Content
Introduction 3 - Sulfuric Acid 17 - Using the DION® Chemical Resistance Guide 4 - Hydrochloric Acid 18 - Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries 5 - Nitric and Chromic Acid 18 - Markets 5 - Hydrofluoric Acid 18 - Applications 5 - Acetic Acid 18 - Material Safety Data Sheets 5 - Perchloric Acid 18 - Ordering DION® Resins 6 - Phosphoric Acid 18 - Changes 6 - Deionized and Distilled Water 19 - Disclaimer 6 - Desalination Applications 19 Resin Descriptions 7 - Electroplating and other Electrochemical Processes 19 Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins 7 - Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service 20 Urethane-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins 7 - Flue Gas Desulfurization 21 Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins 8 - Gasoline, Gasohol and Underground Storage Tanks 21 Elastomer-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins 8 - Methanol and Other Gasoline-Alcohol Blends 22 Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins 8 - Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy 22 Isophthalic and Terephthalic Polyester Resins 9 - Potable Water 22 Chlorendic Polyester Resins 10 - Radioactive Materials 22 Specifying Composites Performance 11 - Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions 23 Factors Affecting Resin Performance 11 - Solvents 23 - Shelf Life Policy 11 - Static Electricity 23 - Elevated Temperatures 11 - FDA Compliance 23 Laminate Construction 12 - USDA Applications 23 - Surfacing Veil 12 Common Types of Metal Corrosion 24 - Chopped Strand Mat 13 - Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion 24 - Woven Roving 13 - Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Corrosion 25 - Continuous Filament Roving 13 - Sulfide Stress-Cracking 25
- Resin Curing Systems 13 - CO2 Corrosion 25 - Post-Curing 14 - Other Types of Stress Corrosion 25 - Secondary Bonding 14 - Hydrogen Embrittlement 25 - Resin Top Coating 14 - Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced 26 - Dual Laminate Systems 14 Corrosion (MIC) - Maintenance and Inspection 15 Alternate Materials 27 Selected Application Recommendations 15 - Thermoplastics 27 - Abrasive Materials 15 Other Thermosetting Polymers 27 - Biomass and Biochemical Conversion 16 - Epoxy 27 - Bleaching Solutions 16 - Phenolic Resins 28 - Sodium Hypochlorite 17 - Rubber and Elastomers 28 - Chlorine Dioxide 17 - Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories 28 - Chlor-Alkali Industry 17 - Concrete 29
- Ozone 17 Additional Reference Sources 30 - 43 - Concentrated Acids 17 ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards 44 Introduction
DION® resins are among the most established and best-recognized products in the corrosion-resistant resin market. DION® resins were originally developed for some extremely demanding applications in the chlor-alkali industry and their success has led to diverse and highly regarded applications. Reichhold is a dedicated thermosetting polymer company offering a complete line of corrosion-resistant resin products and actively developing new resins to serve changing needs of the industry.
Over many years DION® resins have shown good long term performance when used in composite tanks and pipes as well as other structural parts made for the corrosion industry. DION® resins are known for their excellent chemical resistance and high mechanical properties in corrosive environments. More specifically, these resins have shown excellent durability within the chemically and oil/ gas industries, as well as the pulp and paper sectors.
The high resilience and water resistance of DION® resins also makes them particularly suitable for marine applications such as boat hulls and swimming pools, as well as for use in building and construction where resistance to high static and dynamic loads is required.
In applications requiring fatigue resistance and toughness, DION® resins have also proven themselves to be well suited. This includes use in the wind energy, aviation and transportation sectors.
Help to Optimize Design and Performance
Composite material systems exhibit design freedom relating to shape, size, and weight to provide technical solutions for proven long-term performance. In developing structural parts exposed in industrial environments, it is important for designers to make the correct material selection based on the required service life. This guide will help in selecting the most suitable material
80 Plus Years of Experience
As a company with a long history of technology development, Reichhold is well positioned to support with novel material systems and technical expertise. With a network of technology centers and manufacturing plants around the world, Reichhold provides the required backup and security of supply to deliver performance to end customers.
3 Using the DION® Chemical Resistance Guide
The chemical resistance and performance of DION® resins has been demonstrated over the past 50+ years through the successful use of a variety of composite products in hundreds of different chemical environments. Practical experience has been supplemented by the systematic evaluation of the composites exposed to a large number of corrosive environments under controlled laboratory conditions. This corrosion guide is subject to change without notice in an effort to provide the current data. Changes may affect suggested temperature or concentration limitations.
Laboratory evaluation of corrosion resistance is performed according to ASTM C-581, using standard laminate test coupons that are subjected to a double-sided, fully immersed exposure to temperature-controlled corrosive medium. Coupons are retrieved at internals of 1, 3, 6, and 12 months, then tested for retained flexural strength and modulus, Barcol hardness, changes in weight, and swelling/ shrinkage relative to an unexposed control. The data and a visual evaluation of the laminate’s appearance and surface condition are used to establish the suitability of resins in specific environments at suggested maximum temperatures.
All of the listed maximum service temperatures assume that laminates and corrosion barriers are fully cured and fabricated to industry quality standards. In many service conditions, occasional temperature excursions above the listed maximum temperatures may be acceptable, depending on the nature of the corrosive environment. Consultation with a Reichhold Technical Representative is then advised.
When designing for exposures to hot, relatively non-aggressive vapors, such as in ducting, hoods or stack linings, temperature extremes above those suggested may be feasible; however, extensive testing is strongly urged whenever suggested temperatures are exceeded. Factors such as laminate thickness, thermal conductivity, structural design performance and the effects of condensation must be taken into account when designing composite products for extreme temperature performance.
A Reichhold Technical Representative may be reached via the Reichhold Corrosion Hotline at (800) 752-0060, via email at [email protected], or at www.reichhold.com/corrosion. All inquiries will be answered within 24 hours.
4 Corrosion-Resistant Resin Chemistries
The diverse corrosive properties of industrial chemicals require that a number of resin chemistries be employed to optimize the performance of composite materials. Basic resin chemistries include isophthalic acid, terephthalic acid, vinyl ester, chlorendic, and bisphenol fumarate resins. Each has unique advantages and disadvantages, and consequently it is important to consider when creating resin specifications. Reichhold can supply all the corrosion-resistant resin types in common usage and will assist in evaluating specific requirements.
Markets
DION® vinyl ester and corrosion-resistant polyester resins serve the needs of a wide range of chemical process industries.
● Pulp and paper ● Agriculture ● Chlor-Alkali ● Pharmaceutical ● Power generation ● Food Processing ● Waste treatment ● Automotive ● Petroleum ● Aircraft ● Ore processing ● Marine ● Plating ● Polymer concrete ● Electronics ● Alcohols and synthetic fuels ● Water service
Applications
DION® resins have over 50 years of field service in the most severe corrosive environments.
● Chemical storage tanks ● Chlorine cell covers, collectors ● Underground fuel storage tanks ● Pulp washer drums, up flow tubes ● Pickling and plating tanks ● Secondary containment systems ● Chemical piping systems ● Wall and roofing systems ● Large diameter sewer pipes ● Grating and structural profile ● Fume ducts and scrubbers ● Cooling tower elements ● Chimney stacks and stack liners ● Floor coatings and mortars ● Fans, blowers, and hoods ● Gasoline containment
Chemical attack can alter the structural performance of composites and must be considered in the selection of an appropriate resin. Reichhold provides direct technical assistance for specific applications and for conditions that may not be covered in the guide. Test coupons prepared according to ASTM C-581 are available for in-plant testing. When calling, please have the following information ready for discussion:
1. Precise composition of the chemical environment 2. Chemical concentration(s) 3. Operation temperature (including any potential temperature fluctuations, upsets, or cycling conditions) 4. Trace materials 5. Potential need for flame-retardant material 6. Type and size of equipment 7. Fabrication process
5 Material Safety Data Sheets
Material safety data sheets are available for all DION® and Atprime® products listed in this brochure. Please request the appropriate data sheets before handling, storing or using any product.
Ordering DION® Resins
To order DION® resins and Atprime® 2, call Reichhold customer service at 1-800-448-3482 or contact your local authorized Reichhold distributor.
Changes
This corrosion guide is subject to change without notice in an effort to provide the current data changes may affect suggested temperature or concentration limitations.
Disclaimer
The following are general guidelines intended to assist customers in determining whether Reichhold resins are suitable for their applications. Reichhold products are intended for sale to sophisticated industrial and commercial customers. Reichhold requires customers to inspect and test our products before use and satisfy themselves as to content and suitability for their specific end-use applications. These general guidelines are not intended to be a substitute for customer testing.
Reichhold warrants that its products will meet its standard written specifications. Nothing contained in these guidelines shall constitute any other warranty, express or implied, including any warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose, nor is any protection from any law or patent to be inferred. All patent rights are reserved. The exclusive remedy for all proven claims is limited to replacement of our materials and in no event shall Reichhold be liable for any incidental or consequential damages.
6 Resin Descriptions
Bisphenol Epoxy Vinyl Ester Resins DION® IMPACT 9160 is a low styrene content (<35%) Bisphenol epoxy based vinyl ester resins offer excellent version of DION® 9100. structural properties and very good resistance to many corrosive environments. The resins are styrenated and DION® IMPACT 9102-70 (US) is a special version and involve the extension of an epoxy with bisphenol-A to offers lower color, reduced viscosity and improved increase molecular weight and feature the characteristic curing at lower promoter levels. The resin is particularly vinyl ester incorporation of methacrylate end groups. suited for filament-winding applications which require The inherent toughness and resilience of epoxy vinyl fast and efficient wet-out of reinforcement. It is certified esters provides enhanced impact resistance as well as to NSF/ANSI Standard 61 for potable water tank and improved stress properties, which is advantageous in piping at ambient temperature. applications involving thermal and cyclic stress. Non- promoted bisphenol-A based vinyl esters display a DION® FR 9300 Series are non-promoted, flame minimum six-month shelf life, and the pre-promoted retardant vinyl esters with corrosion resistance similar versions feature a three-month shelf life. to DION® 9100 and DION® 9102. Resin laminates display a Class 1 flame spread with the addition of DION® 9100 Series are non-promoted bisphenol-A 1.5% antimony trioxide or 3.0% antimony pentoxide. epoxy vinyl esters use a wide range of acidic, alkaline DION® FR 9300 is frequently used in flame retardant and assorted chemicals, including many solvents. The ducting which conforms to the requirements of the pre-promoted versions of DION® 9100 are available. International Congress of Building Officials (ICBO).
DION® 9102* Series are lower viscosity, reduced DION® IMPACT FR 9310 & 9315 Series are non- molecular weight versions of DION® 9100, with similar promoted, premium flame retardant resins designed to corrosion resistance, mechanical properties and meet ASTM E 84 Class 1 flame spread properties storage stability. The DION® 9102 series also features without the addition of antimony based synergists. improved curing at lower promoter levels for enhanced DION® FR 9310 & 9315 series resins also have a low performance in filament-winding applications. VOC content (<35%) and provide corrosion resistance
*DION® 9102 comply with FDA Title 21 CFR 177 2420 and can be used for food contact applications equal to, or in some cases superior to well-recognized when properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator. DION® FR 9300 resin.
® DION 9102-00 is unique since it is certified to Urethane-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins NSF/ANSI Standard 61 for use in domestic and commercial potable water applications involving both DION® 9800 Series (formerly ATLAC® 580-05 & 580- piping and tanks at ambient temperature.It has also 05A) are premium highly regarded special urethane been used in the field fabrication of large diameter modified vinyl esters with distinguishing features. The Chiyoda-type Jet Bubbling Reactors (JBRs) associated vinyl ester does not foam when catalyzed with ordinary with gypsum by-product flue gas desulfurization methyl ethyl ketone peroxide (MEKP) and displays projects by major utility companies. Chimney and stack excellent glass wet-out characteristics. It may also be liners have been other major applications. thixed with conventional (non-hydrophobic) grades of silica carbide. DION® 9800 is well-suited for hand lay- up, filament-winding, and pultrusion applications and displays many user-friendly features. DION® 9800 displays exceptional wet-out characteristics with carbon fiber, aramid, and conventional glass fibers. The resin has superior acid, alkaline, bleach and other corrosion- resistant properties.
7 Resin Descriptions
Novolac Vinyl Ester Resins Bisphenol-A Fumarate Polyester Resins Novolac vinyl esters are based on use of multi- Bisphenol fumarate polyester resins were among the functional novolac epoxy versus a standard and more earliest and most successful premium thermosetting commonly used bisphenol-A epoxy. This increases the resins to be used in corrosion-resistant composites. crosslink density and corresponding temperature and They have an extensive history in challenging solvent resistance. environments since the 1950’s. Thousands of tanks, pipes, chlorine cell covers, bleach towers, and DION® IMPACT 9400 Series provides good corrosion scrubbers are still in service throughout the world. resistance, including solvents. Due to reactivity, shelf life is limited to three-months. Bisphenol fumarate resins typically yield rigid, high crosslink density composites with high glass transition Elastomer-Modified Vinyl Ester Resins temperatures and heat distortion properties. These Inclusion of high performance and special functional attributes enable excellent physical property retention at elastomers into the polymer backbone on a vinyl ester temperatures of 300°F and higher. Bisphenol fumarate allows exceptional toughness. resins also have good acid resistance which is typical for unsaturated polyesters, but unlike other polyesters DION® 9500 Series are non-accelerated rubber they also display excellent caustic and alkaline modified vinyl esters that possess high tensile resistance as well as suitability for bleach elongation, good toughness, low shrinkage, and low environments. peak exotherm. They are well-suited for dynamic loads and demonstrate excellent adhesion properties. All of the bisphenol fumarate resins have excellent Corrosion resistance is good, but limitations occur with stability with a minimum shelf life of six-months. solvents or other chemicals which display swelling with rubber. DION® 9500 is well-suited for hand and spray DION® 382* Series (Formally ATLAC® 382) are lay-up applications and other fabrication techniques. It bisphenol fumarate resins with a long, world-wide may also be considered for use as a primer with high success history. They are normally supplied in pre- density PVC foam or for bonding FRP to steel or other promoted and pre-accelerated versions. dissimilar substrates. *DION® 382 comply with FDA Title 21 CFR 177 2420 and can be used for food contact applications when properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator.
