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A. 1)Restauration, of the political situation of 1792. THE POLITICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE CONGRESS: Both Russia and Britain shared the common wish to settle the problems of Though the Vienna settlement was a compromise between the rival aims Europe as a whole ­ other states (especially France and Austria) could and and ambitions of the great powers, there was also a considerable degree of did benefit from this. general agreement at the congress about its purpose and the principles by Metternichs idea to reach a balance of powers was in danger to collapse which this should be achieved. already before the congress while Russia wanted to annex Poland and The statesmen of the Great Powers (France included) wanted a settlement Prussia Saxony. As a result of Metternich's mediation (1813), and esp. which would provide stability in Europe and prevent the outbreak of another under the impact of Napoleons return from Elba, the powers reached a general war. compromise. The balance of power between the 5 great powers was restored This benefited Austria ­ The state would be in grave danger of collapse and in june 1815. disintegration without this ­ The allies were ready to preserve and strengthen the Austrian empire.

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INTERNATIONAL PEACE ­ would best be maintained if no state was in a The German confederation ­ 39 states (38 + Austria). The purpose was to position to threaten the independence of the rest ­ A rule to guide the prevent the smaller states falling under French influence. Although Austria decisions made in Vienna. (Important when decisions upon territorial received quite a lot of influence (Metternich's objective) it was bound to be settlements were made, for example both Austria and France accepted the rivalled by Prussia. settlements in Germany and Italy, though they both had interests there)

The statesmen of Vienna thought that revolutions comes from wars not viceversa.

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2) Legitimacy ­ justification of the dynastic claims of the old rulers ­ 3) Solidarity, common policies of the legitimate princes against the actually Talleyrands idea to justify the claims of the Ancien Régime. revolutionary ideas and movements. FRANCE When Napoleons defeat was obvious Foreign minister Talleyrand managed The HOLY ALLIANCE was used by Metternich as an effective weapon to to restore the old monarchial rule in France and got the acceptance by the enforce his conservative policies. allied leaders ­ the restauration of the Bourbons. The First Both Britain and Austria feared an extension of Russian influence (Austria ­ Treaty of Paris (may 1814) was lenient because the alliance didn't want to in Balkan and the german states, Britain ­ maritime and colonial powers, a make it difficult for the new monarchy. Russian challenge to the Brittish commands of the seas).

The principle of Legitimacy was never of supreme importance in making of THE QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE ­ Uphold the settlement with France, prevent the settlement. Frontiers were redrawn and previously independent states the return of Napoleon and maintain the army of occupation. extinguished in defiance of it ­ The principle of Legitimacy was definetely This included the idea of possible meetings to settle international questions subordinate to the more important principle of the balance of power. quickly and peacefully.

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BRITAIN B. The principle was to establish peace in Europe ­ a peaceful, settled Europe NATIONAL INTERESTS from whom Britain didn't have to fear no threat. Britain wanted to maintain B.1. Before the Congress in Vienna her naval supremacy and had no wish to extend her land frontiers in AUSTRIA Europe. In 1813 Metternich proposed a deal to Napoleon; Austria could join France Britain introduced the idea to abolish slave trade at the Congress (The in a military alliance if Austria would get full supremacy in Germany and government had to take account of opinion at home) ­ no final settlement Italy ­ no deal but definitely shows that Austria had great national on this issue. interests. When Metternich realized that there was nothing to gain from an alliance with France, Austria joined the European coalition against France.

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PRUSSIA B.2. The Congress of Vienna The first treaty of Paris (1814) was replaced by the Second Treaty of Paris Though we discuss in terms of THE FOUR GREAT victorious Powers RUSSIA in november 1815 (after the come­back of Napoleon) and eventhough this and BRITAIN were foremost among these powers. They had played the most was harsher it still was a very lenient peace for France (France lost some important part in defeating Napoleon and were now each in their own way, territory along the border (Savoy, Nice to Piedmont and Saar to Prussia) but in an outstanding position at the Congress. not for example Alsac­Lorraine to Prussia ­ Russia and Britain resisted this RUSSIA was the decisive military power on the continent with an army of (balance of power). almost one million men in 1815. BRITAIN hadn't been defeated and now emerged with her superiority in industrial development, worldwide trade and naval strength increased. Both Russia and Britain shared the common wish to settle the problems of Europe as a whole ­ other states (especially France and Austria) could and did benefit from this. Through the Treaty of Vienna (1815) Britain and Russia achieved the aims they desired, while Prussia and Austria were dependent upon the wishes of the other two powers, who were not always in agreement.

