguisher, respirator, first aid supplies, Figure 4.10. This wash pad and fuel island complex helps to prevent problems by containment and recycling. goggles, respirators, gloves, and rubber boots; • Include a sink with potable water, spigot and rect rain water away from the area, but recess hand blower with the drainage funneled back cides and other chemicals and MSDS and the center area from normal ground level to into the sump; labels for each pesticide used. allow for wash water to be collected for recy- Wash Pad. The runoff associated with • Attach a mixing table to the sink at a slightly cling. The roof should be high enough to al- wash water and debris from equipment wash higher elevation to allow overspill to be low golf course equipment the proper amount areas have the potential to cause environmental washed into the sink; of clearance, yet low enough to meet any aes- problems. The following are best practices for • Locate a portable eye wash bottle over the thetic requirements (visibility to homeowners, the wash pad: sink, and install an eye wash/shower station etc.); supplied by potable water immediately outside • Recycle water used to wash equipment and • Attach air hoses to posts near the wash pad the facility; filter contaminating materials, such as grease, and use them to remove excessive grass resi- • Locate a refill hose above the sump to allow oil and gasoline, from this recycled water; due off equipment prior to moving onto the proper and timely filling of spray tanks with • Wash pesticide equipment in the pesticide wash-down pad; this practice will reduce the water; facility, not in the wash pad; amount of grass clippings/debris entering the • Keep absorbent floor-sweep materials, sawdust • Roof the wash-down area to keep rain off the water recycle system; or cat litter and activated charcoal on hand to pad and prevent excessive water from going • Use a pad with triple screen baskets, weigh- be prepared for spills and/or leaks; and into the recycling system; ing less than 40 pounds each, to prevent an • Keep readily accessible an inventory of pesti- • Elevate the pad along the outer edges to di- excess of grass clippings and debris from 91 entering the recycling system; grass clippings direct rain water away from the area, but course is operational. By having golf courses should be composted and recycled on the golf recess the center area from normal ground enrolled in a nationally-recognized certification course; level to allow for containment in the event of program, the technical expertise is available to • Utilize hoses with attachable spray bottles of a fuel spill; evaluate the operations of the golf course and liquid wax at the wash-down pad so valuable • Use impermeable concrete in the pad to monitoring data. Also available is education for equipment can receive a brief application of prevent leaching of any contaminants; and golf course superintendents on pertinent topics liquid wax (cut with water) after each use; such as research results for practices or new • Have the Fire Marshall and other appropriate pesticides that may be appropriate for the golf • Use impermeable concrete in the pad to authorities review the specifications prior to course. Enforcement of the plan rests with prevent leaching of any contaminates; and construction of the fuel island. maintaining certification in the nationally • Install lightning protection in this area for Oversight and Ongoing Evaluation. recognized certification program. worker and equipment protection. Oversight and ongoing evaluation of the golf Coordination and communication with local Fuel Island. Fuel islands have the course is a major building block for golf course governments is important in this process, potential to cause environmental problems. management. Periodic site evaluations provide a whether for a golf course that will be Leaks or spills of gasoline and diesel fuels can means to assess the operations of the golf course constructed or an existing course. Field result in expensive clean-up efforts as well as with field observations and review of monitoring observations, monitoring and IPM data should environmental contamination. General and IPM data. An annual onsite review should be communicated to the local government via considerations for fuel islands include the be conducted. This review should use the an annual report. Should remedial actions be following actions: Natural Resource Management Plan as a required, these actions are specified and • Cover the fuel island to reduce the amount of template, and review pesticide, fertilizer, and follow-up site visits are conducted to determine rainwater that enters the area; irrigation records, the IPM program, BMPs, completion and compliance. special management zones, the maintenance • Install adequate lighting around and beneath facility, and cultural management practices. the roof to allow for operation during periods Often local governments do not have of darkness or inadequate light; sufficient in-house expertise to evaluate plans, • Install lightning protection on the fuel island potential construction impacts, operations of golf roof; courses, and conduct an annual review. The • Store fuel in above ground, double vaulted annual review should be conducted by a tanks from a reputable manufacturer; nationally-recognized golf course certification • Utilize above ground devices for fuel carrying program, such as the Audubon International mechanisms, if possible; Signature Program. It offers third-party oversight, and ongoing re-certification ensures • Elevate the pad along the outer edges to that this oversight continues for as long as the

92 G O L F C O U R S E S E S R U O C F L O G

Be Sure To Check Out These Resources!

Best Management Practices for Florida Golf Courses, Second Edition, was published by the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences at the University of Florida, in 1999. This book covers putting green construction, water management , fertilization, cultural practices and pest management. It is available through county extension offices or by contacting UF/IFAS Publications at 1-800-226-1764.

Best Management Practices for Golf Course Maintenance Departments, www.dep.state.fl.us/water/stormwater/pubs.htm, was published by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection in 1995. It provides specific BMPs covering pesticide storage, mixing and loading, equipment washwater; solvents and degreasers; fertilizers storage and loading; used oil, antifreeze, and lead- acid batteries; fuel storage; and general equipment washing and storage.

A Guide to Environmental Stewardship on the Golf Course, published by Audubon International in 1996, provides a good overview of practical conservation management strategies for a golf course and how to integrate them into on-going maintenance activities. It covers environmental planning, wildlife and habitat management, integrated pest management, water conservation, water quality management, and outreach/education. Call 1-518-767-9051 to order a copy.

Audubon International Signature Sanctuary Program, www.audubonintl.org/, is a recognized comprehensive management approach for the development and operation of golf courses. It is administered by Audubon International, a not-for-profit environmental organization.

United States Golf Association’s (USGA) Green Section, www.usga.com/green/index.html, is the group within the USGA that is involved with every aspect of golf course design and maintenance. This web site has a variety of information about various construction techniques for golf courses, as well as links to related industry sites.

The Natural Resource Conservation Services’ National Conservation Practices Standards, www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/nhcp_2.html, identifies national standards for various conservation practices commonly used to treat natural resource problems (soil, water, plants, animals). For each standard, information is provided regarding application, criteria, considerations, plans and specifications, and operation/maintenance. Examples of standards included are riparian forest buffer, filter strip, and nutrient management.

93 Attachment Elements of A Natural Resource Management Plan

1.0 INTRODUCTION 3.2.2 Fertilizing 1.1 MANAGEMENT APPROACHES AT THE PROJECT SITE 3.2.3 Cultivation Practices 1.1.1 Prevention 3.3 BASIC ANNUAL MAINTENANCE GUIDE 1.1.2 Management 3.4 PESTICIDE SELECTION 1.1.3 Detection 3.4.1 Pesticide Use Restrictions 1.2 CONCEPT OF BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES AND 3.5 SPECIFIC LOCAL PROBLEMS INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 3.5.1 Disease Control 1.2.1 Best Management Practices 3.5.2 Insect Control 1.2.2 Integrated Pest Management 3.5.3 Weed Control 3.6 SOLUTION PROGRAM FOR PROJECT SITE 2.0 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING 3.6.1 Scouting Program for Project Site 2.1 SITE DESCRIPTION AND EVALUATION 3.6.2 Record Keeping 2.1.1 Physical Setting 3.7 MANAGING THE PROGRAM - PERSONNEL 2.1.2 Topography 3.7.1 Superintendent 2.1.3 Surface Water 3.7.2 Assistant Superintendent 2.1.4 Soils 3.7.3 Irrigation Technician 2.1.5 Climate 3.7.4 Pesticide Technician 2.1.6 Vegetation and Wildlife 3.7.5 Mechanic 2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 3.8 PESTICIDE SAFETY 2.2.1 Environmentally Sensitive Areas and Management Zones 3.8.1 Storage 2.2.2 Management Zones at Project Site 3.8.2 Handling and Application 2.2.3 Best Management Practices to Protect Environmentally 3.8.3 Disposal Sensitive Areas 3.8.4 Pesticide Record Keeping 3.8.5 Spill Prevention and Response 3.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT 3.1 AGRONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS AND REQUIREMENTS 4.0 IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT FOR WATER 3.1.1 Soil Mixes and Modifications CONSERVATION 3.1.2 Turfgrass Selection 4.1 IRRIGATION 3.2 GOLF COURSE CULTURAL PRACTICES 4.2 IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT 3.2.1 Mowing