Laminates at Temperature
Resin Tensile Strength, psi Tensile Modulus, x 106 psi 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 25° C 66° C 93° C 121° C 149° C 25° C 66° C 93° C 121° C 149° C DION® 9100/9102 19200 22100 22700 14600 9900 1.70 1.70 1.39 0.80 0.80 DION® FR 9300 22600 28100 30100 21200 13700 2.16 1.94 1.82 1.62 1.18 DION® 9800 19500 19500 19500 13000 9000 ------
DION® IMPACT 9400 23900 25000 27700 26700 20900 2.13 2.23 2.00 1.61 1.47
DION® 6694 22000 22400 24800 27700 25000 1.95 2.14 1.86 1.86 1.62
DION® 6631 3100 28600 24000 14700 4300 1.38 1.20 0.85 0.50 0.31
DION® 382 18000 21500 21500 20000 --- 1.45 1.40 1.35 1.20 ---
DION® 797 16800 17800 19400 20200 10900 1.39 1.36 1.21 0.98 0.59 DION® 490 14300 16200 16600 15300 11700 1.15 0.90 0.76 0.58 0.47 Laminate Constuction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M WR = 24 oz woven roving V = 10 mil C-glass veil Glass content = 45% M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat
8 Resin Descriptions
DION® 6694 Series are bisphenol fumarate resins DION® 6631* Series are rigid, thixotropic, pre-promoted modified to optimize the unique properties of isophthalic resins developed for hand lay-up, spray-up, and bisphenol fumarate polyesters. These resins offer filament-winding. A version which complies with SCAQMD excellent chemical resistance. They are well suited Rule 1162 is also available. to hot alkaline environments, like those found in *DION® 6631 comply with FDA Title 21 CFR 177 2420 and can be used for food contact applications when caustic/chlorine production, and to oxidizing properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator. environments, like those used in pulp bleaching. DION® 490 Series (Formally ATLAC® 490) are thixotropic, Isophthalic and Terephthalic Unsaturated pre-promoted resins formulated for high temperature Polyester Resins corrosion service that requires good organic solvent Isophthalic and terephthalic resins are formulated for resistance. A key feature is the high crosslink density, corrosion applications and higher in molecular which yields good heat distortion and chemical resistance weight than those often used in marine and other properties. The most notable commercial application laminated composites. These polyesters display relates to gasoline resistance, including gasoline/ alcohol excellent structural properties and are resistant to mixtures, where it is an economical choice. Approval has acids, salts, and many dilute chemicals at moderate been obtained under the UL 1316 standard. In some temperature. Resins are rigid, and some terephthalic applications DION® 490 offers performance comparable resins offer improved resiliency. They perform well in with that of Novolac epoxy based vinyl esters, but at a acidic environments, however they are not much lower cost. recommended for caustic or alkaline environments, and the pH should be kept below 10.5. Oxidizing DION® 495 Series are lower molecular weight and lower environments usually present limitations. These VOC versions of DION® 490. resins have good stability, with a minimum three- month shelf life.
DION® 6334* Series are resilient non-promoted non- thixotropic resins. Their use is typically restricted to non-aggressive ambient temperature applications, such as seawater.
*DION® 6334 comply with FDA Title 21 CFR 177 2420 and can be used for food contact applications when properly formulated and cured by the composite fabricator.
Laminates at Temperature
6 Resin Flexural Strength, psi Flexural Modulus, x 10 psi 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 77° F 150° F 200° F 250° F 300° F 25° C 66° C 93° C 121° C 149° C 25° C 66° C 93° C 121° C 149° C
DION® 9100/9102 32800 33100 25700 3000 --- 1.17 1.12 0.83 0.37 ---
® DION FR 9300 31700 30600 30500 5100 2800 1.53 1.35 1.22 0.23 0.19 DION® 9800 26300 25600 23100 19200 7400 1.01 0.87 0.74 0.58 0.32
® DION IMPACT 9400 30000 31800 33500 26000 7900 1.50 1.38 1.25 0.93 0.46
DION® 6694 28700 30400 30700 29600 20900 1.50 1.39 1.25 1.08 0.87 DION® 6631 31000 28600 24000 14700 4300 1.38 1.20 0.85 0.50 0.31 DION® 382 25500 27000 23500 17500 --- 1.21 1.10 1.00 0.88 --- DION® 797 30100 30000 29600 25200 15400 1.50 1.35 1.16 0.91 0.48 DION® 490 23600 25800 25500 22600 17100 1.08 0.99 0.85 0.60 0.41 Laminate Construction V/M/M/WR/M/WR/M/WR/M WR = 24 oz woven roving V = 10 mil C-glass veil Glass content = 45% M = 1.5 oz/ sq ft chopped glass mat
9 Resin Descriptions
Chlorendic Polyester Resins corrosion-resistant properties are superior to those of Chlorendic polyester resins are based on the competitive chlorendic resins. incorporation of chlorendic anhydride or chlorendic acid (also called HET acid) into the polymer backbone. Their Atprime® 2 Bonding & Primer most notable advantage is superior resistance to mixed Atprime® 2 is a two-component, moisture-activated acid and oxidizing environments, which makes them primer that provides enhanced bonding of composite widely used for bleaching and chromic acid or nitric acid materials to a variety of substrates, such as FRP, containing environments, such as in electroplating concrete, steel, or thermoplastics. It is especially suited applications. The cross linked structure is quite dense, for bonding to non-air-inhibited surfaces associated with which results in high heat distortion and good elevated contact molding or aged FRP composites. This ability is temperature properties. This is a dense structure that achieved due to the formation of a chemical bond to the can display reduced ductility and reduced tensile FRP surface. Atprime® 2 is free of methylene chloride elongation. Despite good acid resistance, chlorendic and features good storage stability. resins should not be used in alkaline environments. Due to the halogen content, chlorendic resins display Atprime® 2 can be used for repairs of FRP structures. flame retardant and smoke reduction properties. Many FRP structures have been known to fail due to the failure of secondary bonds, which can serve as the DION® 797 Series are chlorendic anhydride based weakest link in an otherwise sound structure. Thus resins with good corrosion resistance and thermal Atprime® 2 merits important consideration in FRP properties up to 350° F/ 177° C. DION® 797 is supplied fabrication. The curing mechanism relies on ambient as a pre-promoted and thixotropic version. An ASTM E- humidity and does not employ peroxide chemistry. 84 flame spread rating of 30 (Class II) is obtained with the use of 5% antimony trioxide. Many thermal and
Castings
Tensile Flexural Tensile Elongation Flexural Barcol Resin Modulus x Modulus x HDT° F/° C Strength psi at Break % Strength psi Hardness 106 psi 106 psi DION® 9100/9102 11600 4.6 5.2 23000 5.0 35 220/ 104 DION® FR 9300 10900 5.1 4.0 21900 5.2 40 230/ 110
DION® 9800 13100 4.6 4.2 22600 4.9 38 244/ 118
DION® IMPACT 9400 9000 5.0 3.0 20500 5.1 38 290/ 143 DION® 6694 8200 3.4 2.4 14600 4.9 38 270/ 132
DION® 6631 9300 5.9 2.4 16600 5.2 40 225/ 107
® DION 382 10000 4.3 2.5 17000 4.3 38 270/ 132 DION® 797 7800 0.5 2.0 17,100 0.5 45 280/ 138 DION® 490 8700 4.8 2.1 16700 5.2 40 260/ 127
10 Specifying Composites Performance
The design and manufacture of composite equipment See the individual product bulletins, available at for corrosion service is a highly customized process. To www.reichhold.com, for specific information for each produce a product that successfully meets the unique resin. Shelf stability minimums apply to resins stored in needs of each customer, it is essential for fabricators their original, unopened containers at temperatures not and material suppliers to understand the applications exceeding 75° F/ 24° C, away from sunlight and other for which composite equipment is intended. One of the sources of heat or extreme cold. Resins that have most common causes of equipment failure is exposure exceeded their shelf life should be tested before use. to service conditions that are more severe than anticipated. This issue has been addressed by the Elevated Temperatures American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) in Composites manufactured with vinyl ester or bisphenol their RTP-1 specification for corrosion-grade composite fumarate resins have been used extensively in tanks. RTP-1 includes a section called the User’s Basic applications requiring long-term structural integrity at Requirement Specifications (UBRS). The UBRS is a elevated temperatures. Good physical properties are standardized document provided to tank manufacturers generally retained at temperatures up to 200° F/ 93° C. before vessels are constructed. It identifies, among The selection of resin becomes crucial beyond 200° F/ other factors, the function and configuration of the tank, 93° C because excessive temperatures will cause internal and external operating conditions, and resins to soften and lose physical strength. Rigid resins mechanical loads on the vessel, installation such as ultra-high crosslink density vinyl esters, requirements and applicable state and federal codes at bisphenol fumarate polyesters, epoxy novolac vinyl the installation site. Reichhold strongly recommends esters, and high-crosslink density terephthalics typically that the information required by the UBRS is reviewed provide the best high-temperature physical properties. before any composite equipment is manufactured. Appropriate DION® resin systems may be considered for use in relatively non-aggressive gas phase Factors Affecting Resin environments at temperatures of 350° F/ 177° C or higher in suitably designed structures. Performance When designing composite equipment for high Shelf Life Policy temperature service, it is important to consider how Most polyester resins have a minimum three-month heat will be distributed throughout the unit. Polymer shelf life from the date of shipment from Reichhold. composites have a low thermal conductivity Some corrosion-resistant resins have a longer shelf life, (approximately 0.15 btu-ft/ hr-sq. ft. ° F) which provides notably un-promoted bisphenol epoxy vinyl ester resins, an insulating effect. This may allow equipment having un-promoted and accelerated bisphenol fumarate high cross-sectional thickness to sustain very high resins, and DION® 6694 modified bisphenol fumarate operating temperatures at the surface, since the resin. structural portion of the laminate maintains a lower temperature.
11 Laminate Construction
Composite products designed for corrosion resistance plies of veil are used, and in areas where veil layers typically utilize a structural laminate and a corrosion overlap. Should the resin-rich veil portion of a corrosion barrier. This type of construction is necessary since the barrier crack, the barrier is breached and all of the overall properties of a composite are derived from the benefits of using multiple veils are lost. Furthermore, widely differing properties of the constituent materials. multiple plies of synthetic veil can be more difficult to Glass fibers contribute strength but have little or no apply and often lead to an increase in the number of air corrosion resistance in many environments. Resins voids trapped in the corrosion barrier. Many composite provide corrosion resistance and channel stress into the specifications, including ASME RTP-1, impose a glass fibers and have reduced strength when non- maximum allowable amount of air void entrapment in reinforced. Consequently, a resin-rich corrosion barrier the corrosion barrier. Attempts to repair air voids are is used to protect a glass-rich structural laminate. time-consuming and can reduce the corrosion resistance of the composite. In accordance with general industry practice, corrosion barriers are typically 100 – 125 mils thick. They typically Fabricators utilizing two plies of synthetic veil should consist of a surfacing veil saturated to a 90% resin carefully follow the veil manufacture’s instructions and content, followed by the equivalent of a minimum of two also take special caution to ensure that no excessively piles of 1.5-oz/ ft to 2-oz/ ft chopped strand mat resin-rich areas are formed. Where a two-ply corrosion impregnated with about 70% resin. The structural barrier is desired, C-glass veil can be used for one or portion of the laminate can be build with chopped both plies. This provides a degree of reinforcement to strand mat, chopped roving, chopped strand mat the corrosion barrier, reduces resin drainage, and alternating with woven roving, or by filament-winding. creates a corrosion barrier that is less prone to An additional ply of mat is sometimes used as a interlaminar shear cracking. bonding layer between a filament-wound structural over-wrap and the corrosion barrier. Filament-wound structures have a glass content of approximately 70% and provide high strength combined with light weight.
Because resin provides corrosion resistance, a resin- rich topcoat is often used as an exterior finish coat, particularly where occasional contact or spillage with aggressive chemicals might occur. UV stabilizers or pigments may be incorporated into topcoats (to minimized weathering effects) or used in tanks designed to contain light sensitive products. A topcoat is especially useful for filament-wound structures due to their high glass content.
Surfacing Veil A well-constructed corrosion barrier utilizing surface veil is required for any polymer composite intended for corrosion service. Veils based on C-glass, synthetic polyester fiber and carbon are available. C-glass veils are widely used because they readily conform to complex shapes, are easy to wet-out with resin and provide excellent overall corrosion resistance. Synthetic veils require more handling to set in place and wet-out, but can provide a thicker, more resin-rich corrosion barrier.