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RUSSIA BRITAIN Tsar Alexander I had quite traditional and far stretching national objectives; During the wars, Britain had made considerable overseas gains ­ colonies ­expansion towards the Balkan (competition with Austria) belonging to France, Spain and Holland. Castlereagh insisted that the ­expansion towards the Baltic (competition with Prussia) Congress should not concern itself with the question of overseas ­Poland (Austria, Prussia and Britain) ­ Claimed the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, proposed that Prussia would be compensated for the loss of her polish territory by annexing the possessions and that it should be settled by a series of separate treaties whole of Saxony. Russian troops occupied both Poland and Saxony. Castlereagh and with the countries concerned. Metternich feared that this would undermine the balance of Power in Europe. Britain kept some profitable colonies and especially the colonies with Talleyrand saw his opportunity to benefit from the conflict, France was still the strategic value. strongest country (next to Russia) on the continent. France ­ Britain ­ Austria joined in a defensive Triple Alliance to oppose Russia. The threat forced Alexander I to Two of the territorial changes made on the continent were also desired by compromise = Prussia and Austria received some Polish territory. Prussia = 2/5 of Britain for strategic reasons. Saxony and Russia ­ 'Congress Poland'. 1) The transfer of Norway (Denmark­Sweden)­ The entry to the Baltic was no longer controlled by a single state. Russia kept the gains it had made during the wars ­ Finland (Sweden) and Bessarabia (Turkey) 2) The union of Holland and Belgium into a united kingdom ­ The mouths of the rivers Rhine and Scheldt in the possession of a neutral state. (Britain also assissted the Dutch government in fortifying the frontier with France.)

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PRUSSIA AUSTRIA Minister, Prince Hardenberg wanted Prussia to regain the power and While it was quite obvious that Austria couldn't gain any real predominance prestige she had lost through her defeat by Napoleon. Weak position and in Germany Metternich looked instead for the creation of Austrian power could only hope to benefit from the possible disagreements between the over the several states in Italy ­ tried to persuade the other powers that other powers. peace and good government in the peninsula needed this. Though Prussia didn't receive the whole of Saxony (2/5) it was Prussia that Fear of a renewal of French influence in Italy lad the allies to support made the relatively the greatest territorial and economic gains. The Metternich's wish to gain compensation for Austria's inferiority (lägre territory in Saxony was rich and industrial. Prussia also recovered her ställning) in Germany and loss of the Netherlands by restoring and territory in the Rhineland, to prevent France extending her influence into strengthening her position in the peninsula. Northern Italy was placed western Germany. When Prussia also received Swedish Pomerania the under her direct rule (Lombardia, Venetia). Austria also asserted indirect Prussian state emerged a much greater European power than ever before. control of central Italy.

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FRANCE The Pol.­Saxon question led to the brink of war in the beginning of the Especially opposed the strengthening of Prussia on her eastern frontier and congress. As a result of Metternich's mediation (and the threat from cooperated with Metternich to achieve this objective. Napoleon) the balance of power between the 5 great powers was restored. ­To Britain ­ small colonial gains from France to prevent any further attempts at overseas expansion. ­Territorial arrangements upon her frontiers to prevent any aggression in Europe.