G O L F C O U R S E S S E E S S R R U U O O C C F F L L O O G G

4.3 WEATHER STATION 6.0 MAINTENANCE FACILITY 4.4 IRRIGATION SYSTEM DESIGN AND OPERATIONAL 6.1 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR THE STRATEGY MAINTENANCE FACILITY AT THE PROJECT SITE 6.1.1 Pesticide Storage and Mixing 5.0 WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT 6.1.2 Wash Pad 5.1 SURFACE WATER AND GOLF COURSE CONSTRUCTION AND 6.1.3 Fuel Island GROW-IN 5.1.1 Construction 5.1.2 Grow-In 7.0 REFERENCES 5.2 GOLF COURSE AND POST CONSTRUCTION EFFECTS 5.3 SUBSURFACE DRAINAGE AND GROUNDWATER APPENDIX I: Analysis of Pesticides for Use at the Project Site 5.4 WETLANDS APPENDIX II: IPM and Scouting Report Forms and Data Reporting 5.4.1 Monitoring Forms 5.4.2 Maintenance of Vegetative Conditions APPENDIX III: Example of a Hazardous Communication Program 5.4.3 Restoration and Repair of Damaged Areas 5.4.4 Record Keeping APPENDIX IV: Maintenance Facility Best Management Practices 5.5 LAKE AND POND WEED MANAGEMENT APPENDIX V: The Audubon International Signature Program 5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING PROGRAM 5.6.1 Phase I: Surface Water, Groundwater, and Sediment Quality during Construction and Immediate Post- Construction Period 5.6.2 Phase II: Surface Water, Groundwater, and Sediment Quality during Golf Course Operations 5.6.3 Data Storage 5.6.4 Data Analysis 5.6.5 Criteria for Management Response 5.6.6 Field Quality Control and General Water and Sediment Sampling Considerations

95 Attachment 2 (Source: this chart is adapted from one prepared by the National Wildlife Federation, www.nwf.org/northeastern/resources/bmp.pdf) Non-Structural Best Management Practices

Applications Examples Tools • Balance development needs with the • Create environmental overlay zones • Natural resource inventory and Land Use Planning protection needs of the resource area (primary and secondary) mapping and Zoning • Restrict activities or set aside land • Springshed protection plans near critical springshed features • Land use designation • Conservation easements • Land acquisition

• Protect certain resource areas by re- • Identify critical areas • Comprehensive Plan and FLUM stricting development and certain land • Establish buffer zones • Zoning regulations Protected Areas uses • Establish setback requirements • Land use and subdivision regulations • Employ use restrictions • Land Trust involvement • Transfer development rights • Acquisition • Concentrate development and main- • Innovative site design tain open space • Natural resource inventory

• Minimize site development problems • Identify total area to be developed • Natural resource inventory Comprehensive through careful planning • Identify priority natural resources for • Comprehensive plan’s goals, objectives protection and policies that direct development to Site Planning • Limit site disturbance appropriate areas • Protect steep slopes • Future Land Use Map • Phase development • Growth center plan • Maximize internal capture • Subdivision regulations • Cluster development • Developer agreements

• Minimize impervious surfaces • Concentrate development and main- • Innovative site design • Increase contact between impervious tain open space • Land use regulations that require inclu- Reduced surfaces and vegetated areas • Incorporate open spaces into urban sion of greenways and open spaces in areas new developments Impervious Areas • Separate or disconnect different im- • LDRs and local development review pervious surfaces by maintaining or processes that reduce parking require- creating vegetated areas ments and provide for shared parking • Use permeable pavements as alterna- tives to concrete and asphalt • Add shared parking provision • Reduce parking requirements

• Reduce or eliminate pollution from • Sewer critical areas to serve existing • Health ordinances Sanitary Waste sanitary sewers and private septic sys- development • Septic ordinances Management tem • Require proper septic design, installa- • Septic management plan tion and maintenance • Allocation ordinances • Establish septic tank management programs

M A N A G I N G D E V E L O P M E N T I M P A C T S S T T C C A A P P M M I I T T N N E E M M P P O O L L E E V V E E D D G G N N I I G G A A N N A A M M

Structural Best Management Practices Applications Requirements Limitations/Problems Erosion and Sediment Control BMPs (control erosion and resulting sediment pollution) Erosion Control • Schedule projects during dry season • Reduce erosion by disturbing the • Climate, topography, soils, drainage • Proper placement and maintenance are and growing season smallest area of land possible for the patterns, and vegetation will affect how essential • Stage Construction shortest period of time; stabilize soils to erosion and sediment should be con- • Delays in stabilizing exposed soil can • Seeding/mulching prevent erosion from occurring trolled on a site have huge impacts • Check dams • Exposing soils in the winter runs the • Runoff diversions risk of failing to establish vegetative • Vegetated swales cover Sediment control • Sediment basins/traps • Retain sediment onsite during and after • Climate, topography, soils, drainage • Proper placement and maintenance are • Filter fabric/silt fences construction patterns, and vegetation will affect how essential • Use PAM (polyacrilimide) erosion and sediment should be con- • Inlet Protection trolled on a site Infiltration BMPs (control pollutants such as nutrients, pathogens, trace metals and organics) Infiltration BMP’s • Infiltration basins • Provide holding area for runoff to allow • Porous soils • Must consider local conditions like soil • Trenches infiltration into the soil profile • Sufficient depth to ground water type and depth to avoid ground water • Swales • Provide for pollutant removal • Integrate into a site’s landscaping contamination • Leaching catch basins • Promote ground water recharge • Do not always require large tracts of • Use and maintain filter strips or sedi- • Infiltration islands • Protect fisheries by reducing the tem- land ment basins to remove excess loads of • Pervious surfaces (porous pavement, perature of stormwater runoff sediment, grease, oils and trash before modular paving blocks) • Reduce stormwater volume stormwater is allowed to enter the infiltration device • To maximize life span of practice careful planning must precede implementation • Do not use for erosion and sediment control • Proper construction and maintenance are essential Retention BMPs (control pollutants such as nutrients, suspended solids, organic matter and trace metals) Retention BMPs • Wet ponds • Provide for storage of stormwater runoff • Nonporous soils or liner necessary • Proper construction, inspection, and in a permanent pool • Not suited to areas with extreme slopes maintenance are essential • Promote settling of suspended solids • Safety concerns may warrant fencing of and associated pollutants structure • Remove pollutants through vegetative uptake

• Constructed wetlands • Control peak stormwater discharges to • Not suited to areas with extreme slopes minimize flooding • Provide temporary storage of 67 stormwater runoff with gradual release he primary concerns associated with agricultural and silvicultural activi-

ties are the leaching of nutrients and pesticides into surface and ground water and the withdrawal of ground Twater for irrigation. Sedimentation and turbidity around sinkholes and other karst features are secondary concerns. This section provides an overview of common BMPs

for agricultural and silvicultural activities, and identifies additional resources and assistance opportunities:

Implement Agricultural BMPs

Take Advantage of Assistance Opportunities for Agriculture

Implement Silvicultural BMPs

Take Advantage of Assistance Opportunities for Silviculture

96 AGRICULTURESIL AND

prings are vulnerable to changes in nutrient levels resulting from agricultural and S silvicultural activities within the Key Practices for Agricultural and springshed. Instead of entering the system from a single point, such as a pipe, runoff from agricul- Silvicultural Operations tural and silvicultural activities occurs when water flows over or through the ground, picking up • Focus on reducing the movement of nutrients, pesticides and contaminants and transporting them to surface and ground water. This type of runoff is defined sediments off-site and to surface and ground waters, and reducing as “nonpoint.” Because there are many areas on water withdrawal for irrigation purposes. a site that contribute contaminants, BMPs for • Implement agricultural and silvicultural BMPs to reduce impacts nonpoint source pollution target water movement to springs. and the substances carried in that water. BMPs