The bulking effect of synthetic veil allows the outer corrosion barrier to have a very high resin content, which has both benefits and drawbacks. Higher resin concentration can extend resistance to chemical and abrasive attack, but also yields a corrosion barrier that may be more prone to cracking in stressed areas. This can be an issue in corrosion barriers where multiple
12 Laminate Construction
Chopped Strand Mat Some laboratory studies have suggested that the Chopped strand mat is widely used in the fabrication of combination of benzoyl peroxide (BPO) and corrosion-resistant structures to obtain consistent resin/ dimethylaniline (DMA) may provide a more complete glass lamination ratios. Many types of glass mat are cure before post-curing than the standard cobalt DMA/ available, and the importance of proper mat selection MEKP (methyl ethyl ketone peroxide) system. In some should not be overlooked. Mats are available with a instances, resins have demonstrated a permanent variety of sizing and binders, and even the glass itself undercure for reasons that are not fully understood. can vary between manufacturers. These differences One theory is that undercure is related to initiator manifest themselves in the ease of laminate wet-out, dispersion. Typically BPO is used in paste form, which corrosion resistance, mechanical properties, and the is prepared by grinding solid BPO particles into an inert tendency of the laminate to jackstraw. Manufactures of carrier. Dispersion and dissolution of BPO paste is glass mat should be consulted in selecting the most clearly a more challenging procedure than blending in suitable mat for specific and end-use applications. low-viscosity MEKP liquid. Another advantage of MEKP systems is a more positive response to post-curing, Woven Roving Woven continuous fiberglass roving at 24-oz/ sq. yd. Vinyl ester resin promoted with cobalt/ DMA tends to may be used to improve the structural performance of foam when MEKP initiator is added. This increases the FRP laminates. If more that one ply of woven roving is difficulty of eliminating entrapped gases from the used, it should be laminated with alternating layers of laminate. Foaming can be reduced in a number of glass mat separating each ply; otherwise, separation ways. BPO/ DMA reduces foaming, as does the use of under stress can occur. Due to the wicking action of an MEKP/ cumene hydroperoxide (CHP) blended or continuous glass filaments, woven roving should not be straight CHP. Using a resin that does not foam, such used in any surface layer directly in contact with the as, DION® 9800 urethane – modified vinyl ester resin or chemical environment. a bisphenol fumarate resin, is another alternative.
Continuous Filament Roving High-quality composite products can be fabricated Continuous roving may be used for chopper-gun using either of the promoter/ initiator combinations lamination or in filament-winding. Filament-winding is described above. For end-users, it is suggested that the widely employed for cylindrical products used in the preferences of the fabricator involved be taken into chemical equipment market and is the predominant account when specifying initiator systems. manufacturing process for chemical storage tanks and reactor vessels. Glass contents of up to 70% can be achieved using filament-winding, which provides uniform, high-strength structural laminates. Because the capillary action of continuous roving can carry chemical penetration deep into the composite structure, a well constructed, intact corrosion barrier is essential for filament-wound structures. Topcoats are often used for filament-wound products intended for outdoor exposure to protect the glass fibers from UV attack.
Resin Curing Systems One of the most important factors governing the corrosion resistance of composites is the degree of cure that the resin attains. For general service, it is recommended that the laminate reach a minimum of 90% of the clear cast Barcol hardness value listed by the resin manufacturer. For highly aggressive conditions, it may be necessary to use extraordinary measures to attain the highest degree of cure possible. One effective way to do this is to post-cure the laminate shortly after it has gelled and completed its exotherm.
13 Laminate Construction
Post-curing exposed reinforcement prior to applying a new laminate Post-curing at elevated temperatures can enhance the an ensuring elimination of containments. Secondary performance of a composite product in most bond strength can be greatly enhanced by using the environments. Post-curing of composites provides two Atprime® 2 primer system. Atprime® 2 is specially benefits. The curing reaction is driven to completion designed to provide a direct, chemical bond between which maximizes the crosslink density of the resin fully-cured composites and secondary laminates. system, thus eliminating un-reacted cross-linking sites Atprime® 2 can also improve the bond of FRP in the resin. This improves both chemical resistance composites to concrete, metals, and some and mechanical properties. Thorough and even post- thermoplastics. curing for an extended period of time can also relieve stresses formed within the laminate during cure, thus Resin Top Coating reducing the likelihood of warping during normal Topcoats are often used to protect the exterior surface thermal cycling/ operation. It is generally concluded that of composite products from weathering and from the the maximum exposure temperature is decreased when effects of occasional exposure to corrosive agents. A no post cure cycle is used. topcoat may be prepared by modifying the resin used to manufacture the product with thixotrope, a UV absorber In general, one can relate the recommended post- and small amount of wax. Blending 3% fumed silica, curing temperatures to the chemistry of the matrix resin suitable UV inhibitor along with 5% of a 10% wax used in the construction – this mostly relates to the solution (in styrene) to a resin is a typical approach to HDT of the resin. topcoat formulation.
It is recommended that the construction is kept for 16 – Dual Laminate Systems 24 hours at room temperature (>77° F/ 25° C) before When vinyl ester or bisphenol fumarate corrosion post-curing at elevated temperature starts. Increasing barriers are unsuitable for a particular environment, it and decreasing temperature should be done stepwise may still be possible to design equipment that takes to avoid possible thermal shock, and consequent advantage of the benefits of composite materials by possible built-in stresses. employing a thermoplastic corrosion barrier. This technology involves creating the desired structure by Secondary Bonding shaping the thermoplastic, then rigidizing it with a One of the most common of composite failures is at a composite outer skin. Thermoplastics such as a secondary bond. To develop a successful secondary polyvinyl chloride, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, bond, the composite substrate must either have a polypropylene, and a wide variety of high performance tacky, air-inhibited surface or it must be specially fluoropolymers are commonly used. Dual laminates prepared. may be used and can provide cost-effective performance in conditions where composites are Composites with a fully-cured surface may be prepared otherwise inappropriate. for secondary bonding by grinding the laminate to
14 Laminate Construction Maintenance and Inspection The service life that can reasonably be expected from corrosion-grade composite equipment will vary depending upon a number of factors including fabrication details, material selection, and the nature of the environment to which the equipment is exposed. For example, a tank that may be expected to provide service for 15 years or more in a non-aggressive environment may be deemed to have provided an excellent service life after less than 10 years of exposure to a more aggressive media. Other factors, such as process upsets, unanticipated changes in the chemical composition of equipment contents and unforeseen temperature fluctuations, may also reduce the service life of composite products. These are some of the reasons why a program of regularly scheduled inspection and maintenance of corrosion-grade composite equipment is vital. A secondary benefit is the reduction of downtime and minimization of repair expenses.
Beyond issues of cost and equipment service life, the human, environmental and financial implications of catastrophic equipment failure cannot be understated. A regular program of maintenance and inspection is a key element in the responsible care of chemical processes.
Selected Applications Recommendations
Abrasive Materials Composite pipe and ducting can offer significantly better fluid flow because of their smooth internal surfaces. For products designed to carry abrasive slurries and coarse particulates, the effects of abrasion should be considered during the product design process. Resistance to mild abrasion may be enhanced by using synthetic veil or, for extreme cases by using silicon carbide or ceramic beads as barrier within in the surface layer. Resilient liners based on elastomer – modified vinyl ester resin are also effective in some cases.
15 Selected Applications Recommendations
Biomass and Biochemical Conversion of which a readily available source is the residual un- Applications have been increasing for processes which saturation associated with an incomplete cure. transform biomass or renewable resources into usable Consequently, the resistance of composites to bleach products. Most of the impetus has been energy related, environments demands a complete cure, preferably but the technology has diverse relevance, such as followed by post-curing. Since air-inhibited surfaces are various delignification processes associated with especially susceptible to attack, a good paraffinated elemental chlorine-free pulp production. Raw materials topcoat should be applied to non-contact surfaces, include things like grain, wood, agricultural or animal including the exterior which may come into incidental wastes, and high cellulose content plants. contact with the bleach.
Sometimes the processes involve pyrolysis or BPO/ DMA curing systems are sometimes advocated gasification steps to break down the complex molecules for composites intended for bleach applications due to of the biomass into simpler building blocks such as concerns over reactions with cobalt promoter involved carbon monoxide or hydrogen, which in turn can be in conventional MEKP/ DMA curing systems. While used as fuels or catalytically synthesized into other BPO/ DMA curing can offer appearance advantages, products, such as methanol. However, the most the conventional MEKP/ cobalt systems yield very common biochemical conversion process is dependable and predictable full extents of curing and fermentation, in which simple sugars, under the thus have a good history success. mediation of yeasts or bacteria, are converted to ethanol. With lingo-cellulose or hemicellulose, the fermentation must be preceded by thermochemical treatments which digest or otherwise render the complex polymers in the biomass more accessible to enzymatic breakdown. These enzymes (often under acidic conditions) then enable hydrolysis of starches or polysaccharides into simple sugars suitable for fermentation into ethanol. Many of the conversion steps have other embodiments, such as the anaerobic digestion to produce methane for gaseous fuel.
A great deal of technology and genetic engineering is evolving to enable or to improve the efficiency of these processes. It is expected that many of the process conditions can often be quite corrosive to metals, and FRP composites can offer distinct benefits.
Bleaching Solutions Bleach solutions represents a variety of materials which display high oxidation potential. These include compounds or active radicals like chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ozone, hypochlorite or peroxide. Under most storage conditions these materials are quite stable, but when activated, such as by changes in temperature, concentration, or pH, the bleaches are aggressive and begin to oxidize many metals and organic materials, including resins used in composites. Thus, resins need to display resistance to oxidation as well as to the temperature and pH conditions employed in the process. Most interest centers on bleaching operations employed in the pulp and paper industry but similar considerations apply to industrial disinfection and water treatment applications.
Bleach solutions are highly electrophilic and attack organic materials by reacting with sources of electrons,
16 Selected Application Recommendations
Sodium Hypochlorite diaphragms. Cells can operate at 200° F/ 93° C or When activated, sodium hypochlorite generates higher. Wet chlorine collected at the anode can be hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ions which afford aggressive to many materials, but premium corrosion- oxidation. Unstable solutions can decompose to form resistant composites have a long history of successful mono-atomic or nascent chlorine compounds which are use. One of the best resins to consider is DION® 6694, exceptionally aggressive. Decomposition can be which was one of the original resins designed to induced by high temperature, low pH, or UV radiation. contend with this challenging application. A major Best stability is maintained at temperature no greater concern with chlorine cells is to avoid traces of then 125° F/ 52° C and a pH of > 10.5. This will often hypochlorite, which is extremely corrosive at the happen if over-chlorination is used in the production of temperatures involved. Hypochlorite content is routinely sodium hypochlorite. Over-chlorination makes monitored, but tends to form as the cell membranes temperature and pH control very difficult and can result age or deteriorate, which allows chlorine and caustic to in rapid deterioration and loss of service life of the co-mingle and consequently react. hypochlorite generator. Adding chlorine gas to the hypochlorite generator can cause mechanical stress, so Ozone attention should be given to velocity, thrust, and other Ozone is increasingly used for water treatment as well forces which the generator may encounter. Composites as for selective delignification of pulp. Ozone is highly intended outdoor service should contain a UV favored since it is not a halogen and is environmentally absorbing additive and a light colored pigment in the friendly. It is generated by an electric arc process, and final exterior paraffinated topcoat to shield the in the event of leaks or malfunctions, the remedy can hypochlorite solution from exposure. be simply to stop electrical power.