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THE CONGRESS SYSTEM 1818­Congress of Aix­la­Chapelle The first congress settled the issues of payment of the indemnity and withdrawal of the army of occupation from France. France was admitted to the conferences on an Metternich and Alexander I attempted to establish cooperation between the equal basis as the country had become tranquil and stable under the Bourbon great european powers on the basis of congresses to safeguard the monarchy. settlement of Vienna. ­France admitted in to the Holy Alliance. ­Withdrawal of the occupation army from France. ­France admitted in to the HOLY ALLIANCE AND THE (NOW) QUINTUPLE ALLIANCE) ­The disagreements among the great powers were now becoming more serious. A division between Russia ­ the other powers. Metternich and Castlereagh feared the Russian military power which hadn't been reduced since the Vienna Congress. When Alexander I proposed that the Alliance should be used to keep intact the power and territory of existing rulers Metternich feared that this could mean the further spread of Russian influence. Alexander was persuaded to accept an agreement limiting the idea of international intervention to the suppression of any revolution in France (if it threated the European peace). When Alexander proposed the forming of an international fleet Britain rejected and feared a growing Russian influence on the seas. The combination of Russian aggression and British isolationism revealed at Aix­la­ Chapelle, which threatened to destroy the alliance, alarmed Metternich. He feared that Austria had to choose side or become isolated. By avoiding any major decision making the congress was kept together but disagreement was obvious.

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1820­Congress of Troppau THE CONGRESS OF LAIBACH (1821) The years following Aix­la Chapelle were marked by revolts and uprisings in many The king of the two Sicilies had asked for help to suppress a revolution and places eg. Spain, Brazil, Portugal. the German and the Italian states. None of them Austria was authorized to do this (though Britain objected). were seen as important (except by Alexander) until the uprising of Naples caused Metternich to call together a congress. The alliance was clearly divided into two parts; Britain, France against Spanish and Neapolitan revolutions ­ Were the great powers to act? Austria, Russia and Prussia. ­Metternich secured the principle of intervention ( The Troppau Protocol) though Great Britain objected­as a result Great Britain freed herself from the political ties to Europe, "splendid isolation". Russia, Prussia and Austria signed an agreement which allowed these states to intervene in the affairs of any state in Europe where events seemed to threaten the interests of any other state. ­As a result the Powers split into a lib.western bloc (Britain, France) and a con. eastern bloc (Russia, Austria and Prussia). Even before the meeting Castlereagh made his position clear. He saw the congresses as designed to prevent the restauration of the Bonaparter dynasty in France and to protect the Vienna settlement. He feared that intervention could upset the balance of power in Europe. Revolutions were internal matters, to be dealt with by the governments of the states concerned. The great division had begun.

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THE CONGRESS OF VERONA (1822) THE REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF THE CONGRESS Things had changed considerably. The Greek War of Independence diveded SYSTEM the Great Powers. ­It never captured the sympathy of the European Britain had a new foreign secretary in George Canning who was more public opinion. liberal and understood the meaning of the public opinion in his country. ­It didn't represent the small powers Britain objected to a proposed French intervention in Spain to crush a ­Britain began objecting to the policy of Continental rebellion but the intervention took place (1823) anyway, in 1823 with the obligations approval of the congress. ­Alexander and Metternich used it to suppress liberty. The break between the rest of the allied and Britain was evident. ­The Spanish and Portugese colonies in South America ­The Greek revolt Delacroix, 'the massacre at Chios'.

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LATIN AMERICA 1819­Argentina, Columbia. Latin America at the beginning of the 19:th century was a large continent 1821­Venezuela controlled largely by Spain and Portugal. Independence struggles began 1822­Equador during the Napoleonic Wars. The Vienna settlement, that ignored 1824­Peru nationalistic movements, was to face its first defeats in Latin America. 1825­Bolivia A wave of revolutions resulted in a first triumph in Chile 1818 were the By 1828 all Latin American countries were freed! Spanish forces were defeated by revolutionary forces under the command of The main leaders were San Martin who was the liberator of Chile and Jose de SAN MARTIN. Argentina and Simon BOLIVAR who had a dream of a United South America. If San Martin and Bolivar had succeeded in realizing their visions the Latin America of today would probably look very different.

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REACTIONS: Europe; Alexander I wanted to crush the revolutionary movements. France was willing to support Spain but Britain opposed this strongly. Britain would benefit from independent South American colonies. As Britain was the leading naval power France had to let go. USA; The American president issued the "MONROE DOCTRINE" in 1823, Any European intervenence would be regarded as a threat. This doctrine has been of great importance in explaining US actions later on and it started the era of American isolationism which would continue until 1918.

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