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1815) to the Congress of Berlin (1878 SHIFTING ALLIANCES IN EUROPE FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN (1878) MERVE CEMİLE KEYVANOĞLU MARCH- 2015 SHIFTING ALLIANCES IN EUROPE FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN (1878) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY MERVE CEMİLE KEYVANOĞLU IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY MARCH- 2015 Approval of the Graduate School of Social Sciences Prof. Dr. Meliha ALTUNIŞIK Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Ömer TURAN Head of History Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Mustafa SOYKUT Supervisor Examining Committee Members Assoc. Prof. Dr. Birten ÇELİK (METU, HIST) Prof. Dr. Mustafa SOYKUT (METU, HIST) Assist. Prof. Dr. Tülay ERCOŞKUN (A.U, HIST) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Merve Cemile KEYVANOĞLU Signature : iii ABSTRACT SHIFTING ALLIANCES IN EUROPE FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE CONGRESS OF BERLIN (1815- 1878) Keyvanoğlu, Merve Cemile M.A., Department of History Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mustafa Soykut March, 2015, 119 pages The aim of this thesis is to examine the historical background of the alliances that European Great Powers created for the first time in terms of mutual benefits after wars had ended with the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the interruption of these alliances with the wars between the Ottoman Empire and Russia (The Crimean War and Ottoman- Russian War, etc.) in the light of Ottoman archival documents. A number of social, political, and economic reasons had some effects on the foundation of these alliances which were called Congress system established after the Congress of Vienna. European Great Powers put some economic and political policies into practice in order to share the Ottoman lands equally since the middle of the 19th century. These policies which the European Powers named as the ‘Eastern Question’ also determined the future of the Ottoman Empire. Although these policies caused clashes among the European Great Powers as happened in the Crimean War and 1877-1878 Ottoman-Russian War, they could overcome these clashes in the Congress of Berlin in 1878. However, this was a temporary situation and the agreement among them only lived until the World War I. For this reason, the basic points in these alliances during the period that had started in the Congress of Vienna in 1815 and lasted in the Congress of Berlin in 1878. The effects of these in the future of Europe and accordingly of the Ottoman Empire are important and this thesis is written to examine those points. iv Key Words: Europe, Alliances, Concert of Europe, Eastern Question, the Ottoman Empire. v ÖZ VİYANA KONGRESİ’DEN BERLİN KONGRESİ’NE KADAR AVRUPA’DA DEĞİŞEN İTTİFAKLAR (1815- 1878) Keyvanoğlu, Merve Cemile Yüksek Lisans, Tarih Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Mustafa Soykut Mart, 2015, 119 sayfa Bu tezin amacı, Avrupalı büyük güçlerin 1815 Viyana Kongresi ile büyük ölçüde savaşları geride bırakıp tarihlerinde ilk kez karşılıklı çıkarları çerçevesinde kurdukları geniş ittifaklar ve bu ittifakların Osmanlı ve Rusya arasında yaşanan savaşlara (Kırım Savaşı ve Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı vb.) bağlı olarak kesintiye uğramasının tarihsel arka planını Osmanlı arşiv belgeleri ışığında incelemektir. Avrupa tarihine Kongre Sistemi olarak geçen ve 1815 Viyana Kongresi sonrası kurulan bu ittifakların temelinde, bir dizi sosyal, siyasal ve ekonomik neden etkili olmuştu. Avrupalı büyük güçler, 19.yüzyılın ortalarından itibaren Osmanlı topraklarını eşit şekilde paylaşmak amacıyla ekonomik ve siyasi bir dizi politikayı da uygulamaya koydular. Bu politikalar onların “Doğu Sorunu” olarak gördükleri Osmanlı Devleti’nin de kaderini tayin ettikleri politikalarıydı. Bu politikalar, zaman zaman Avrupalı büyük güçleri Kırım Savaşı ve 1877-1878 Osmanlı-Rus Savaşı’nda olduğu gibi karşı karşıya getirse de onlar bu sorunu 1878’de Berlin Kongresi’nde büyük ölçüde çözebildiler. Fakat bu geçici bir durum olmuş ve sağladıkları uzlaşma ancak I.Dünya Savaşı’na kadar yaşabilmişti. İşte bu nedenle Avrupa ittifaklar sisteminde 1815 Viyana Kongresi ile başlayan ve 1878 Berlin Kongresi’ne kadar uzanan süreçte ittifakların temel noktaları ve bunun Avrupa ve dolayısıyla da Osmanlı devletinin geleceklerindeki