Thixotropic agents based on silica should never be The oxidizing potential of ozone is second only to that used in the construction of composite equipment or in of fluorine, and this makes ozone one of the most topcoats intended for hypochlorite service. Attack can powerful oxidizing agents known. Even at 5 ppm in be severe when these agents are used. water, ozone is highly active and can attack the surface of composites. Attack is characterized by a gradual Chlorine Dioxide dulling or pitting. At <5 ppm a reasonable service life is Chlorine dioxide now accounts for about 70% of expected, but at higher concentrations (10 – 30 ppm) worldwide chemically bleached pulp production and is serious erosion and degradation can occur. This finding growing applications in disinfection and other requires frequent inspection and eventual re-lining. bleach applications. Use is favored largely by trends toward TCF (totally chlorine free) and ECF (elemental Concentrated Acids chlorine free) bleaching technology. Composites made Containment of acids is one of the most popular uses of with high performance resins have been used with corrosion grade composites. Polyesters and vinyl esters great success for bleach tower up-flow tubes, piping, display excellent acid resistance, and almost all acids and CIO2 storage tanks. Chlorine dioxide in a mixture can be accommodated in dilute form. However, there with 6 – 12% brown stock can be serviced at a are some concentrated acids which can be quite temperature up to 160° F/ 71° C. Higher temperature aggressive or deserve special attention. can be used, but at the expense of service life. Under bleaching conditions the resin surface may slowly Sulfuric Acid oxidize to form a soft yellowish layer known as chlorine Sulfuric acid below 75% concentration can be handled butter. In some cases the chlorine layer forms a at elevated temperature quite easily in accordance with protective barrier which shields the underlying the material selection guide. However, because of the composite from attack. However, erosion or abrasion by strong affinity of SO3 toward water, concentrated the pulp stock can reduce this protective effect. DION® sulfuric acid (76 – 78%) is a powerful oxidizing agent 6694, a modified bisphenol-A fumarate resin displays that will spontaneously react with polymers and other some of the best chemical resistance to chlorine organic materials to dehydrate the resin and yield a dioxide. characteristic black carbonaceous char. Effectively, composites behave in an opposite manner to many Chlor-Alkali Industry metals. For very concentrated sulfuric acid, including Chlorine along with sodium hydroxide is co-produced oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) it is common to use steel or from brine by electrolysis, with hydrogen as a cast iron for shipment and containment, but even very byproduct. Modern high amperage cells separate the dilute sulfuric acid can be extremely corrosive to steel. anode and cathode by ion exchange membranes or
17 Selected Application Recommendations
Hydrochloric Acid electrowinning processes, where composites often out- Although resins employed with hydrochloric acid are by perform competitive materials such as rubber-lined themselves resistive, HCI is sterically a relatively small steel. molecule which can diffuse into the structural reinforcement by mechanisms which depend in some When dealing with nitric acid, care should always be part on the glass and sizing chemistry. This osmosis given to safe venting of NOX fumes as well as dealing can induce a gradual green color to the composite, with heat of dilution effects. It is also important to avoid although this does not necessarily denote a problem or contamination and avoid mixed service of the tank with failure. Wicking or blistering is also sometimes organic materials, which can react (sometimes observed. While elevated temperature and increased explosively) with nitric acid. concentration accelerates the attack by HCI, tanks made from premium resins have provided service life of Hydrofluoric Acid 20 years or more with concentrated (37%) acid at Hydrofluoric acid is a strong oxidizing agent and can ambient temperature. Muriatic acid and other dilute attack resin as well as glass reinforcements. This can forms can be handled up to 200° F/ 93° C. with no occur with concentrated as well as diluted acid (to 5%). blistering or wicking. Synthetic surfacing veil is commonly used.
The osmosis or diffusion effects can result in localized Fluoride salts, as well as fluoride derivatives (such as formation of water soluble salts, which in turn form salt hydrofluosilicic acid) used in fluoridation of drinking solutions. This creates a concentration gradient, and water, can be accommodated with use of vinyl esters or the salt solutions effectively try to dilute themselves with other premium resins as indicated in the material water diffusing from a salt solution of lower selection guide. HF vapors associated with chemical concentration. The diffusing water thus creates osmotic etching in the electronics industry can be pressure with effects such as blistering. accommodated by resins appropriate for hood and duct service. Since osmotic effects are based on concentration differences it is advisable to always use the tank with Acetic Acid the same concentration of acid and the tank should not Glacial acetic acid causes rapid composite deterioration be cleaned unless necessary. The cleaning should due to blister formation in the corrosion barrier. This is never be done with water. If cleaning is necessary, usually accompanied by swelling and softening. Acetic some owners will employ a slightly alkaline salt acid becomes less aggressive when diluted below 75% solution, typically 1% caustic and 10% NaCl. concentration, and at lower concentrations can be handled by a variety of resins. Low grades of hydrochloric acid are often produced via a byproduct recovery process and may contain traces Perchloric Acid of chlorinated hydrocarbons. These high density While perchloric acid can be an aggressive chemical, a organic compounds are immiscible and may settle to main issue from a composite standpoint is safety. Dry the bottom of the tank and gradually induce swelling of perchloric acid is ignitable and presents a safety the composite. For example this is a common problem hazard. When a tank used for perchloric acid storage is with rubber-lined railcars transporting low grade HCI. emptied and allowed to dry out, residual acid may Purity should thus be carefully evaluated in specifying remain on the surface. Subsequent exposure to an the equipment. ignition source, such as heat or sparks from a grinding wheel may result in spontaneous combustion. Nitric and Chromic Acid Nitric and chromic acid (HNO3 and H2CrO4) are strong Phosphoric Acid oxidizing agents that will gradually attack the composite Corrosion-resistant composites are generally quite surface to form a yellow crust which eventually can resistant to phosphoric and superphosphoric acid. develop microcracks and lead to structural Some technical grades may contain traces of fluorides deterioration. Diluted nitric and chromic acids (5% or since fluoride minerals often occur in nature within less) can be handled at moderate temperatures in phosphorous deposits. This is ordinarily not a problem, accordance with the selection guide. These dilute acids but is worth checking. are commonly encountered in metal plating, pickling, or
18 Selected Application Recommendations
Deionized and Distilled Water physically separated upon freezing, which takes less High purity deionized water, often to the surprise of energy than evaporation. many, can be a very aggressive environment. The high purity water can effectively act as a solvent to cause Very often, most of the expense in these processes is wicking and blistering especially at temperatures >150° associated with water pretreatment, but nevertheless F/ 66° C. Purified water can also extract trace there is overall a great deal of equipment involved, such components from the resin or glass reinforcement to as storage tanks, piping, and reaction vessels. thereby compromise purity, conductivity, or other attributes. Good curing, including post-curing, Upon desalination, some saline solutions must be preferably in conjunction with a high temperature co- disposed. Chlorides and other constituents can greatly initiator, such a tertiary butyl perbenzoate (TBPB), is limit the use of stainless steel, and often it is necessary suggested to maximize resistance and to prevent to consider titanium or high nickel content alloys, all of hydrophilic attack of the resin. It is best to avoid using which are expensive. Hence corrosion-resistant thixotropic agents which can supply soluble composites can offer significant cost and technical constituents, and where possible any catalyst carriers advantages. or plasticizers should be avoided. Electroplating and other Electrochemical Processes Desalination Applications Electroplating is used to electrolytically deposit specific Droughts, demographic changes, and ever-increasing metals onto conductive substrates for anodizing or need for fresh water are spurring needs to desalinate other functional or decorative purposes. Most plating brackish water and sea water to meet demand. There is solutions are acidic and thus reinforced composites as already on major project in progress in the City of well as polymer concrete vessels that have been used Tampa, and others are being considered on the east extensively. Some plating solutions, such as those coast as well as developing countries. associated with chrome, are aggressive due to the oxidation potential as well as the presence of fluorides. Reverse osmosis (RO) is a mature process, yet has Synthetic surfacing veils are commonly used. Good become more cost effective and energy efficient in curing is also necessary, especially if there are recent years due primarily to advances in membrane concerns about solution contamination. technology. Although RO is regarded as the baseline technology, there are other desalination processes Apart from plating there can be growing applications in under development, many of which are a tribute to electrolysis processes which might be practical for ingenuity. These include processes such as vapor hydrogen fuel production. The same applies to recompression, electrodialysis, and gas hydrate accommodation of electrolytes (such as phosphoric processes which entail crystalline aggregation of acid or potassium carbonate) associated with fuel cells. hydrogen-bonded water around a central gas molecule Vinyl esters are already being used in fuel cell plate (for example propane), such that the hydrate can be and electrode applications.
19 Selected Application Recommendations
Fumes, Vapors, Hood & Duct Service generates smoke or soot. Many techniques have Composites are widely used in hood, ducting, and evolved to contend with smoke generation, including ventilation systems due to corrosion resistance, cost, the use of fusible link counterweighed dampers which weight considerations, and dampening of noise. can shut off air supply. Dominant relevant standards Generally speaking, corrosion resistance is quite good, are those of the National Fire Prevention Association even with relatively aggressive chemicals since there is (NFPA) and the International Congress of Building so much dilution and cooling associated with the high Officials (ICBO). DION® FR 9300 flame retardant vinyl volume of air. When dealing with vapors it is good ester is widely used in ducting applications and practice to compute the dew point associated with conforms to ICBO acceptance criteria. individual components of the vapor and to assess the chance that the ducting may pass through the relevant DION® flame retardant resins will meet ASTM E-84 dew point to result in condensation and hence high Class 1 flame spread requirement of 25 when blended localized concentration of condensate. Because of the with the appropriate amount of antimony trioxide. high air volume, the dew points are reduced and there Antimony trioxide provides no flame retardance on its is benefit from the low thermal conductivity of the own, but has a synergistic flame-retardant effect when composite which has an insulating effect. If fumes are used in conjunction with Brominated resins. It is combustible, applicable fire codes should be checked typically incorporated into resin at a 1.5 – 5.0% level. especially if there is a chance that an explosive mixture Please consult the product bulletin for a specific resin to could be encountered. obtain its antimony trioxide requirement. Antimony trioxide typically is not included in the corrosion liner for Accidental fires are always a concern with ducting due duct systems handling concentrated wet acidic gases in to potential accumulation of grease or other order to maximize corrosion resistance. It is used in the combustibles. If a fire indeed occurs, drafts may serve structural over-wrap to provide good overall flame to increase fire propagation. Concern is highest for retardance. To maximize flame retardance in less indoor applications, especially in regard to smoke aggressive vapor-phase environments, antimony generation. Brominated flame retardant resins with trioxide may be included in the liner resin. combined corrosion resistance are normally selected due to their self-extinguishing properties as well as reduced flame spread. Unfortunately, the chemical mechanisms which serve to reduce flame spread can lead to reduce the rate of oxygen consumption, which
20 Selected Application Recommendations
Flue Gas Desulfurization usual practice is to employ vinyl esters or other resins Corrosion-resistant composites are extensively used for with good heat distortion or thermal cycling properties. major components of FGD systems associated with Although there are negligible (if any) combustibles coal based power generation, and many of the present in FGD systems, the selected resins often structures are the largest in the world. Components display flame retardant properties in the event of include chimney liners, absorbers, reaction vessels, accidental ignition or high natural drafts. and piping. Operating conditions of flue gas desulfurization processes are quite corrosive to metals Gasoline, Gasohol, and Underground Storage due to the presence of sulfuric dioxide and sulfur Tanks trioxide. These serve to form sulfuric acid either within Ethanol and Ethanol/ Gasoline Blends the scrubbing system itself or from condensation of SO3 Ethanol derived from corn has increasingly been used as a consequence of it affinity for water and elevation of to increase the extent of gasoline production and dew point. Corrosion of steel is further aggravated by maintain octane requirements. Ethanol can be corrosive the presence of free oxygen which originates from to steel, aluminum, and a variety of polymeric materials, excess air used in coal combustion, or in some due to the alcohol itself and the possible companion processes as a result of air blown into the system in presence of water. Ethanol is miscible with water and order to oxidize sulfite ions to sulfate. azeotropic distillation and drying techniques are necessary in fuel applications. Phase separation, Since there is new evaporation within the absorber, and compatibility with gasoline, or salt contamination can since coal ash contains soluble salts, chloride levels influence many of the corrosion considerations. Vinyl can be quite high, which in turn limits the use of esters as well as isophthalic and terephthalic resins stainless steel or else requires high nickel content (such as DION® 490) can display excellent resistance alloys, which are not only expensive, but also require to ethanol and various blends with gasoline, of which E- close attention to welding and other installation 85 (85% gasoline/ 15% ethanol) is a popular example. procedures. The superior resins display a high crosslink density. This directly increases the solvent resistance by The acid and chloride resistance of FRP makes it an restricting permeability or diffusion into the resin matrix. excellent choice. Wet scrubbers typically operate near In addition, a high degree of cross-linking reduces any to saturation temperatures of about 140° F/ 60° C, but extraction or contamination of the fuel by trace flue gas may sometimes be reheated to >200° F/ 93° C components in the composite matrix, such as residual to increase chimney draft or to reduce mist or plume catalyst plasticizer or carriers. As always, good curing visibility. The worst upset conditions involve a total and post-curing will enhance resistance. sustained loss of scrubbing liquor or make-up water, which may allow temperature to approach that of flue gas leaving the boiler air pre-heater or economizer, typically up to 350° F/ 177° C. Although such temperature excursions are difficult to generalize, the
21 Selected Application Recommendations
Methanol and Other Gasoline-Alcohol Blends Many of these unit operations can be induce galvanic Apart from ethanol, methanol is also widely considered or stress related corrosion to metals. Consequently, in gasoline applications, and in contrast to fermentation FRP has a long history of successful use in of sugar or polysaccharides, methanol is ordinarily hydrometallurgical applications. made from carbon monoxide and hydrogen containing gas associated with gasification or various synthesis Potable Water processes. Methanol has good octane properties, but Piping, tanks and other components used to contain or displays similar, if not more problematic concerns over to process potable water must conform to increasingly water stringent requirements, such as those of the National Sanitary Foundation (NSF), Standards 61 and 14. Longer chain alcohols, such as butanol may find Standard 61 entails a risk assessment to be performed increasing favor over ethanol due to butanol’s lower by NSF on extracted organics and other health related polarity, reduced fuel compatibility problems, and closer features. It is always the responsibility of composite resemblance to volatility and energy content of many products to ensure that such standards are met. gasoline components. Historically, there have been Composites based on the DION® IMPACT 9102 series many cycles of interest in alcohol fuels and other fuel of vinyl esters have conformed to requirements of NSF/ additives, such a MTBE, and this is likely to continue ANSI Standard 61 as applicable to drinking water until energy policies become more definitive. Thus, it is components. Resins, such as DION® 6631 also always good to select resins which are resistive to all conform to international standards associated with gasoline formulations which might be reasonable to drinking water, such a British Standard 6920. expect in the future. This is especially important in regard to the octane properties offered by alcohols. When manufacturing composites for drinking water Octane requirements have significant implications applications it is good practice to obtain a good cure, affecting refinery reforming capacity and in allowing including post-curing and to wash exposed surfaces higher engine compression ratios necessary to meet thoroughly with a warm non-ionic detergent before mileage standards mandated for newer automobiles. placing the equipment into service. It is also good to use minimal amounts of plasticizers or solvent carriers Methanol has many other future implications for use as during fabrication. a direct fuel for internal combustion engines and is in the early stage of development for direct use in fuel Radioactive Materials cells. Polymer-matrix composites in general have very low neutron cross-section capture efficiency. Therefore, Ore Extraction & Hydrometallurgy they are very well-suited to the containment of Apart from conventional mining, smelting, and high radioactive materials, even at relatively high levels of temperature ore reduction, extractive metallurgy based radioactivity. Testing of uncured DION® 382 by Atlas on aqueous chemistry has evolved to permit recovery Chemical Laboratories demonstrated that this resin is of metal from ores, concentrates, or residual materials. highly resistant to molecular weight changes at Metals produced in this manner include gold, dosages up to 15 million rads. Extrapolations based on molybdenum, uranium, and many others. this study estimate that DION® 382 may be able to withstand 50 to 100 million rads. For reference, the The first step involves selective leaching of the metal lethal radiation dose is about 400 rads. Given the from the ore using a variety of acidic or basic solutions hazardous nature of radioactive material, testing is depending on mineral forms or other factors. Acids are recommended before actual use in high radiation commonly sulfuric or nitric acid and common alkaline environments. materials include sodium carbonate or bicarbonate. The leaching can be done on pulverized or specially prepared ores, but some processes are amenable to in- situ contact with the ore, which is sometimes called solution mining.