must address the operation as a whole in order to • Discourage intensive agricultural and silvicultural activities VICULTURE be effective. such as concentrated animal feeding operations, row crops, or Springs are also sensitive to the short-rotation timber operations on intensively prepared sites withdrawal of ground water from the aquifer within the primary zone of a springshed. for irrigation. Water withdrawals from the aquifer can directly reduce the spring’s flow. • Encourage silviculture and low intensive agricultural activities, Some BMPs target reducing the need for such as range land, in the secondary protection zone of a irrigation withdrawals by encouraging springshed. irrigation efficiency. The Florida Department of Agriculture • Discourage intensive agricultural or silvicultural activities in and Consumer Services (FDACS) has authority close proximity to the spring head or other karst features. for BMP development for the nonpoint source • Buffer agricultural and silvicultural operations from springs and water quality impacts associated with agricultural practices. BMPs address the other karst features. protection of ground water and surface water from potential impacts associated with the use of fertilizers and other agrichemicals. In Florida, the 1999 Watershed Restoration Act, codified under section 403.067, Florida Statutes, directs BMP 97 development, implementation and cost-share balance between water quality improvement and as the preferred means to address nonpoint agricultural productivity. In general, agricultural source water quality impacts. Nitrate Levels in BMPs are designed to reduce the movement of Current BMP initiatives center around Spring Water pesticides, fertilizers and sediments off the site building partnerships, thus providing a and into surface and ground waters. Again, water framework for the successful development and In 1996, the Southwest Florida is the primary form of transport of these delivery of BMPs statewide. Several sectors of pollutants. Florida’s agricultural industry are already Water Management District Section 403.067, F.S. provides that, once working in a proactive manner to develop and completed a study of nitrates in FDACS adopts and the Florida Department of adopt BMPs. Environmental Regulation (FDEP) verifies the Rainbow Springs, entitled Origin of effectiveness of agricultural BMPs in reducing Implement Agricultural BMPs Nitrate in Ground Water nonpoint source pollution, farmers will have a rebuttable presumption of compliance with state gricultural activities commonly use Discharging from Rainbow Springs. water quality standards if they implement BMPs. pesticides and fertilizers to increase Rainbow Springs is a first This exemption provides landowners with crop yield and control pests. Dairy incentives to use BMPs. A magnitude complex of springs farms, or other concentrated feeding operations, Many farms in Florida implement some type produce significant amounts of manure and other located in southwest Marion of BMPs. Some options follow. animal waste that are a major source of phospho- Conservation Tillage. This low- or no- rus and nitrates. Excess nutrients from these ac- County. It forms the headwaters of tillage cultivation practice involves leaving crop tivities can leach into surface and ground water, the Rainbow River, one of the residue(s) on the soil surface to reduce runoff, contributing to the contamination of springs. This soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, and to help can lead to problems in streams and rivers flow- longest spring runs in the world. keep nutrients and pesticides on the field. ing from the spring, including increased growth The study examined the origin of Crop Nutrient Management in nuisance aquatic vegetation. BMPs address Budgeting. Proper nutrient management animal waste management and the application of increased nitrate levels in the focuses on soil testing, identifying crop needs, fertilizers and pesticides. spring water and concluded that and precisely applying fertilizer materials based BMPs are effective tools for controlling on sound agronomic practices. This helps to the main source of nitrate was potential nonpoint source water quality impacts reduce the amount of excess nutrients available associated with agricultural practices. When inorganic fertilizer from pasture to move offsite. All sources of plant nutrients are using them, it is critical that the BMPs be incorporated into this management tool. fertilization. compatible with the agricultural activity for Integrated Pest Management. IPM is a which they are intended, and that they strike a comprehensive approach combining biological, 98 AGRICULTURESIL AND

While a local government can recommend the use of IPM techniques, they are precluded from regulating specific pesticides — this is the prerogative of state and federal government. cultural and/or other methods to manage pests. Examples of IPM practices include visually looking for pests (known as scouting), rotating crops, planting pest resistant crops, encouraging beneficial insect populations, and selectively utilizing crop protection chemicals.

Incorporating buffer areas between pesticide VICULTURE application areas and karst features is especially important. Conservation Buffers. With this approach, strips of land are maintained in permanent vegetation to help control pollutants and convey water more slowly. Buffers can help to stabilize soil, reduce wind effects, intercept sediments, nutrients and pesticides in surface runoff, and prevent potential pollutants from getting into springs. As recommended in the Florida Springs Task Force Report published in 2000, a 100-foot undisturbed buffer should be left around sinkholes and other karst features that are connected to springs conduits.

Figure 5.1. (Top) Nutrients and other contaminants can be carried by runoff from these fields directly to the sink.

Figure 5.2. (Bottom) Providing a buffer around a sink helps to trap contaminants before they reach the sink. 99 Commodity-Specific BMP Manuals Commodity-specific BMP manuals are available through local extension offices. Many of these manuals have been printed in bulk and distributed to the agricultural community: Irrigation Management. This important Guide for Producing Container Grown Plants. Through a cooperative effort between practice can maximize the efficient delivery of the University of Florida, Auburn University, Tennessee Tech University, and Virginia irrigation water through operational management Polytechnic Institute, a BMP manual for nursery cultivation was produced in 1995 and practices such as irrigation scheduling, system published by the Southern Nurserymen’s Association. It includes irrigation and fertilization performance evaluation, reusing irrigation run- BMPs for the container cultivation of nursery plants. This is being used as the foundation for off, and proper management of drainage water. the development of a manual specifically for Florida. For more information, contact the Office Converting irrigation systems to drip irrigation of Agricultural Water Policy in the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. or micro-irrigation is very useful in reducing Best Management Practices for Blended Fertilizer Plants in Florida. Cooperatively overall water consumption and controlling the produced by the Florida Fertilizer and Agrichemical Association, Florida Department of delivery of fertilizers and pesticides. Many of Agriculture and Consumer Services, and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, this Florida’s agricultural industries have done this. manual was published in October of 1997, and can also be found at www.dep.state.fl.us/water/ Monitoring is also an important aspect of irriga- stormwater/pubs.htm. tion management. The various water manage- BMPs for Agrichemical Handling & Farm Equipment Maintenance. Developed ment districts can be contacted for assistance jointly in 1998 by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, the Florida with this issue. Department of Environmental Protection and several industry associations, the manual has Concentrated Animal Feeding recently been revised and gives producers guidance on hazardous materials, pesticide Operations Management. If improperly handling, and the proper disposal of waste products. It is available at www.dep.state.fl.us/ sited or managed, concentrated animal water/stormwater/pubs.htm. operations (dairies, feed lots and poultry Water Quality Best Management Practices for Cow/Calf Operations. The Florida operations) can result in water quality Cattlemen’s Association worked with several state, federal and local agencies in the problems from accumulated animal wastes development of this manual. Many cattle operators throughout the state have been trained in and facility wastewater. These facilities the use of this manual, which was distributed in 2000, and is available at should be located in areas above an www.dep.state.fl.us/water/stormwater/pubs.htm. aquaclude to reduce potential contamination Water Quality/Quantity BMPs for Indian River Area Citrus Groves. The Indian to the aquifer. If located within the River Citrus League led a cooperative effort involving 15 agencies and industry associations in springshed, they should be extensively the development of this manual. Although this regionally-specific manual applies to seven east buffered, sited away from springs, sinkholes, coastal counties, other Florida flatwoods citrus operations can benefit through its use. It is also other surface waters, and areas with high available at www.dep.state.fl.us/water/stormwater/pubs.htm. ground water recharge. These facilities should Row Crops and Ridge Citrus BMPs. Currently under development, these manuals are not be sited in the springshed primary and expected to be released in 2003. For information about these manuals, contact the Office of secondary protection zones. Agricultural Water Policy in the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. Erosion and Sediment Control. Erosion around karst features can cause widespread 100 AGRICULTURESIL AND

damage to waterways and springs. Conservation buffers and conservation tillage, as described above, will dramatically reduce the risk of offsite sediment transport. A Cooperative Basin Approach