etkisi önemlidir ve bu tez de bu temel noktaları incelemek amacıyla hazırlanmıştır. vi Anahtar Kelimeler: Viyana Kongresi, Avrupa Uyumu, Doğu Sorunu, Berlin Kongresi, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my advisor, Prof. Dr. Mustafa SOYKUT, for his excellent guidance, caring, patience, and providing me with an excellent atmosphere for doing research. I also want to thank to Assoc. Prof. Dr. Birten Çelik and Assist. Prof. Dr. Tülay Ercoşkun without whose comments and contributions this thesis would not be materialized. Besides my advisor and my examining committee members, I would like to thank to TÜBİTAK (The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey) for the scholarship it provided for both my undergraduate and graduate education. Many thanks to my professors and friends in Ankara University Department of History who supported me all the time. I am indebted to my family and friends for being with me in this period. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM ............................................................................................................ iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ iv ÖZ ............................................................................................................................... vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................ ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................... xi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................... 1 2. EUROPE, EUROPEAN STATE-SYSTEM IN TRANSITION PRIOR TO THE 19TH CENTURY ........................................................................................................ 5 2.1. From Monarchies to State-System, the Peace of Westphalia (1648) ................ 6 2.2. Forces of Change, Forces of Continuity and Road to French Revolution......... 8 2.3. French Revolution of 1789 and Napoleon Bonaparte ..................................... 10 3. EUROPE and the ERA of ALLIANCES (1815- 1853) ......................................... 16 3.1. The Congress of Vienna (1815) ...................................................................... 17 3.2. Alliances and Concert of Europe after The Congress of Vienna .................... 26 3.2.1. The Holy Alliance ......................................................................... 26 3.2.2. The Quadruple Alliance ................................................................ 28 3.2.3. Concert of Europe and Congresses ............................................... 30 3.3. The Liberal Revolutions in Europe in 1830 and 1848 .................................... 40 4. SHIFTING ALLIANCES IN EUROPEAN POLITICS (1856-1878) ................... 44 4.1. European powers, Major interests, Eastern Question and the Ottoman Empire .................................................................................................................... 47 4.2. The Crimean War (1853-1856) ....................................................................... 52 4.3. Three Emperors League (Dreikaiserbund) (1872) .......................................... 60 4.4. Eastern Crisis in the Balkans: Ottoman- Russian Wars of 1875-78 ................ 62 4.5. The Congress of Berlin (1878) ........................................................................ 67 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 71 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 75 ix APPENDICES APPENDIX- I: Archival Documents From Ottoman Archive Of Prime Ministry 81 APPENDIX- II: Transliteration of the Documents from the Ottoman Archive of Prime Ministry ...................................................................................................... 101 APPENDIX- III: Turkish Summary ..................................................................... 108 APPENDIX-IV: Tez Fotokopisi İzin Formu ........................................................ 119 x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS BOA: Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi HAT: Hatt-ı Hümayun IBID: Ibidem (The same) Y. PRK. HR: Yıldız Perakende Evrakı Hariciye Nezareti Maruzatı Trans.: Translated by Ed.: Edited by H.: Hijri (Hicri Takvim) xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION For many ages, European History has always attracted historians and researchers, because Europe has been a dynamic continent all
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