Leached ores are then concentrated by a variety of solvents or ion exchange type extraction processes. The final step involves metal recovery and purification using electrolysis (such as electrowinning) or various gaseous reduction or precipitation processes.
22 Selected Application Recommendations
Sodium Hydroxide and Alkaline Solutions There is widespread belief that it is advisable to use Alkaline solutions can attack the resin, usually by synthetic surfacing veils versus C-glass in caustic hydrolysis of any ester groups. Glass fibers and other applications. However, controlled laboratory tests silica based materials can also be attacked or digested. usually reveal no clear-cut or distinct advantages to a This leads to a very characteristic type of wicking and synthetic veil, and there is a long history of use of C-veil blistering, as well as fiber blooming. Dilute sodium in alkaline environments. hydroxide is often more aggressive than the more concentrated solutions. This relates to the fact that The synthetic veil allows an increased resin content at NaOH is a very strong base, but at higher concentration the surface to ostensibly afford more protection. On the there is equilibrium between dissolved and solid phase other hand, the resin rich areas can make the surface NaOH, which reduces the caustic effects. Epoxy based more prone to cracking and can, at times, present more vinyl esters and bisphenol-A based polyesters display fabrication difficulties. exceptional resistance to caustic. Solvents Even though novolac based vinyl esters are well- Organic solvents can exert a variety of corrosive effects regarded for excellent corrosion and thermal resistance on composites. Small polar molecules, such as in many applications, it is often observed that novolac methanol and ethanol, for example, may permeate the based resins can show somewhat inferior caustic corrosion liner, causing some swelling and blistering. resistance. Laminated based on novolac vinyl esters Chlorinated solvents, chlorinated aromatics, as well as exposed to caustic have a tendency to develop a lower aldehydes and ketones, are especially aggressive pinkish color incipient to failure. It is speculated this is and can cause swelling and spalling of the corrosion due to formation of phenolates from the novolac liner surface. Corrosive environments containing low structure. levels of solvents may still exert significant effects depending on the solvent involved and the properties of any other material present.
Best results in solvent environments are obtained by using resins with high crosslink density, such as DION® IMPACT 9400, DION® 6694, and DION® 490.
Static Electricity Resin/ glass composites are non-conductive materials, and high static electric charges can develop inducting and piping. Static build-up can be reduced by using conductive graphite fillers, graphite veils or continuous carbon filaments in the surface layer. Use of copper should be avoided because it can inhibit the resin cure.
FDA Compliance The various versions of DION® 382, DION® 6631, DION® 490, DION® 9102, DION® 6334, and DION® 9100 conform to the formulation provisions specified for food contact in FDA title 21, CFR 177.2420. These resins may be used for food contact when properly formulated and cured. It is good practice to follow the general curing and surface preparation techniques that apply to potable water, as described herein.
It is the responsibility of the manufacturer of composite material to ensure conformance to all FDA requirements.
UDSA Applications USDA approvals must be petitioned directly form the USDA by the fabricator. Typically, any product which conforms to the requirements of FDA Title 21, CFR 177.2420 will be approved.
23 Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Fiber reinforced composites do not match the numerous microscopic anode-cathode couplings along characteristically high elastic modulus and ductility of the surface or cross-sectional gradients of the steel, steel and other metals, yet they display lower density, and each can effectively function as a galvanic this often translates to favorable strength/ weight ratio oxidation cell. which, in turn leads to favor in transportation and various industrial and architectural applications. Apart from paints and other protective or dielectric coatings, various forms of cathodic protection are often Composites can present other advantages over steel, employed with steel. For small structures, sacrificial such as low thermal conductivity and good dielectric or anodes may be located near to the steel, so that these electrical insulating properties. However, an anodes corrode selectively, or preferentially, to the overwhelming advantage to composites rests with steel. Sacrificial anodes employ metals which are more corrosion resistance. electronegative than iron within the galvanic series. Examples include zinc, magnesium, or various When the cost and benefits of FRP and special resins aluminum alloys. For larger structures, such as tanks, are considered for particular environments, it is useful impressed current methods are frequently used. This to understand the common mechanisms by which involves use of separate anodes and DC current to metals are oxidized or corroded. FRP is immune or reverse or alter polarity, allowing the steel to function as otherwise quite resistive to many of these influences, at a cathode rather than as an anode, which is where the least within the range of practical limits of temperature oxidation occurs. and stress. Galvanic corrosion is exceptionally severe in wet acidic Oxygen Cell-Galvanic Corrosion environments where free oxygen is present. Flue gas The most commonly observed instances of corrosion to desulfurization is a good example of where the carbon steel involve oxidation-reduction galvanic conditions strongly favor this type of corrosion. This is couplings in the presence of molecular oxygen and due to the presence of sulfuric acid in combination with hydrogen ion associated with acids. oxygen associated with the excess air ordinarily employed in coal combustion. Polyesters and vinyl Most forms of steel corrosion relate to some variation of esters display excellent acid resistance and common these mechanisms, as hereby the steel effectively galvanic corrosion mechanisms do not influence functions as an anode and becomes oxidized. properly designed FRP. Dissolved salts and ionic components can accelerate this type of corrosion by increasing electrical conductivity. It can also occur in the presence of stray leaks of direct current, such as in the vicinity of mass transit systems. Galvanic corrosion of steel is accelerated in the vicinity of metals such as copper which are cathodic to steel. Due to impurities, as well as various metallurgical or geometric factors, steel substrates are not always uniform There can be
Oxidation (anode)
Fe – 2e- → Fe2+
Reduction (cathode)
- - O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4OH
+ - 2H + 2e → H2
24 Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Passive Alloys and Chloride Induced Stress Sulfide Stress-Cracking Corrosion Somewhat akin to chloride-induced stress corrosion is To avoid galvanic corrosion to steel, it is common sulfide stress corrosion-cracking. This is common in practice to employ stainless steel or other passive oilfield and other applications, such as geothermal alloys. Stainless steel contains at least 10.5% energy recovery and waste treatment. Carbon steel as chromium, which passivates the surface with a very thin well as other alloys can react with hydrogen sulfide chrome-oxide film. This, in turn, serves to protect (H2S), which is prevalent in sour oil, gas, and gas against acids and other inducers of galvanic corrosion. condensate deposits. Reaction products include sulfides and atomic hydrogen which forms by a The most practical limitations occur in environments cathodic reaction and diffuses into the metal matrix. where this chrome-oxide film can be broken down. Very The hydrogen can also react with carbon in the steel to typically this occurs in the presence of the chloride ion, form methane, which leads to embrittlement and particularly in the vicinity of areas such as welds, where cracking of the metal. tensile stress is present. Although the mechanism can be complex, the corrosion is accompanied by a CO2 Corrosion distinctive destruction of grain boundaries, which Carbon dioxide can be quite corrosive to steel (at times characterize the morphology or metallurgical structure in excess of thousands of mils per year) due to the of the stainless steel. This is ordinarily manifested as formation of weak carbonic acid as well as cathodic pitting, crevice corrosion, or corrosion stress-cracking, depolarization. This type of corrosion is especially which may proceed rapidly once initiated. Chlorides can devastating in oil and gas production and is apt to often be present at exceptionally high levels, especially receive even more attention in the future due to in applications such as flue desulfurization, where there increased use of CO2 for enhanced oil recovery. is a net evaporation of water as well as leaching of coal Additionally, various underground sequestering ash. Thus, even though stainless steel will display quite processes are being inspired by concerns over global good acid resistance, the corrosion can be severe due warming. Turbulence, or gas velocity, can be a big to chlorides. Chlorides tend to be quite prevalent in factor in the CO2 induced corrosion of steel due to the industrial environments, even in places where they formation and/ or removal of protective ion carbonate might not be obvious, so it is always important to be scale. On the other hand, FRP is not affected by these wary in the use of stainless steel. Another corrosive mechanisms of corrosion. limitation to stainless steel relates to oxygen depletion. Since the passivity of stainless steel depends on a thin Other Types of Stress Corrosion protective chrome-oxide film, it is important to keep the Sometime internal stress corrosion-cracking of steels surface in an oxidized state. The passive film may no may occur unexpectedly due to mechanisms which are longer be preserved in certain reducing environments, not yet completely understood. For example, there is or where the surface is insulated from oxygen by scale some evidence this occurs with ethanol in high or other strongly adhering deposits. concentrations, especially around welds. Likewise, anhydrous methanol can be corrosive to aluminum as The class of stainless steel most commonly considered well as titanium. in corrosive environments is known as austenite, but the other types (martensetic and ferritic) are also Hydrogen Embrittlement common. Over the years, many grades have been Atomic hydrogen can diffuse or become absorbed into developed to improve resistance to chloride and to steel. It then reacts with carbon to form methane or afford better strength, heat resistance, and welding microscopic gas formations which weaken and detract properties to minimize the effects of stress induced from ductility. Usually this happens at high temperature corrosion. Characteristically, increased nickel content under conditions where FRP is ordinarily not alloys are favored for high chloride applications, such considered. The same type of mechanism of attack is as type 317L stainless steel, Hastelloy™, Inconel, or associated at lower temperatures with various forms of the various Haynes series alloys, such as C-276. Since galvanic or stress induced corrosion. Quite often these alloys are expensive, applications often involve hydrogen embrittlement can be a problem for steel cladding or thin “wallpapering” procedures. The use of which has been electroplated or pickled, especially these selections involves a great deal of welding, which when done improperly or inefficiently. Some of these must be done with a high degree of expertise, expense, matters are receiving more attention due to future and high level inspections with attention to detail, since considerations of hydrogen in fuel cell and other energy welds are especially susceptible to stress corrosion. applications.
25 Common Types of Metal Corrosion
Sulfate Reducing Bacteria and Microbially Induced Apart from sulfate reducing bacteria, other forms of Corrosion (MIC) microbial corrosion which affect metals include acid Colonies of microorganisms, especially aerobic and producing bacteria, slime forming organisms, anaerobic bacteria contribute greatly to corrosion of denitrifying bacteria which generate ammonia, and steel through a wide variety of galvanic and other corrosion associated with various species of depositional mechanisms. Usually the corrosion is algae and fungi. It is expected that biologically induced manifested in the form of pitting or sulfide induced corrosion will receive increased attention as more stress-cracking. Perhaps the most significant type of applications and technologies evolve in field of energy such corrosion involves sulfate-reducing bacteria production associated with biomass and renewable (SRB), which metabolize sulfates to produce sulfuric resources. Processing will include such things as acid or hydrogen sulfide. Such bacteria are prolific in aerobic and anaerobic digestion, fermentation, water (including seawater), mud, soil, sludge, and other enzymatic hydrolysis and conversion of cellulose, lignin, organic matter. or polysaccharides to sugars, which in turn may be converted to ethanol. These bacteria are a major reason why underground steel storage tanks are corroded, and this has lead to Carbon and stainless steels are not the only metals widespread use of FRP as an alternative or as an affected by MIC. Also routinely corroded are copper external protective barrier to steel. Various and various alloys as well as concrete. The most manifestations of MIC are seen far and wide, including common example of which involves sewage and waste industrial environments which inadvertently serve as water treatment applications in the presence of the warm or nutrient-rich cultures for biological growth. FRP thiobacillus bacteria, with oxidizes H2S to sulfuric acid. is unaffected by many of the mechanisms associated FRP has a long history of successful use in these with MIC. environments.