The Suwannee River Partnership is an excellent example of the public and private sectors Take Advantage of Assistance working together to protect water resources in the Suwannee River Basin. It includes Opportunities for Agriculture representatives from the agriculture industry, state and federal agencies, local governments and related associations. It focuses on addressing nitrogen loading to water resources, variety of federal and state cost-share including springs, by emphasizing voluntary incentive-based programs for implementing programs can assist cooperating grow- BMPs in the basin. ers with the implementation of on-farm Approximately 80 percent of the targeted poultry farmers and all of the dairies are now A participating. Among other things, conservation plans using Natural Resource BMPs. This is important because, while agricultural BMPs have emerged nationally as a Conservation Service standards and practices are developed for each participating farm. VICULTURE water quality cornerstone, some BMPs are The dairy conservation plans provide for collection of waste, waste storage, waste transfer almost entirely dependent on federal and state and waste utilization. Roof runoff, heavy use area, pest management, livestock exclusion, funding to help offset significant capital costs to and nutrient management are also addressed. Poultry conservation plans outline practices both construct and implement the specific on- for composting or incineration of dead birds, waste storage, waste utilization and nutrient farm BMPs. management. The partnership is also working with the row crop, vegetable, and forage Other government assistance opportunities farmers to implement nutrient and irrigation BMPs on their farms. such as conservation easements, less-than-fee In addition to BMP implementation, the partnership has developed BMP effectiveness simple acquisitions, and grower incentive research and BMP follow-up programs. The research program has been developed to verify payments can be beneficial to agricultural the BMP effectiveness on farm scale operations. The BMP follow-up or Quality Assurance operations in protecting sensitive resources. In Program has been developed to verify BMPs are being maintained and operated as addition, technical assistance also exists in designed over time. For more information about this effort, contact the Suwannee River many state agencies and water management Partnership at 1-800-226-1066. districts. Additionally, the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) has local district conservationists who can help a landowner with site selection based on soil science, conservation planning, engineering specifications, and/or cost-share assistance. 101 While the listing that follows is not all growers install tensiometers, water table inclusive, it provides an overview of the major Besides conservation, silviculture can be observation wells and other watersaving assistance programs available to Florida one of the most compatible land uses with devices. agriculture. Florida’s springs. Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). This provides technical, Sciences (IFAS) recommended rates of Implement Silvicultural BMPs educational, and financial assistance to fertilizer would not be eligible. eligible farmers and ranchers to address soil, Farm-A-Syst. Offered through the IFAS ypically, silviculture operations require water, and related natural resource concerns on at the University in Florida, this program few added fertilizers and pesticides and their lands in an environmentally-beneficial enables a farmer to obtain confidential T are, therefore, one of the land uses more and cost-effective manner. The USDA-NRCS environmental assessments by completing a compatible with springs. Even under intensive administers this program, establishes key worksheet to identify potential sources of silviculture, forestry activities typically have Geographical Priority Areas on a yearly basis, pollution. Farm-A-Syst can help determine minor impacts, because harvest typically occurs and incorporates conservation planning as an what risks—whether from livestock waste only at intervals of 25 to 50 years, or longer. adjunct. disposal, pesticide management or petroleum Silviculture activities can, however, still FDACS Total Maximum Daily Load storage—could threaten a farm family’s health result in adverse impacts to water quality from Program. The Office of Agricultural Water and financial security. soil erosion and sedimentation, alteration of Policy in FDACS has funds to participate with Wetlands Reserve Program (WRP). surface hydrology, and excess nutrients. agriculture on research, demonstration This program, administered by the USDA- Herbicides and fertilizers applied through aerial projects, BMP development and NRCS, enables participating landowners to application can enter the ground water system implementation, and cost-share programs establish conservation easements in order to though karst windows, such as sinkholes. In statewide in impaired basins under the restore degraded wetlands and other addition, operation of forestry equipment near provisions of the Clean Water Act, Section environmental features. Agencies, local springs and other karst features can damage the 303d. Landowners who submit a Notice of governments or land trusts hold the structure and integrity of stream and spring Intent to Implement BMPs that have been easements. banks, further degrading water quality. Use of adopted by FDACS, and are also located in Mobile Irrigation Laboratory. A joint vegetated buffers will help reduce impacts. priority listed watersheds, are eligible for cost- project of the water management districts and To address water quality and related sharing. It should be noted, however, that not the USDA-NRCS, its purpose is to help environmental issues for silviculture, the all BMPs are eligible for cost-sharing under farmers and growers conserve water through FDACS, Division of Forestry, in cooperation with this program. For example, surface water efficient irrigation. The lab operator helps test a Technical Advisory Committee representing control structures or irrigation system the performance of irrigation systems, plan many stakeholder groups, has developed a upgrades/retrofits are eligible for cost-sharing, system improvements and establish irrigation Silviculture Best Management Practices manual. but applying Institute of Food and Agricultural schedules. In addition, the lab operator helps These BMPs were established in the mid- 102 AGRICULTURESIL AND

seventies and have been revised periodically, most recently in 2000. Although historically focused on water quality protection for streams and lakes, the current BMP manual addresses other water resource features including sinkholes. Silviculture BMPs are designed as minimum standards necessary for protecting and maintaining water quality, but include practices to address ecological and wildlife habitat values. Virtually all silviculture activities are addressed in the manual including wetlands, roads, stream crossings, timber harvesting, site preparation, firelines, pesticide and fertilizer application,

waste disposal, wet weather operations and VICULTURE emergency operations. A key practice in the manual is the Special Figure 5.3. The Division of Forestry developed this manual of best Management Zone (SMZ), which provides a buffer management practices intended for between forestry operations and sinkholes. silviculture operations. Specifically, the SMZ focuses on the area immediately adjacent to streams, lakes, and sinkholes and has a variable width based on the SMZ Widths for Lakes, Sinkholes & Special Waters size and type of the water resource, and the Site Sensitivity Class (SSC) which is based on soil type Perennial Intermittent and slope percent. The purpose of the SMZ and other BMPs is to Primary Zone Secondary Zone Primary Zone Secondary Zone reduce forestry-related nonpoint pollutants such Lakes 35’ varies with SSC (Stringer) min. 35’ as sediment, nutrients, logging debris, chemicals Sinkholes 35’ varies with SSC (Stringer) min. 35’ and water temperature fluctuations. The SMZ also OFW* 200’ varies with SSC 200’ varies with SSC protects in-stream and near-stream habitat ONRW** 200’ varies with SSC 200’ varies with SSC functions and values. Class 1 200’ varies with SSC 200’ varies with SSC The SMZ may include one or more of the following components: Primary Zone, Secondary * Outstanding Florida Waters ** Outstanding National Resources Waters Zone and Stringer. A Primary Zone has Figure 5.4. Taken from the Silviculture Best Management Practices, this table identifies the special management zone widths for sinkholes. 103 Perenial Lake, 5 acres in size

Figure 5.5. The SMZ approach requires a 35-foot zone around a Primary Zone perennial sinkhole and harvesting restrictions apply.

Figure 5.6. Applying the Division of Forestry’s SMZ approach in this example would result in restricting operations around the Intermittent Sinkhole, sinkhole and leaving trees to 5 acres in size act as a barrier.

Stringer

Secondary Zone

104 AGRICULTURESIL AND

Pertinent BMPs from Silviculture Best Management Practices (Consult that manual for the complete listing.)

Wetlands: Do not significantly alter the natural drainage of flow patterns on forest lands immediately adjacent to wetlands. Avoid fill road construction, especially in flood plains or other wetlands with flowing water. Sinkholes: For sinkholes with perennial or intermittent open water, or which connect to an intermittent or perennial stream, apply the appropriate Special Management Zone to the sinkhole. Do not alter land surface slope to direct surface drainage into the sinkhole. Forest Roads: Minimize stream and wetland crossings. All road drainage practices that divert ditch flow or road surface runoff must direct such flows onto vegetated areas where it can be adequately dispersed—do not direct ditch flow or road runoff into streams lakes or other water bodies.

Stream Crossings: Minimize the number of crossings on a given stream and cross streams perpendicular to the flow at the most VICULTURE narrow section. Periodically inspect all culverts to prevent clogging, plugging and eventual failure. Timber Harvesting: Locate skid trails along the contour whenever practical to promote revegetation and reduce soil erosion. Do not pile or push logging slash into cypress ponds or strands, swamps, marshes, grassy ponds, or water bodies such as streams, lakes, sinkholes or similar water resource features. Site Preparation & Planting: When conducting site preparation activities near surface waters, follow the specific criteria provided in the Special Management Zone section. Arrange windrows and soil beds parallel to a waterbody or wetland in order to provide a barrier to overland flow, prevent concentration of runoff and reduce erosion. Pesticide & Fertilizer Use: Do not conduct aerial application or mist blowing of pesticides or fertilizer within any part of the (Special Management) Primary Zone. Consider the use of slow release fertilizer when conditions are appropriate. Waste Disposal: Do not discharge waste oil or other pollutants on the ground, in sinkholes, or in water bodies of any kind. Do not dispose of solid waste into water bodies of any kind. Wet Weather Operations: The best alternative for logging during wet weather conditions is to postpone the operation until drier conditions prevail.