26 Alternate Materials
Thermoplastics There are numerous commercially available Some relatively large thermoplastic tanks are mass thermoplastics. In the context of most industrial produced by roto-molding techniques. These can be corrosion-resistant applications, the more common made from thermoplastic powders by thermal rotational competitive encounters with vinyl ester or polyester casting methods, to avoid sophisticated high pressure composites involve the use of thermoplastics which are injection equipment. Most often, the polymer is a glass reinforced. Apart from specialized and costly so- crosslinkable polyethylene. High temperature peroxide called engineered plastics, most of these reinforced initiators are used to crosslink through vinyl thermoplastics are polyolefins, such as isotactic unsaturation incorporated into the polymer. Most often, polypropylene or polyethylene. These polymers tend to these tanks are used in municipal applications (such as be high in molecular weight and display good for storage of hypochlorite) or for agricultural uses and resistance to solvents and many other chemical liquid transport. Common problems involve cracking environments. and difficulties in repair. A variety of hybrids or combined technologies have evolved. Sheet stocks or A major disadvantage to thermoplastics involves specially reinforced thermoplastics can be bonded to restrictions to the size of equipment. Thermoplastics FRP surfaces during manufacturing, to make so-called normally require extrusion, injection molding, blow dual laminates. Various thermoplastic coatings are also molding, or other methods either impractical or quite common. At times, thermoplastic piping may be prohibitively costly for some of the sizes commonly filament-wound with a thermosetting composite to involved with lay-up or filament-wound composites. improve structural strength. However, fairly large diameter extruded plastic pipe (usually not reinforced) is commonly used. Other Thermosetting Polymers Epoxy Often plasticizers are necessary, which in some cases The composites described in this guide are focused on can detract from chemical or thermal resistance, and resins based on vinyl esters and polyesters. furthermore may introduce extraction concerns in the final application. Glass and other fibrous reinforcement Although vinyl esters employ epoxies in their can be difficult to wet-out or bind with thermoplastics. formulation, the epoxy (glycidal) functionality is Special coupling agents are normally required. extended and chemically modified for vinyl curing, and should not be confused with direct use of epoxy resins. Longer fibers improve physical properties, but extrusion Both bisphenol-A as well as novolac epoxies may be and molding operating degrade longer fibers. Thus, used directly in fiber reinforced composites. They are glass reinforced thermoplastics are limited to fairly short cured on a two-component basis with aromatic or fibers and cannot be employed with many of the aliphatic amines, diamines, or polyamides. Most epoxy directional or multi-compositional reinforcements composite applications involve high glass content common to the composites industry. filament-wound pipe used largely in oil recovery applications. Generally speaking, viscosities are higher, Although reinforcement greatly improves heat distortion and glass wet-out and compatibility is always a and thermal expansion properties, thermoplastic resins concern. At times solvents or reactive diluents are used differ quite distinctly from thermosetting resins (such as to reduce viscosity. Toughness is good, but thermal crosslinked vinyl esters or polyesters). Thermoplastics properties are inferior to those of premium vinyl esters display distinct glass transition temperatures and can and polyesters. A medium viscosity general purpose melt or distort at elevated temperatures, so quite often aliphatic amine cured epoxy heat distortion temperature they cannot be considered in high temperature can be typically only 155 - 160° F/ 68 - 71° C. Alkali and applications. solvent resistance are generally good, but acid resistance can sometimes present limitations and is Another problem with thermoplastics relate to water highly dependent on the curing systems. Curing and absorption or permeation, which plagues even hardness development can be another limitation, which expensive and highly corrosion-resistant plastics such may require heat activation and post-curing. at fluoro-polymers. Due to water permeation, cracks or other damages with thermoplastics are difficult, if not impossible, to repair.
Cracking of thermoplastics is common due to loss of ductility especially at low temperatures, and secondary bonding or painting can be a big problem.
27 Alternate Materials
Phenolic Resins Acid Resistant Brick and Refractories Phenolic resins have been used for a long time. They Both castable and mortar block chemically resistant are highly crosslinked resins based on reaction refractories have been used extensively. A good between phenol and formaldehyde. Advantages include example is in chimney construction, to withstand very good heat resistance as well as low smoke sulfuric acid dew point corrosion. Usually steel is used generation due to ablative or carbonizing properties. for structural support along with appropriate buckstays. The ratio of phenol to formaldehyde primarily Installation costs can be high. Castable products must determines the properties. Novolac resins are based on be anchored to the steel structure by studs or Y- deficiency of formaldehyde and are supplied as solid anchors. Refractories are not ductile and concerns powders typically used in reactive injection molding involve thermal cycling and cracking. Block must be applications. They are then cured with hexa methylene skillfully placed with proper acid resistant mortar. High tetramine, which provides a formaldehyde source. weight is a factor as well as seismic considerations. Resoles, on the other hand, are made with an excess of The biggest problems involve operation of wet stack in formaldehyde and are normally supplies as low conjunction with flue gas desulfurization. Moisture leads viscosity liquids dissolved in water. They are normally to absorption and swelling, which may eventually cured by application of heat and catalysis by an acid. induce leaning. It is also common practice with wet Composite applications employ the resole versions. A stack to employ pressurized membranes to prevent big disadvantage to resole resins is the out-gassing of condensation onto the cold external steel surface. This water vapor which occurs during the cure. This leads to can also be expensive. porosity and voids as well as odor problems during processing. These voids detract from composite properties including corrosion resistance. Glass wet-out is another problem. Quite often glass reinforcement commonly used in the composites industry is not compatible with phenolic resin. Since resoles are water soluble, corrosion resistance to water or aqueous based solutions can be very poor if the cure is not conducted properly. Care should also be taken to avoid contact of phenolic composites with carbon steel in the final application. Over time, the acid catalyst can leach out and severely corrode the steel.
Rubber and Elastomers Rubber often displays good chemical resistance, especially to sulfuric acid. It is sometimes used in FGD applications for lining of steel piping and process equipment. Rubber liners have also been used in various bleaching applications. Apart from corrosion resistance, rubber can offer good abrasion resistance.
In the case of rubber linings, skilled and specialized installation is required, which tends to make them expensive. Many of the linings are difficult, if not impossible, to install around restrictive geometry. It is essential to obtain good bonding between the rubber and steel since any permeation or damage to the liner can cause the steel to quickly corrode. The low glass transition temperature of rubber restricts use to moderate temperatures. Some rubbers and elastomers can become embrittled if subjected to cyclic wet and dry conditions. Solvents present swelling problems, and water permeation can be an important consideration.
28 Alternate Materials
Concrete Without a doubt, concrete represents the world’s most Another corrosion mechanism associated with concrete extensively used material of construction. However, it is is carbonation. It occurs when carbon dioxide from the subject to direct corrosive attack as well as spalling, or surrounding air reacts with calcium hydroxide contained cavitation. Good examples of corrosive attack involve in the concrete, to produce calcium carbonate. Because acids, including even dilute acid associated with acid calcium carbonate is more acidic than the parent rain. Sulfates are also especially aggressive to material, it effectively depassivates the alkaline concrete, which presents problems when used in the environment of concrete. At pH levels below about 9.8, vicinity of FGD applications. Protection of concrete the concrete mass can reduce the passive film which floors with a layer of FRP is common practice. Acid serves to protect the steel reinforcement. This type of resistant grades of concrete have been developed, as attack is commonly observed with concrete hyperbolic well as so-called polymer concrete wherein resin is cooling towers, where elevated temperature and high used to replace all, or a portion, of the Portland cement humidity promote the progression of a carbonation used in the concrete formulation. front. The same conditions promote diffusion inside of the hyperbolic tower. This can lead to corrosion of steel, Almost all concrete is reinforced with steel mesh or especially around cracks or in the vicinity of joints rebar due to the low tensile strength of concrete. Upon associated with slip forms used in construction. Due to cracking and permeation by acids or salt solutions the water conservation as well as scarcity of fresh water, steel is attacked by galvanic corrosion. This then spalls greater use of evaporative cooling is leading to new and weakens the structure due to high tensile stress in designs in cooling towers. As a result, more scale the vicinity of the corroding steel. Dangerous situations formation along with higher salt concentrations favors sometimes exist with concrete used in infrastructure composites which can be used more extensively as an applications. Composite structures including composite alternative to concrete. rebar offer novel approaches.
29 Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 A Acetaldehyde 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR 10 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 120/45 210/100 Acetic Acid 25 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 150/65 150/65 120/45 210/100 50 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 ------120/45 140/60 Acetic Acid, Glacial 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Acetic Anhydride 100 NR -- 100/35 110/40 110/40 NR NR --- NR 10 180/80 NR 180/80 180/80 180/80 NR NR NR NR Acetone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Acetonitrile 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Acetophenone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Acetyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Acrylic Acid 0-25 100/35 100/35 110/40 100/35 100/35 -- NR NR NR Acrylic Latex All 120/45 150/65 120/45 150/65 150/65 130/55 ------80/25 Acrylonitrile 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Acrylontirile Latex All --- 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 ------80/25 Alkyl Benzene Sulfonic Acid 92 120/45 120/45 120/45 150/65 150/65 ------120/45 Alkyl Benzene C10 - C12 100 150/65 150/65 --- 150/65 ------100/35 Allyl Alcohol 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Allyl Chloride All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Alpha Methyl Styrene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Alpha Olefin Sulfates 100 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------80/25 Alum All 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Aluminum Chloride All 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Aluminum Chlorohydrate All 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 --- 165 Aluminum Chlorohydroxide 50 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 120/45 NR Aluminum Citrate All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 120/45 150/65 Aluminum Fluoride1 All 80/25 110/40 80/25 110/40 120/45 NR NR --- 150/65 Aluminum Hydroxide All 180/80 160/70 160/70 160/70 210/100 NR NR 150/65 NR Aluminum Nitrate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 170/75 140/60 ------Aluminum Potassium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Aluminum Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 220/105 Amino Acids All 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 ------Ammonia, Liquified All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Ammonia Aqueous 1 200/90 200/90 210/100 200/90 200/90 NR NR --- NR (see Ammonium Hydroxide) Ammonia (Dry Gas) All 100/35 200/90 180/80 200/90 200/90 -- --- NR NR Ammonium Acetate 65 100/35 110/40 80/25 110/40 100/35 80/25 NR NR 80/25 Ammonium Benzoate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 ------150/65 Ammonium Bicarbonate 100 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 170/75 120/45 120/45 --- 130/55 Ammonium Bisulfite --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 180/80 NR NR --- 195/90 Black Liquor Ammonium Bromate 40 160/70 160/70 150/65 160/70 160/70 ------150/65 Ammonium Bromide 40 160/70 160/70 150/65 160/70 160/70 ------150/65 Ammonium Carbonate All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 80/25 NR 150/65 Ammonium Chloride All 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Ammonium Citrate All 160/70 160/70 140/60 160/70 170/75 120/45 120/45 NR --- Ammonium Fluoride3 All 150/65 120/45 120/45 120/45 150/65 NR NR NR 150/65
30
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 1 200/90 200/90 210/100 200/90 200/90 NR NR NR NR 5 180/80 180/80 170/75 180/80 180/80 NR NR NR NR Ammonium Hydroxide (Aqueous Ammonia) 10 150/65 140/60 170/75 170/75 150/65 NR NR NR NR 20 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 NR NR NR NR 29 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR NR Ammonium Lauryl Sulfate 30 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Ammonium Ligno Sulfonate 50 --- 160/70 --- 180/80 160/70 ------Ammonium Nitrate All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 140/60 140/60 NR 200/90 Ammonium Persulfate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 180/80 140/60 NR NR 150/65 Ammonium Phosphate All 210/100 180/80 180/80 210/100 180/80 140/60 140/60 150/65 180/80 (Di or Mono Basic) Ammonium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 220/105 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 220/105 Ammonium Sulfide All 120/45 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 --- NR NR 120/45 (Bisulfide) Ammonium Sulfite All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 80/25 NR NR 150/65 20 210/100 210/100 200/90 220/105 200/90 140/60 140/60 150/65 180/80 Ammonium Thiocyanate 50 110/40 110/40 100/35 110/40 150/65 80/25 80/25 --- 180/80 Ammonium Thiosulfate 60 100/35 100/35 100/35 150/65 110/40 --- NR NR 180/80 Amyl Acetate All NR NR 100/35 NR NR NR NR NR NR Amyl Alcohol All 120/45 150/65 200/90 210/100 150/65 170/75 80/25 NR 200/90 Amyl Alcohol (Vapor) --- 150/65 180/80 150/65 210/100 210/100 100/35 100/35 150/65 100/35 Amyl Chloride All 120/45 --- 120/45 ------NR NR NR NR Aniline All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Aniline Hydrochloride All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 ------Aniline Sulfate Sat’d 210/100 200/90 210/100 220/105 200/90 140/60 140/60 120/45 200/90
Aqua Regia (3:1 HCl-HNO3) All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- Arsenic Acid 80 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 80/25 ------110/40 Arsenious Acid 20 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 80/25 80/25 NR 180/80 B Barium Acetate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 NR NR 180/80 Barium Bromide All 180/80 180/80 210/100 180/80 180/80 ------Barium Carbonate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 80/25 80/25 150/65 200/90 Barium Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 Barium Cyanide All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------Barium Hydroxide All 150/65 160/70 150/65 160/70 170/75 NR NR NR NR Barium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 --- Barium Sulfide All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 NR NR NR --- Beer ------80/25 --- Beet Sugar Liquor All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 110/40 --- 180/80 Benzaldehyde 100 NR /R NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Benzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Benzene, HCl (wet) All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Benzene Sulfonic Acid All 210/100 200/90 150/65 210/100 210/100 140/60 NR NR 200/90 Benzene Vapor All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Benzoic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 220/105 Benzoquinones All 150/65 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Benzyl Alcohol All NR 110/40 NR 110/40 100/35 80/25 NR NR --- Benzyl Chloride All NR NR NR NR NR NR N R --- NR
31
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Biodiesel Fuel All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 140/60 --- 175/80 Black Liquor (pulp mill) All 180/80 200/90 160/70 210/100 200/90 NR NR --- NR Bleach Solutions
(See Selected Applications) Calcium Hypochlorite All 180/80 200/90 180/80 210/100 200/90 NR NR NR --- Chlorine Dioxide --- 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 NR NR NR 180/80 Chlorine Water All 180/80 200/90 180/80 200/90 200/90 NR NR NR 200/90 Sodium Hypochlorite 15 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 NR NR NR --- Borax All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 150/65 --- Boric Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 Brake Fluid --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 ------Brine, salt All 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 200/90 175/80 170/75 150/65 220/105 Bromine Liquid NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Bromine Water 5 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 80/25 --- NR --- Brown Stock (pulp mill) --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 --- NR ------Bunker C Fuel Oil 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 140/60 --- 175/80 Butanol All 120/45 120/45 120/45 110/40 110/40 100/35 NR --- 100/35 Butanol, Tertiary All --- NR --- 110/40 110/40 ------100/35 Butyl Acetate 100 NR NR 80/25 NR NR 80/25 NR NR 80/25 Butyl Acrylate 100 NR NR 80/25 NR NR NR NR --- NR Butyl Amine All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Butyl Benzoate 100 ------100/35 NR NR NR ------NR Butyl Benzyl Phthalate 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 210/100 175/80 NR --- NR Butyl Carbitol 80 100/35 --- 100/35 NR NR NR NR --- NR Butyl Cellosolve 100 100/35 100/35 100/35 120/45 120/45 NR NR NR 80/25 Butylene Glycol 100 160/70 180/80 180/80 180/80 200/90 175/80 150/65 --- 120/45 Butylene Oxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Butyraldehyde 100 NR NR 100/35 NR NR NR NR ------50 210/100 210/100 180/80 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 150/65 120/45 Butyric Acid 85 80/25 110/40 110/40 110/40 100/35 NR NR NR --- C Cadmium Chloride All 180/80 190/85 180/80 190/85 180/80 140/60 140/60 --- 150/65 Calcium Bisulfite All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 200/90 140/60 140/60 120/45 150/65 Calcium Bromide All 200/90 190/85 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------200/90 Calcium Carbonate All 180/80 200/90 180/80 220/105 200/90 160/70 160/70 150/65 180/80 Calcium Chlorate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 150/65 150/65 150/65 220/105 (See Selected Applications) Calcium Chloride Sat'd 210/100 210/100 210/100 190/85 190/85 175/80 170/75 150/65 220/105 Calcium Hydroxide All 180/80 160/70 120/45 160/70 210/100 160/70 160/70 80/25 NR Calcium Hypochlorite All 180/80 200/90 180/80 210/100 200/90 NR NR NR 180/80 (See Selected Applications) Calcium Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Calcium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 220/105 Calcium Sulfite All 180/80 180/80 190/85 190/85 200/90 ------180/80 Cane Sugar Liquor and Sweet All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 110/40 --- 180/80 Water Capric Acid All 180/80 180/80 110/40 210/100 160/70 140/60 ------180/80
32
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Caprylic Acid (Octanoic Acid) All 180/80 160/70 180/80 180/80 210/100 140/60 --- 150/65 140/60 Carbon Dioxide Gas --- 210/100 200/90 300/145 300/145 300/145 210/100 210/100 150/65 210/100 Carbon Disulfide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Carbon Monoxide Gas --- 210/100 200/90 300/145 300/145 300/145 210/100 210/100 150/65 160/70 Carbon Tetrachloride 100 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR NR Carbowax All 150/65 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------150/65 Polyethylene Glycols Carboxy Methyl Cellulose All 160/70 150/65 160/70 160/70 ------Carboxy Ethyl Cellulose 10 160/70 150/65 180/80 160/70 ------150/65 Cashew Nut Oil All --- 200/90 --- 200/90 200/90 140/60 ------Castor Oil All 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 80/25 ------Chlorinated Pulp --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 200/90 180/80 ------180/80 (See Selected Applications) Chlorinated Washer Hoods --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 NR NR --- 150/65 Chlorinated Waxes All 180/80 160/70 180/80 180/80 160/70 150/65 150/65 120/45 150/65 Chlorine (liquid) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Chlorine Gas (wet or dry) --- 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 ------NR 200/90 Chlorine Dioxide --- 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 NR NR NR 160/70 Chlorine Water All 180/80 200/90 180/80 200/90 200/90 NR NR NR --- 25 180/80 --- 180/80 210/100 200/90 80/25 NR 80/25 80/25 Chloroacetic Acid 50 100/35 140/60 100/35 140/60 150/65 80/25 --- NR 80/25 Chlorobenzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Chloroform 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Chloropyridine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Chlorosulfonic Acid All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Chloroethylene NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR (1,1,1-trichloroethylene) Chlorotoluene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Chromic Acid 5 110/40 110/40 110/40 120/45 110/40 80/25 NR NR 200/90 (see selected applications) 20 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 195/90 Chromic:sulfuric acid 20:20 ------180/80 Chromium Sulfate All 150/65 140/60 150/65 140/60 180/80 140/60 140/60 --- Chromous Sulfate All 180/80 140/60 150/65 140/60 180/80 140/60 140/60 150/65 150/65 Citric Acid All 210/100 200/90 220/105 220/105 200/90 175/80 160/70 150/65 180/80 Cobalt Chloride All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Cobalt Citrate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Cobalt Naphthenate All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------Cobalt Octoate All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------Cobalt Nitrate 15 120/45 180/80 120/45 180/80 180/80 170/75 170/75 --- 120/45 Coconut Oil All 210/100 200/90 180/80 200/90 200/90 ------120/45 --- Copper Acetate All 210/100 180/80 180/80 210/100 200/90 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Copper Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Copper Cyanide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 140/60 130/55 150/65 200/90 Copper Fluoride All 210/100 ------170/75 NR NR NR 170/75 Copper Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 140/60 Copper Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 240/115 175/80 170/75 150/65 220/105 Corn Oil All 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 175/80 170/75 --- 175/80
33
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Corn Starch All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 ------200/90 Corn Sugar All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------200/90 Cottonseed Oil All 210/100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 175/80 ------175/80 Cresol 10 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Cresylic Acid All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Crude Oil, Sour or Sweet 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 200/90 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Cyclohexane 100 120/45 NR 150/65 120/45 110/40 80/25 NR NR 140/60 Cyclohexanone 100 NR NR NR NR NR --- NR NR --- D Decanol 100 120/45 150/65 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Dechlorinated Brine Storage All 180/80 --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------180/80 Deionized Water All 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 175/80 170/75 --- 200/90 Demineralized Water All 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 175/80 170/75 --- 200/90 Detergents, Organic 100 160/70 160/70 160/70 180/80 180/80 100/35 ------100/35 Detergents, Sulfonated All 200/90 200/90 180/80 210/100 210/100 120/45 120/45 --- 200/90 Diallylphthalate All 180/80 210/100 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 110/40 140/60 120/45 Diammonium Phosphate 65 210/100 180/80 210/100 180/80 210/100 120/45 120/45 NR --- Dibasic Acids (FGD Applications) 30 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 170/75 --- 180/80 Dibromophenol --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dibromopropanol All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dibutyl Ether 100 NR NR 110/40 110/40 110/40 NR NR NR NR Dibutyl Phthalate 100 180/80 180/80 200/90 180/80 200/90 175/80 150/65 100/35 80/25 Dibutyl Sebacate All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 ------Dichlorobenzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dichloroethane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dichloroethylene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dichloromethane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR (Methylene Chloride) Dichloropropane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Dichloropropene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Dichloropropionic Acid 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diesel Fuel All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 140/60 150/65 175/80 Diethanol Amine 100 80/25 110/40 110/40 120/45 110/40 NR NR NR 110/40 Diethyl Amine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diethyl Ether (Ethyl Ether) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diethyl Ketone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diethyl Formamide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diethyl Maleate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Di 2-Ethyl Hexyl Phosphate 100 --- 200/90 --- 210/100 210/100 ------Diethylenetriamine (DETA) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Diethylene Glycol 100 200/90 200/90 200/90 220/105 210/100 175/80 170/75 140/60 100/35 Diisobutyl Ketone 100 NR NR 110/40 NR NR NR NR --- NR Diisobutyl Phthalate 100 120/45 180/80 120/45 180/80 180/80 ------80/25 Di-isobutylene 100 100/35 NR 100/35 NR NR NR NR ------Di-isopropanol Amine 100 110/40 100/35 120/45 100/35 100/35 ------Dimethyl Formamide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dimethyl Phthalate 100 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 170/75 NR 80/25 NR 80/25 Dioctyl Phthalate 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 150/65 150/65 120/45 80/25
34
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Dioxane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Diphenyl Ether 100 80/25 120/45 100/35 120/45 120/45 120/45 NR NR --- Dipiperazine Sulfate Solution All --- 100/35 --- 100/35 --- 80/25 ------Dipropylene Glycol All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 ------Distilled Water All 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 --- 200/90 Divinyl Benzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Dodecyl Alcohol 100 ------150/65 E Embalming Fluid All 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 NR NR --- 110/40 Epichlorohydrin 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Epoxydized Soya Bean Oil All 150/65 200/90 150/65 200/90 200/90 ------150/65 Esters of Fatty Acids 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 150/65 150/65 --- 120/45 Ethanol Amine 100 NR NR 80/25 NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Acetate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Acrylate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR 10 120/45 140/60 150/65 150/65 140/60 110/40 --- NR 110/40 Ethyl Alcohol (Ethanol) 50 100/35 100/35 150/65 120/45 110/40 100/35 --- NR 125/50 95-100 80/25 80/25 80/25 110/40 110/40 80/25 80/25 NR 80/25 Ethyl Benzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Benzene/ Benzene Blends 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Bromide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethyl Ether (Diethyl Ether) 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethylene Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethylene Chloroformate 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethylene Chlorohydrin 100 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 NR NR NR 100/35 Ethylene Diamine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethylene Dibromide All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Ethylene Dichloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Ethylene Glycol All 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 180/80 170/75 150/65 210/100 Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl 100 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR ------NR Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic 100 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 NR NR ------Acid Ethylene Oxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Eucalyptus Oil 100 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 ------F Fatty Acids All 210/100 200/90 200/90 220/105 200/90 175/80 170/75 150/65 210/100 Ferric Acetate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Ferric Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Ferric Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Ferric Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Ferrous Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Ferrous Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Ferrous Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Fertilizer, 8,8,8 --- 120/45 110/40 120/45 110/40 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Fertilizer, URAN --- 120/45 110/40 120/45 110/40 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Flue Gases ------Fluoboric Acid 10 210/100 180/80 180/80 180/80 220/105 150/65 150/65 120/45 --- Fluoride Salts & HCl 30:10:00 --- 120/45 --- 120/45 ------
35
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 10 150/65 150/65 120/45 150/65 150/65 NR NR NR 180/80 Fluosilicic Acid 35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR 160/70 Fumes 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 NR NR NR --- Fly Ash Slurry ------180/80 --- 180/80 ------(See Selected Applications) Formaldehyde All 150/65 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 NR NR 100/35 110/40 10 180/80 150/65 180/80 150/65 150/65 120/45 100/35 NR 180/80 Formic Acid 50 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 80/25 NR NR 100/35 Freon7 11 100 --- NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Fuel Oil 100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 140/60 150/65 175/80 10 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 NR NR NR 80/25 Furfural 50-100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- 80/25 G Gallic Acid Sat'd 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 ------Gasoline (SeeSelected Applications) Premium Unleaded 100 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 Regular Unleaded 100 110/40 110/40 100/35 1110 110/40 110/40 110/40 --- 110/40 Alcohol-Containing 100 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 --- 110/40 Gluconic Acid 50 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 100/35 100/35 100/35 140/60 Glucose All 210/100 180/80 210/100 180/80 210/100 110/40 110/40 150/65 180/80 Glutaric Acid 50 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------200/90 Glycerine 100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 180/80 170/75 150/65 150/65 10 180/80 --- 200/90 --- 200/90 ------200/90 Glycolic Acid (Hydroxyacetic Acid) 35 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 ------200/90 70 80/25 --- 100/35 --- 100/35 ------200/90 Glyoxal 40 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 80/25 80/25 --- 200/90 Green Liquor (pulp mill) --- 180/80 200/90 180/80 200/90 210/100 NR NR --- NR H Heptane 100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 150/65 140/60 --- 200/90 Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 100 --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 100/35 80/25 NR NR 80/25 Hexachloropentadiene 100 ------110/40 --- 80/25 NR ------Hexamethylenetetramine 65 --- 110/40 --- 110/40 --- 80/25 NR --- NR Hexane 100 150/65 140/60 150/65 140/60 150/65 80/25 80/25 80/25 --- Hydraulic Fluid 100 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 NR NR 80/25 150/65 Hydrazine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR 18 180/80 200/90 180/80 210/100 210/100 140/60 --- 100/35 ---- Hydrobromic Acid 48 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 80/25 110/40 100/35 150/65 10 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 160/70 160/70 --- 210/100 15 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 110/40 --- 210/100 Hydrochloric Acid 25 160/70 150/65 160/70 150/65 150/65 140/60 110/40 NR 180/80 37 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 80/25 80/25 NR 110/40 Hydrochloric Acid and Organics --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Hydrocyanic Acid 10 180/80 200/90 200/90 210/100 170/75 140/60 80/25 NR 200/90 1 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 NR NR NR --- Hydrofluoric Acid 10 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR 80/25 20 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR 80/25