105 implementing forest management plans on Take Advantage of Assistance private non-industrial lands. BMPs are required Available Opportunities for Silviculture and are an integral part of this program. A Assistance Programs typical multiple-resource plan might provide for s with agricultural BMPs, there are a conservation of soil and water, protection of • Florida Forest Stewardship number of state and federal programs wildlife habitat and wetlands, timber production, Program Adesigned to provide training and mon- livestock grazing, recreation, and beauty. etary assistance for the implementation of silvi- Cooperative Forestry Assistance. This • Cooperative Forestry Program culture BMPs. program provides on-the-ground assistance in • BMP Training Florida Forest Stewardship Program. BMP implementation to landowners. This program is designed to help people manage BMP Training. The Division of Forestry their forest land for a variety of natural resources, conducts BMP Training for landowners, significant timber harvesting restrictions and based on the strategy of multiple-use professionals, practitioners and other interested varies from 35 to 200 feet per side, depending management. This voluntary program provides parties. The resources identified in the adjacent on the type and size of the waterbody. A Second- federal cost share dollars for developing and box describe other training opportunities. ary Zone has no timber harvesting restrictions but it does include operation restrictions. A Stringer refers to an area where trees are left on or near the bank along both sides of certain water bodies to provide limited wildlife habitat and acting as a barrier to heavy equipment operation around the waterbody. The Division of Forestry monitors forestry operations statewide for compliance with silviculture BMPs and to determine effectiveness. The most recent compliance survey reported 96 percent compliance, and a recent FDEP/EPA funded study showed that BMPs are effective in protecting water quality.

Figure 5.7. Silviculture BMPs are important in the effort to protect sinks and springs.

106 AGRICULTURESIL AND

Be Sure To Check Out These Resources!

Agricultural Management Practices for Water Quality Protection found at www.epa.gov/watertrain/agmodule/index.htm, is an interactive training module developed by the Environmental Protection Agency and includes BMPs for agriculture. Topics include conservation tillage, crop nutrient management, pest management, conservation buffers, irrigation water management, grazing management, animal feeding operations management, and erosion/sediment control. The Office of Agricultural Water Policy, in the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, has authority for BMP development for nonpoint source water quality impacts associated with agricultural production. This is an excellent resource and can be reached at (850) 488-6249 or SunCom 278-6249. Silviculture Best Management Practices Manual (2000), by the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Forestry, identifies a variety of best management practices including special management zones, wetlands, sinkholes, forest roads, stream crossings, pesticide/fertilizer applications and other activities. It can be viewed on-line at http://fl-dof.com/Conservation/hydrology/index.html. VICULTURE Forestry Best Management Practices in Watersheds is an interactive training module covering BMPs for forestry and developed by the Environmental Protection Agency. Topics include preharvest planning, streamside management zones, forest wetlands protection, road construction, timber harvesting, revegetation, fire management, and forest chemical management. It can be viewed on-line at www.epa.gov/ watertrain/forestry..

USDA Conservation Programs, found at www.ncrs.usda.gov/NCRSProg.html, provides a summary of the various federal programs available to agricultural and silvicultural operations. Florida’s Forest Stewardship Program: An Opportunity to Manage Your Land for Now and the Future, (Circular 1020), describes the Forest Stewardship Program in Florida. This document can be viewed at www.sfrc.ufl.edu/Extension/pubtxt/tocc1020.htm.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service, www.nrcs.usda.gov, is an excellent source of information about available programs and assistance in Florida, including local district conservationists. In addition, their National Conservation Practices Standards identifies national standards for various conservation practices commonly used to treat natural resource problems (soil, water, plants, animals). These can be viewed on-line at www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/practice_stds.html. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has compiled extensive management measures for dealing with nonpoint source pollution at www.epa.gov/owow/nps/. Forestry, agriculture and wetlands management measures can be accessed at this site.

107 prings and sinkholes have always been popular recreation sites for local residents

and tourists alike. Unfortunately, springs and sinkholes become seriously damaged whenS public use and access to the spring is not properly managed. Erosion of the banks, submerged vegetation destruction, and littering are some of the major concerns. The most effective way to deal with impacts of public

recreation is to:

Develop a Management Plan

Control the Impact of Public Use

108 PUBLIC RECREA PUBLIC

lorida’s springs are owned by public and too shallow to permit motorboats without private entities. In 1949, Manatee Springs damaging aquatic plants or the bottom of the run. Develop a Management Plan F was the first spring to be purchased by When springs and sinkholes are located the State of Florida. Since then, dozens of off the beaten path, it is difficult to control management plan should be developed springs have been purchased by federal, state, public use. The public will find a way to get to to guide site improvements and access regional and local governments to provide pro- these swimming holes, but often the lack of Ato a spring. The owner or manager tection for the springs while making them avail- staff hinders local government control of use. should work with experts, such as the Department able for outdoor recreation. If warranted by unique aesthetic, of Environmental Protection, U.S. Geological Sur- Unfortunately, springs with uncontrolled paleontological, archeological, or biological vey, Florida Geological Survey and the appropri-

public access can become seriously damaged. values (or vulnerability to damage), a spring ate water management district, to develop a clear TION In the absence of steps, fencing, directional may have to be protected from active understanding of the site. This would include signs, and on-site staff, considerable harm can recreational use. spring characteristics, location of caves or other be done to the scenic and biological values of a spring. Typically, vegetation that stabilizes the slope and shoreline becomes trampled and uprooted. Foot traffic and stormwater further erode the soils, and the spring begins to fill with sand and debris. Submerged aquatic Key Practices for Public Recreation Use plants in the spring and spring run become • Reduce erosion and sedimentation by controlling how people trampled or uprooted by swimmers and divers. approach and enter the spring. Vehicle traffic on the uplands around the spring also causes damage. Frequently, • Focus use of the spring to areas where impacts to submerged littering and dumping further degrade the site. vegetation will be reduced. Uncontrolled boat access can also be a problem for spring protection. For those • Provide facilities for litter and human waste control. springs which are accessible by water, boaters • Educate users on the sensitivity of springs and spring runs, and how can cause the same problems as pedestrian to reduce their personal impact on those systems. traffic in an area. Tying boats up along the banks of the spring or spring run can cause erosion and vegetation loss. Additionally, engine props from oversized vessels or in shallow areas can stir up silt and dredge up aquatic vegetation. Most springs and runs are 109 • Minimize the amount of upland/shoreline clearing of vegetation and only clear in the areas where direct access is allowed. • Use exhibits, interpretive signs, leaflets or staff to help educate users about the values of the spring and how to minimize impacts. • Use stormwater management and erosion control methods to protect the spring from contamination, sedimentation, and turbidity problems from upland activities. Direct stormwater away from the spring and maintain a buffer between the uplands and the spring/ spring run. • If motorboats are permitted, designate and control the number and locations of specific mooring spaces for boats. • If motorboats are permitted, when pulling the boat out of the water, do not pull the drain plugs until the boat is away from the boat ramp and on a pervious area. This will prevent pollutants in the bilge water from entering surface waters. Figure 6.1. If best management practices are not implemented, public use can adversely impact a spring. • Provide trash receptacles and routinely empty them to reduce littering. • Provide a system for human waste disposal. karst features, and physical attributes of the site. • Delineate a specific swimming area with This information would then be utilized to de- Control the Impact of Public Use buoyed lines to reduce impacts of swimming on velop a management plan for the site that protects submerged vegetation in the spring or spring the spring. For example, roads and structures he following practices should be applied run. should not be placed over cave systems. to help control the effects of public use: • Prohibit fossil or artifact collecting by the Restrooms, drainage fields or other waste man- T public. agement facilities should also not be placed over • Control foot and vehicle traffic through the • Prohibit feeding of wildlife associated with the caves or in areas that will drain into the spring. use of steps, fencing and directional signs. spring or spring run, including alligators. 110

PUBLIC RECREA PUBLIC TION

Figure 6.2. This 1973 photo, on the left, shows Blue Spring in Volusia County when purchased by the State. Erosion along the spring banks can be clearly seen. After the State purchased Blue Spring, it restricted foot traffic and re-established native vegetation on its banks, as shown in the photo to the right.

• Control the number of divers in the spring at appropriate erosion controls and other access- personal stake in reducing impacts on the any one time by requiring they receive control BMPs. They could also provide periodic spring. Adopt-A-Spring groups would also permission from the owner to dive. maintenance and repairs. This is a good tool for provide another venue for educating the public • Develop educational programs targeting involving the users of a spring in its protection, about the importance of these unique resources. swimmers, boaters and SCUBA divers, which as well as potentially giving them a more focus on: 1) the sensitive ecology of spring runs; and 2) how to avoid disturbing the bottom and Be Sure To Check Out This Resource! accidentally uprooting submerged aquatic vegetation. Springs Fever: A Field and Recreational Guide to Florida Springs, by Joe Follmand and Richard In those instances where a spring owner Buchanan, is an excellent source of information about recreational opportunities at does not have the resources to provide adequate Florida’s springs. It can be viewed at www.tfn.net/Museum/Springbook/. control or protection, a local Adopt-A-Spring effort could be initiated. With the permission of the owner, volunteers would implement 111 G L O S S A R Y R A S S O L G

Algae - non-vascular water plants. Analyses of Dissolved oxygen (DO) - the oxygen freely Florida Aquifer Vulnerability Assessment types and abundance of algae provide available in water, which is vital to fish and (FAVA) - an ongoing project to develop a indicators of aquatic ecosystem health. other aquatic life. DO levels are an important Florida-specific model, using existing indicator of a water body’s ability to support geographic information system (GIS) data, that Aquaclude - the opposite of an aquifer, these desirable aquatic life. will predict the vulnerability of Florida’s major formations (often made of clay) do not allow for aquifer systems to contamination. The object of the movement of water. They therefore can act DRASTIC - The U.S. Environmental FAVA is to develop a tool that can be used by as a barrier for the movement of water between Protection Agency (EPA), working with the environmental, regulatory, and planning surface and deeper aquifers. National Water Well Association and a large professionals to facilitate protection of Florida’s number of other experts, identified the following Aquifer - an underground geological formation ground water resources, and thus the health and seven key factors that determine aquifer that allows for the movement of water; aquifers safety of Florida’s residents. vulnerability: (1) Depth to ground water; (2) are the source of spring water and well water. Recharge rate to ground water; (3) Aquifer FLUM - future land use map which is included Area of contribution - those areas of the media; (4) Soil type; (5) Topography; (6) Impact in the adopted local comprehensive plan. springshed landscape that accept rain and of the vadose zone; and (7) Conductivity of the Golf Course Special Management Zones - surface water inputs to the ground water. aquifer. Each of these factors is assigned a areas on the course that have distinct Certain areas often are much better at combination of weights and ratings, and a management practices that coincide with their delivering the ground water than others. numerical index called the DRASTIC index is position in the watershed, and are based on the Identifiable areas of high contribution should computed. location of karst features in the springshed. The be protected. Ecosystem - the interacting system of a management zones are established during the Best Management Practices (BMPs) - a biological community and its non-living design phase of the development, implemented practice or combination of practices, including environmental surroundings. during construction, and maintained throughout preventive actions or structural improvements, the life of the course. Zones include regulatory Fee simple acquistion - also known as “fee based on sound science and professional zones, no-spray zones, limited spray zones, and simple purchase,” this is the outright purchase judgement to be the most effective and hand-clearing zones. of land and it gives the owner (a local practicable on-site means of preventing government, for example) full control over all negative water quality impacts at a spring. rights. Buffers - undisturbed vegetated zone between First magnitude spring - a spring with a flow a land use and a spring. These zones are meant rate of 100 cubic feet per second (64.6 million as a protective barrier between the resources gallons per day) or more. and harmful activities.

112 GLOSSARY

Ground water level - the measurement, in Land development regulations (LDRs) - Primary Zone - see “springshed protection feet, of the elevation of the top of an aquifer. regulations, including zoning, adopted by a zone.” The level can fluctuate in response to aquifer local government to implement the Point Source Pollution - pollutants that recharge and ground water withdrawals. comprehensive plan. come from a concentrated originating point like Ground water withdrawal - the act of Less-than-fee-simple acquisition - when a pipe from a factory or a large registered removing water from aquifers by pumping it considering property ownership as a bundle of feedlot with a specific point of discharge. from a well, whether it be a small domestic rights. Less than fee acquisition or purchase is Secondary Zone - see “springshed protection supply well or a large public supply well. to purchase some portion of the bundle or rights zone.” but not all (e.g., easements, development rights, Habitat - the place where a population, etc.). Sinkhole - a hole in the earth that is formed whether human, animal, plant, or when an underlying limestone collapses. microorganism, lives, and its surroundings, both Loading - the amount of pollutants entering a living and non-living. system (concentration times flow rate). SJRWMD Karst Procedure - a set of protective measures applied to those portions of Hydrogeology - the study of subsurface Low Impact Development (LID) - a strategy western Alachua and western Marion counties waters in their geologic context. which uses a variety of techniques (site design, within the St. Johns River Water Management stormwater treatment trains, and pollution Hydroperiod - the pattern of water level rise District boundaries. The procedure was prevention) to develop a site in an and fall over time. developed to protect the Floridan aquifer from environmentally-sensitive manner. contamination by stormwater. The design Impermeable - not permitting the passage of Nitrate - a compound containing nitrogen that criteria can be found in SJRWMD fluids. In the case of geologic formations, an can exist in the atmosphere or as a dissolved Implementing Rule 40C-41.063(7), FAC. impermeable layer of earth is one through gas in water. Nitrates are essential plant which ground water cannot pass. Springshed Protection Zone - a land nutrients, but in excess they can be dangerous planning area wherein special features such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) - a to spring ecosystems. environmentally-sensitive karst landscape and method to control, not eliminate, pests through Nonpoint source - pollution that does not associated spring require differing or added a combination of approaches including plant result from a discharge at a specific, single type of management and protection. A selection, monitoring, cultural practices, location or point, but generally results from springshed protection zone for the biological controls and careful use of land runoff (i.e., from homes, parking lots, comprehensive plan and corresponding future pesticides. building sites, etc), precipitation, atmospheric land use map could be: Karst - a limestone region with underground deposition, or percolation. Pollution from Primary Zone - the primary zone drainage and many cavities and passages nonpoint sources occurs when the rate at which encompasses land, inclusive of springshed caused by the dissolution of the rock. pollutant materials entering water bodies or ground water exceeds natural levels. 113 G L O S S A R Y R A S S O L G

features, that is most sensitive to Springshed - the area of land whose water will most common TDR program allows the environmental contamination and merits eventually end up in a spring and spring run. landowner to sell the development rights to a special protection. This includes the The shape of this recharge area, or springshed, developer who then uses those development principal areas of ground water contribution is influenced not only by topography but also by rights to increase the density of development on and recharge, sinkholes, depressions and what is happening unseen under the ground— another piece of property at another location. A stream-to-sink features, the areas around the the presence of cave systems, fissures and other second method allows a local government to spring itself, and the spring run. These are karst features. establish a TDR Bank to transfer development areas deserving critical protection actions. rights. Stormwater - rainwater that flows overland Compatible land use in this area includes after falling. In developed areas, stormwater Transmissivity - the rate at which ground very low density and intensity uses such as typically becomes polluted by materials it picks water travels through a permeable geologic conservation, recreation and open space; and up from roofs, streets, parking lots, and other layer. Secondary Zone - the secondary zone impermeable surfaces, and may deliver Treatment Train - a series of Best includes land abutting the primary zone that pollutants to surface and ground water. Management Practices and/or natural features, is also vulnerable to contamination, but offers Targeted Pest Management - a philosophy of each planned to treat a different aspect of some limited opportunity for buffering managing pests that aims to reduce expenses, potential pollution, that are implemented in a impacts from potential sources of conserve energy, and protect the environment. linear fashion to maximize pollutant removal. contamination. Compatible land uses include TPM is a broad, interdisciplinary approach low density and intensity land uses such as Watershed planning and management - using a variety of methods to systematically conservation uses, recreation and open space, water resource management that is organized on control pests. silviculture, rural pasture areas or very low the basis of the natural boundaries formed by density residential. Tensiometer - a tool for monitoring soil surface water basins or ground water divides, moisture in the root zone, helping growers make which often overlap the borders of Spring recharge basin - the land areas that decisions about irrigation system management. governmental jurisdictions. contribute surface and rainwater to the spring flow. This may be used interchangeably with Transfer of development rights (TDRs) - Withdrawal - see ground water withdrawal. springshed or spring watershed, though in many this land use management technique transfers Xeriscape - a landscaping method that instances, the recharge basin is focused more development potential from sensitive areas to maximizes the conservation of water by the use upon those areas within the springshed that less sensitive areas that have been identified as of site-appropriate plants and an efficient collect and contribute significantly to the water suitable and designated for growth. In a TDR watering system. budget. program, two or more zones are established in a given geographic area, a “sending” Spring run - a spring-fed stream or river. (preservation) zone and a “receiving” zone. The

114 G R A P H I C S C R E D I T S T I D E R C S C I H P A R G

Manual Cover Diver and Spring pictures courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Center University of Florida and, online data available from the St. Productions, Inc. Johns River Water Management District Landscape picture courtesy of Dr. George Vellidis, Biological and Agricul- Figure 2.7 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Environmental Protec- tural Engineering Department, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA tion, Florida Geological Survey Figure 2.8 Courtesy of Hazelett-Kincaid, Inc. Introduction Figure 2.9 Courtesy of Paulette Bond, Florida Department of Environmen- tal Protection, Florida Geological Survey Figure 1.1 Courtesy of Gary Maddox, Florida Department of Environmental Figure 2.10 Courtesy of Wakulla County Protection Figure 2.11 Courtesy of Randall Arendt, from Conservation Design in the Figure 1.2 Courtesy of William Wisner Chesapeake Bay Watershed, November 2000 Figure 1.3 Courtesy of Hazelett-Kincaid, Inc. Figure 2.12 Composite, created courtesy of King County, Washington, Wa- Figure 1.4 Provided by the Florida Speleological Society, original artist ter and Land Resources Division(Sending-Receiving graphic); ©Wes unknown Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. (Ginnie Springs Run); and the Florida Figure 1.5 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Environmental Protec- Department of State, Photo Archives tion, Florida Geological Survey Figure 2.13 Courtesy of Kevin McGorty, Tall Timbers Research Station Figure 1.6 Courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. Figure 1.7 Courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. Managing Development Impacts Figure 1.8 Courtesy of the Florida Springs Task Force Photo, page 40 Courtesy of Orlando/Orange County Convention & Visi- Comprehensive Planning Strategies tors Bureau, Inc. Figure 3.1 Courtesy of the South Florida Water Management District Photo, page 10 Courtesy of James Stevenson, Florida Department of Figure 3.2 Florida Springs Task Force Manual, Florida Department of Environmental Protection Environmental Protection Figure 2.1 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Transportation Figure 3.3 Courtesy of Maryland’s Prince George’s County’s Department of Figure 2.2 Courtesy of Paulette Bond, Florida Department of Environmen- Environmental Resources and the Low Impact Development Center, tal Protection, Florida Geological Survey Inc., 1993 Figure 2.3 Florida Geographic Data Library, GeoPlan Center, University of Figure 3.4 Courtesy of Dr. George Vellidis, Biological and Agricultural Florida Engineering Department, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA Figure 2.4 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Transportation, and the Figure 3.5 Courtesy of Dr. George Vellidis, Biological and Agricultural Florida Department of State Photo Archives Engineering Department, University of Georgia, Tifton, GA Figure 2.5 Courtesy of Jim Dunbar, Florida Department of State Figure 3.6 Courtesy of Dan Pennington and the U.S. Forest Service Figure 2.6 Composite from Florida Geographic Data Library, GeoPlan Figure 3.7 Courtesy of the St. Johns River Water Management District, Stormwater Applicants Handbook 115 Figure 3.8 Courtesy of Betty Rushton, Southwest Florida Water Manage- Figure 5.4 Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture and Consumer ment District Services, Division of Forestry Figure 3.9 Courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. Figure 5.5 Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture and Consumer Figure 3.10 Courtesy of James Stevenson, Florida Department of Services, Division of Forestry Environmental Protection Figure 5.6 Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture and Consumer Figure 3.11 Florida Yardstick Workbook, IFAS, University of Florida Services, Division of Forestry Figure 3.12 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Environmental Figure 5.7 Courtesy of James Stevenson, Florida Department of Environ- Protection mental Protection

Golf Course Siting Design and Management Public Recreation

Photo, page 68 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute Photo, page 96 Courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. Figure 4.1 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute Figure 6.1 Courtesy of ©Wes Skiles/Karst Productions, Inc. Figure 4.2 Courtesy of Robert J. Witchger Figure 6.2 Courtesy of James Stevenson, Florida Department of Figure 4.3 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute Environmental Protection Figure 4.4 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute Figure 4.5 Courtesy of Robert J. Witchger Figure 4.6 Courtesy of Robert J. Witchger Figure 4.7 Courtesy of Robert J. Witchger Figure 4.8 Courtesy of Robert J. Witchger Figure 4.9 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute Figure 4.10 Courtesy of Audubon International Institute

Agriculture and Silviculture

Photo, page 96 Courtesy of the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services Figure 5.1 Welsch, D., 1991. Riparian Forest Buffers. Publication NA-PR- 07-91. USDA-Forest Service, Northeastern Area, Radnor, PA. Figure 5.2 Welsch, D., 1991. Riparian Forest Buffers. Publication NA-PR- 07-91. USDA-Forest Service, Northeastern Area, Radnor, PA. Figure 5.3 Courtesy of the Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Forestry 116 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Introduction gations Report 97-4152, 12 p. Available at http://fl.water.usgs.gov/Ab- stracts/wri97_4152_pittman.html. Champion, Kyle M. and Roberta Starks, May 2001, “The Hydrology and Water Quality of Springs in West-Central Florida.” Water Quality Monitor- Scott, Thomas M. First Magnitude Springs of Florida. Florida Geological ing Program, Southwest Florida Water Management Program. Survey, Open File Report No. 85. State of Florida, Department of Environ- mental Protection, 2002. Florida Geological Survey. “Distribution of Florida Springs.” Springs of Florida, Geological Bulletin No. 31, August 1997. Available at Stamm, Doug. The Springs of Florida. Sarasota, FL: Pineapple Press, Inc., www.flmnh.ufl.edu/springs_of_fl/aaj7320/distribu.html. 1994.

Florida Geological Survey. “Spring Characteristics.” Springs of Florida, Stone, Andrew. “How to “Talk” Ground Water, Topic #3: Springs as Water Geological Bulletin No. 31, August 1997. Available at www.flmnh.ufl.edu/ Sources.” American Ground Water Trust, no date. Available at springs_of_fl/aaj7320/charact.html. www.agwt.org/natdlr3.htm.

Florida Geological Survey. “Geology and Hydrology.” Springs of Florida, Comprehensive Planning Strategies Geological Bulletin No. 31, August 1997. Available at www.flmnh.ufl.edu/ springs_of_fl/aaj7320/geohydro.html. Arendt, Randall, July/August 1992, “Open Space Zoning: What It Is and Why It Works.” Planning Commissioners Journal, 5, 4. Available at Florida Geological Survey. “Water Quality: Characteristics of Spring Water.” www.plannersweb.com/articles/are015.html. Springs of Florida, Geological Bulletin No. 31, August 1997. Available at www.flmnh.ufl.edu/springs_of_fl/aaj7320/waterqua.html. Blankenship, K., March 1999, “Group’s Review Aims to Turn Towns into Communities.” Bay Journal, 9, 1. Available at www.bayjournal.com/99-03/ Florida Springs Task Force. Florida’s Springs: Strategies for Protection and HAMPSTEA.HTM. Restoration. Tallahassee, FL. 2000. Available at www.dep.state.fl.us/secretary/info/pubs/FlSprings.PDF. Bowers, Robert R., November/December 2001, “The Secret World of Greenbriar Valley, Agricultural Runoff and Water Quality.” The Journal of Katz, B. G. and Hornsby, H. D., 1998, “A Preliminary Assessment of Surface Water Quality Professionals, 2, 7. Available at www.forester.net/ Sources of Nitrate in Springwaters - Suwannee River Basin.” U.S. Geologi- sw_0111_secret.html. cal Survey Open-File Report 98-69, 18p. Available at http:// fl.water.usgs.gov/Abstracts/ofr98_69_katz.html. Champion, Kyle M. and David J. DeWitt. Origin of Nitrate in Ground Water Discharging from Crystal Springs; Pasco County, Florida. Southwest Pittman, J. R., Hatzell, H. H., and Oaksford, E. T, 1997, “Spring Contribu- Florida Water Management District, June 2000. tions to Water Quantity and Nitrate Loads in the Suwannee River During Base Flow in July 1995.” U.S. Geological Survey Water-Resources Investi-

117 Champion, Kyle M. and Roberta Starks. The Hydrology and Water Quality Jones, Gregg W., Dr. Sam B. Upchurch and Kyle M. Champion. Origin of of Springs in West-Central Florida. Southwest Florida Water Management Nitrate in Ground Water Discharging from Rainbow Springs, Marion District Water Quality Monitoring Program, May 2001. County, Florida. Southwest Florida Water Management District Ambient Ground-Water Quality Monitoring Program, June 1996. Coffman, Larry S., Jennifer Smith and Mohammed Lahlou. “Environmentally Sensitive Low-Impact Development.” 1996. Available at www.epa.gov/ Jones, Gregg W., et. al. Water-Quality and Hydrology of the Homosassa, owowwtr1/watershed/Proceed/coffman.html. Chassahowitzka, Weeki Wachee, and Pripeka Spring Complexes, Citrus and Hernando Counties, Florida: Origin of Increasing Nitrate Concentrations. Environmental Protection Agency, September 1991, “Non-point Source Wa- Southwest Florida Water Management District Ambient Ground-Water tershed Workshop.” Eastern Research Group, Arlington, MA. Quality Monitoring Program, October 1997.

Ewing, Reid, et. al. Best Development Practices: Doing the Right Thing and Lind, Brenda. Working Forest Conservation Easements. LTA Easement Se- Saving Money at the Same Time. FAU/FIU Joint Center for Environmental ries. Washington, DC: Land Trust Alliance, 2001. and Urban Problems, April 1996. Livingston, Eric, et. al. The Florida Development Manual - A Guide to Fueka, Kevin and Sherry Hanson. Best Management Practices: Cost-Effec- Sound Land and Water Management: Storm Water Management Practices. tive Solutions to Protect Maine’s Water Quality. no date. Available at Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, Non-point Source Man- www.epa.gov/owowwtr1/Proceed/fueka.html. agement Section, June 1988.

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Sanders, Welford, 1980. “The Cluster Subdivision, A Cost Effective Ap- Thompson, Jennifer N. and Don L. Green. Riparian Restoration and proach.” Chicago: Planners Advisory Service, Report Number 356. Streamside Erosion Control Handbook. Tennessee Department of Environ- ment and Conservation, 1994. Singleton, Tom, et. al. Assessing Water Resources Vulnerability: A Planning Tool for Community Decisions. Florida Department of Environmental Pro- Wade, Jeff, 1991. “Guide to Local Groundwater Protection in Florida: Vol- tection and the University of Florida (Mark Brown, Ph.D), no date. Avail- ume I: The Decision-making Process.” UF College of Law, Center for Gov- able at http://susdl.fcla.edu/lfnh/related/singletonpaper.htm. ernmental Responsibility.

South County Watersheds Technical Planning Assistance Project. Rapid Wade, Jeff, 1991. “Guide to Local Groundwater Protection in Florida: Vol- Site Assessment Guide. no date. Available at www.uri.edu/ce/wq/mtp/rapid/ ume II: Planning and Regulatory Information.” UF College of Law, Center rapid.html. for Governmental Responsibility.

Sprawl Guide: Solutions. 2000. Conservation Easements and Land Pur- Wade, Jeff. 1991. “Guide to Local Groundwater Protection in Florida: Vol- chases. Available at www.plannersweb.com/sprawl/ ume III: Appendices.” UF College of Law, Center for Governmental Re- solutions_sub_conserve.html. sponsibility.

St. Johns River Water Management District. Stormwater Management Deci- Wakulla County Ordinance Number 94-28. The Wakulla Springs Water sion Guide for Local Government Officials. Prepared by Henigar & Ray, Quality Protection Regulation. Inc., Crystal River, FL, 1992. Witten, Jon et. al. A Guide to Wellhead Protection. Chicago, IL: American Texas Natural Resources Conservation Commission. Complying with the Planning Association, 1995. Edwards Aquifer Rules: Technical Guidance on Best Management Practices. Field Operations Division, RG-348. June 1999. United States Environmental Protection Agency. Non-point Source Control Branch. Rural Clean Water Program: Lessons Learned from a Voluntary Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission. Conducting a Watershed Non-point Source Control Experiment. Washington, DC, 1990. Survey. 2001.

119 Managing Development Impacts Hudson, J., Fall 2000, Update on EPA’s Draft Guidelines for Management of Onsite/Decentralized Wastewater Systems,” Small Flows Quarterly, 1: 4. Arendt, Randall. Conservation Design for Subdivisions: A Practical Guide to Creating Open Space Networks. Island Press, 1996. Available at Hudson, J., Spring 2000, “EPA Develops Voluntary National Standards for www.plannersweb.com/arendt/con1.html. Managing Onsite/Decentralized Wastewater Systems,” Small Flows Quar- terly, 1: 2. Arendt, Randall. Winter 1999 “Growing Greener: Conservation Subdivision Design.” Planning Commissioners Journal, 33. Land Trust Alliance. Conservation Options - A Landowners Guide - How to Protect Your Land for Future Generations, 1993. Chelette, Angela, Thomas R. Pratt and Brian G. Katz. “Nitrate Loading As An Indicator of Nonpoint Source Pollution in the Lower St. Marks-Wakulla Lind, Brenda. Working Forest Conservation Easements: A Process Guide for River Watershed, Water Resources Special Report 02-1.” Northwest Florida Land Trust, Landowners and Public Agencies. Land Trust Alliance, 2001. Water Management District and U.S. Geological Survey, June 2002. Livingston, Eric. “Treatment Requirements for Stormwater Systems Dis- Debo, Thomas N., and Bruce K. Ferguson. On-Site Stormwater Manage- charges to Sinkholes or Constructed in Karst Areas.” Interoffice Memoran- ment: Applications for Landscape and Engineering. Second Edition. New dum, Florida Department of Environmental Regulation, July 7, 1987. York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. Maryland Office of Planning. “Achieving Environmentally Sensitive Design Florida Green Industries and the Florida Department of Environmental in Growth Areas through Flexible and Innovative Regulations.” Managing Protection. Best Management Practices for Protection of Water Resources in Maryland’s Growth, Models and Guidelines, Flexible and Innovative Zoning Florida, June 2002. Series. Baltimore, Maryland, April 1995.

Florida’s Water Management Districts. Waterwise, Florida Landscapes - Maryland Office of Planning. “Transferable Development Rights.” Manag- Landscaping to Promote Water Conservation - Using the Principles of ing Maryland’s Growth, Models and Guidelines, Flexible and Innovative Xeriscape, February 2001. Available at www.swfwmd.state.fl.us/watercon/ Zoning Series. Baltimore, Maryland, January 1995. conservation.htm. Maryland Office of Planning. Managing Maryland’s Growth, Models and Global Underwater Explorers (GUE). Ground Water - Surface Water Ex- Guidelines, Smart Growth: Designating Priority Funding Areas. Baltimore, change - A View from Inside the Unconfined Karstified Floridan Aquifer with Maryland: November 1, 1997. Implications for Ground Water Protection, 2001. Available at www.gue.com/ research/exchange/intro.shtml. Maryland Office of Planning. “Overlay Zones.” Managing Maryland’s Growth, Models and Guidelines, Flexible and Innovative Zoning Series. Bal- timore, Maryland, March 1995.

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3 David B. Struhs, Secretary Jeb Bush, Governor Charles Pattison, Executive Director Florida Department of Environmental Protection Steven M. Seibert, Secretary 1000 Friends of Florida 3900 Commonwealth Boulevard Florida Department of Community Affairs 926 East Park Avenue Tallahassee, FL 32399 2555 Shumard Oaks Boulevard Tallahassee, FL 32301 www.dep.state.fl.us Tallahassee, FL 32399-0200 www.1000friendsofflorida.org www.dca.state.fl.us 4