36
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 10 180/80 150/65 160/70 150/65 150/65 NR NR --- 180/80 Hydrofluosilicic Acid 35 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 120/45 NR NR NR 160/70 Hydrogen Bromide, vapor All 180/80 --- 150/65 210/100 210/100 140/60 170/75 100/35 140/60 Hydrogen Chloride, dry gas 100 210/100 180/80 210/100 210/100 200/90 150/65 150/65 150/65 210/100 Hydrogen Fluoride, vapor All 150/65 150/65 150/65 180/80 180/80 80/25 80/25 NR 80/25 Hydrogen Peroxide (storage) 5 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 80/25 NR 150/65 Hydrogen Peroxide 30 100/35 150/65 100/35 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR 100/35 Hydrogen Sulfide, gas All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 170/75 140/60 140/60 150/65 210/100 Hydroiodic Acid 10 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 80/25 80/25 NR --- Hypophosphorus Acid 50 120/45 --- 120/45 120/45 ------NR 120/45 I Iodine, Solid All 150/65 150/65 140/60 150/65 170/75 --- NR ------Isoamyl Alcohol 100 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Isobutyl Alcohol All 120/45 125/50 120/45 125/50 125/50 120/45 ------Isodecanol All 120/45 150/65 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 --- Ambient 150/65 Isononyl Alcohol 100 --- 125/50 140/60 125/50 125/50 ------125/50 Isooctyl Adipate 100 --- 180/80 130/55 180/80 ------Isooctyl Alcohol 100 --- 100/35 140/60 150/65 150/65 ------Isopropyl Alcohol All 120/45 110/40 120/45 110/40 120/45 80/25 80/25 NR 120/45 Isopropyl Amine All 100/35 --- 120/45 --- 120/45 ------Isopropyl Myristate All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 ------Isopropyl Palmitate All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 180/80 --- 150/65 --- Itaconic Acid All 120/45 125/50 120/45 125/50 125/50 80/25 ------95/35 J Jet Fuel --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 175/80 140/60 --- 175/80 Jojoba Oil 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 140/60 --- 180/80 K Kerosene 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 175/80 140/60 150/65 175/80 L Lactic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 220/105 210/100 140/60 130/55 150/65 200/90 Latex All 120/45 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 120/45 ------120/45 Lauric Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 180/80 ------180/80 Lauryl Alcohol 100 150/65 160/70 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Lauryl Mercaptan All --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------Lead Acetate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 140/60 110/40 150/65 160/70 Lead Chloride All --- 200/90 220/105 210/100 210/100 140/60 110/40 --- 200/90 Lead Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 140/60 110/40 --- 200/90 Levulinic Acid All 210/100 200/90 220/105 210/100 210/100 140/60 ------200/90 Lime Slurry All 180/80 --- 170/75 180/80 210/100 170/75 160/70 80/25 NR Linseed Oil All 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 220/105 180/80 160/70 150/65 200/90 Lithium Bromide All 210/100 200/90 220/105 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Lithium Carbonate All ------150/65 ------Lithium Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 180/80 170/75 150/65 --- Lithium Sulfate All 210/100 --- 210/100 210/100 210/100 --- 150/65 ------M Magnesium Bicarbonate All 180/80 170/75 180/80 170/75 210/100 130/55 130/55 ------Magnesium Bisulfite All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 130/55 --- 180/80 Magnesium Carbonate 15 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 130/55 130/55 --- 180/80 Magnesium Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 140/60 140/60 150/65 210/100 Magnesium Hydroxide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 130/55 150/65 80/25 NR
37
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Magnesium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 220/105 210/100 210/100 175/80 150/65 150/65 200/90 Magnesium Silica Fluoride 37.5 --- 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 ------140/60 Maleic Acid All --- 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 140/60 --- 200/90 Maleic Anhydride 100 --- 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 140/60 80/25 --- Manganese Chloride All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 140/60 130/55 ------Manganese Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 220/105 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 --- 150/65 Mercuric Chloride All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Mercurous Chloride All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 170/75 150/65 150/65 210/100 Mercury --- 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Methyl Alcohol (Methanol) 100 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 NR 80/25 Methyl Bromide (Gas) 10 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Methyl Ethyl Ketone All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Methyl Methacrylate All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Methyl Styrene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Methyl Tertiarybutyl Ether(MTBE) All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 --- 180/80 Methylene Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Milk and Milk Products All 210/100 ------200/90 210/100 100/35 100/35 150/65 100/35 Mineral Oils 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 80/25 Molasses and Invert Molasses All --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 80/25 80/25 ------Molybdenum Disulfide All 200/90 ------Molybdic Acid 25 --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 ------Monochloroacetic Acid 80 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Monochlorobenzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Monoethanolamine 100 NR NR 80/25 NR NR NR NR --- NR Monomethylhydrazine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Morpholine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Motor Oil 100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 210/100 140/60 170/75 ------Mustard All 210/100 ------210/100 --- 175/80 140/60 ------Myristic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 ------N Naphtha, Aliphatic 100 180/80 150/65 200/90 180/80 150/65 130/55 110/40 --- 180/80 Naphtha, Aromatic 100 --- 110/40 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Naphthalene All 180/80 --- 200/90 200/90 220/105 130/55 130/55 150/65 --- Nickel Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 180/80 140/60 150/65 180/80 Nickel Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 180/80 140/60 150/65 180/80 Nickel Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 180/80 140/60 150/65 180/80 Nicotinic Acid (Niacin) All --- 110/40 --- 110/40 --- 80/25 80/25 --- 110/40 2 --- 200/90 180/80 210/100 --- 150/65 150/65 NR 180/80 5 175/80 175/80 150/65 175/80 170/75 150/65 150/65 NR 180/80 Nitric Acid 35 120/45 --- 110/40 --- 140/60 NR NR NR 140/60 Fumes 180/80 ------120/45 120/45 NR 180/80 Nitrobenzene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Nitrogen Tetroxide 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR O Octylamine, Tertiary 100 --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 100/35 80/25 ------Oil, Sweet or Sour Crude 100 210/100 200/90 180/80 210/100 210/100 175/80 140/60 --- 175/80 Oleic Acid All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 175/80 140/60 150/65 200/90 Oleum (Fuming Sulfuric Acid) --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Olive Oil 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 ---
38
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Orange Oil (limonene) 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 220/105 175/80 170/75 ------Organic Detergents, pH<12 All 140/60 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 100/35 100/35 NR --- Oxalic Acid 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 150/65 210/100 Ozone (< 4 ppm in water phase) --- 80/25 80/25 --- 80/25 80/25 ------80/25 (See Special Applications) P Palm Oil 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 220/105 175/80 170/75 --- 175/80 Palmitic Acid 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 --- Paper Mill Effluent (typical) 100 --- 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 NR NR 150/65 NR Pentasodium Tripoly Phosphate 10 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 ------Perchloroethylene 100 100/35 110/40 110/40 110/40 100/35 80/25 NR NR 110/40 10 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 NR NR NR 80/25 Perchloric Acid 30 100/35 --- 100 100/35 100/35 NR NR NR --- 5 NR NR NR 110/40 80/25 NR NR NR 110/40 Phenol (Carbolic Acid) >5 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 100/35 Phenol Formaldehyde Resin All 100/35 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 80/25 80/25 ------Phosphoric Acid 80 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 140/60 80/25 210/100 Phosphoric Acid Vapor & --- 210/100 180/80 220/105 190/85 190/85 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Condensate Phosphorous Trichloride --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Phthalic Acid 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 --- Phthalic Anhydride 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 210/100 Picric Acid (Alcoholic) 10 --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 80/25 NR NR 100 Pine Oil 100 --- 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 NR NR ------Pine Oil Disinfectant All --- 120/45 --- 120/45 120/45 NR NR ------Piperazine Monohydrochloride ------110/40 --- 110/40 110/40 ------Plating Solutions --- (See Special Applications) Cadmium Cyanide 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 ------Chrome 120 120/45 130/55 130/55 130/55 130/55 80/25 NR --- 200/90 Gold ------200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 --- 200/90 Lead ------200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 --- 200/90 Nickel ------200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 --- 200/90 Platinum ------180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 80/25 80/25 --- 200/90 Silver ------200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 ------200/90 Tin Fluoborate ------200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 --- 200/90 Zinc Fluoborate ------200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 --- 180/80 Polyphosphoric Acid (115%) --- 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 140/60 --- 180/80 Polyvinyl Acetate Adhesive All --- 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion All 120/45 150/65 140/60 150/65 140/60 120/45 120/45 80/25 120/45 Polyvinyl Alcohol All 120/45 150/65 120/45 150/65 150/65 80/25 80/25 --- 80/25 Potassium Aluminum Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 220/105 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Potassium Amyl Xanthate 5 --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 ------150/65 10 150/65 160/70 150/65 160/70 170/75 80/25 80/25 --- 80/25 Potassium Bicarbonate 50 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 140/60 80/25 80/25 --- 80/25 Potassium Bromide All 210/100 200/90 --- 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 10 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 180/80 80/25 80/25 NR 110/40 Potassium Carbonate 50 140/60 110/40 100/35 110/40 140/60 NR 110/40 NR 110/40 Potassium Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 210/100 Potassium Dichromate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 210/100 NR 200/90
39
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Potassium Ferricyanide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 130/55 210/100 150/65 200/90 Potassium Ferrocyanide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 130/55 150/65 200/90 10 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 NR NR --- NR Potassium Hydroxide 25 110/40 110/40 110/40 140/60 110/40 NR NR --- NR Potassium Iodide All --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 ------Potassium Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Potassium Permanganate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 80/25 NR 150/65 Potassium Persulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 140/60 NR 200/90 Potassium Pyrophosphate 60 --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------150/65 Potassium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 20 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 ------Propionic Acid 50 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Propylene Glycol All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 150/65 180/80 i-Propyl Palmitate All --- 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------150/65 --- Pyridine 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Q Quaternary Ammonium Salts All --- 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 120/45 ------80/25 R Radioactive Materials, solids ------(See Special Applications) Rayon Spin Bath ------150/65 140/60 140/60 140/60 NR NR --- 180/80 S Salicylic Acid All 140/60 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 140/60 --- 200/90 Sea Water --- 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 --- 180/80 Sebacic Acid All 210/100 --- 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------200/90 Selenious Acid All 210/100 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 ------200/90 Silicic Acid (hydrated silica) All 220/105 --- 200/90 --- 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Silver Cyanide All 200/90 200/90 200/90 210/100 200/90 140/60 140/60 --- 200/90 Silver Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Acetate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Alkyl Aryl Sulfonates All --- 200/90 180/80 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 --- 120/45 Sodium Aluminate All 120/45 150/65 120/45 150/65 150/65 140/60 ------NR Sodium Benzoate All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 170/75 170/75 150/65 180/80 Sodium Bicarbonate All 180/80 180/80 150/65 180/80 210/100 100/35 100/35 120/45 140/60 Sodium Bichromate 100 210/100 ------210/100 220/105 140/60 140/60 NR 200/90 Sodium Bifluoride 100 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------120/45 Sodium Bisulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Bisulfite All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 80/25 170/75 Sodium Borate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 150/65 170/75 Sodium Bromate 5 --- 110/40 110/40 110/40 110/40 ------100/100 Sodium Bromide All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 10 180/80 180/80 150/65 180/80 180/80 NR NR NR 80/25 Sodium Carbonate (Soda Ash) 35 160/70 160/70 --- 160/70 160/70 NR NR NR NR Sodium Chlorate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 NR NR --- 175/80 (See Selected Applications Sodium Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 130/55 130/55 NR 200/90 Sodium Chlorite 10 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 160/70 NR NR NR 160/70 Sodium Chromate 50 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------180/80 5 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 140/60 80/25 --- 200/90 Sodium Cyanide 15 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 --- 80/25 ------150/65
40
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Sodium Dichromate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 140/60 140/60 NR 200/90 Sodium Diphosphate 100 210/100 180/80 200/90 200/90 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Dodecyl Benzene All --- 200/90 --- 210/100 210/100 ------120/45 Sulfonate Sodium Ethyl Xanthate 5 --- 150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 140/60 140/60 ------Sodium Ferricyanide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 210/100 150/65 200/90 Sodium Ferrocyanide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Fluoride All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 80/25 80/25 NR 180/80 Sodium Fluorosilicate All 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------Sodium Hexametaphosphate 10 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 ------Sodium Hydrosulfide 20 160/70 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------160/70 1 150/65 200/90 140/60 210/100 210/100 NR NR NR --- 5 150/65 150/65 140/60 150/65 160/70 NR NR NR --- Sodium Hydroxide 10 150/65 150/65 140/60 150/65 160/70 NR NR NR NR 25 150/65 150/65 140/60 160/70 160/70 NR NR NR NR 50 200/90 200/90 --- 210/100 210/100 NR NR NR NR Sodium Hypochloride 15 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 125/50 NR NR NR NR Sodium Hyposulfite 20 ------200/90 210/100 170/75 170/75 --- 150/65 Sodium Lauryl Sulfate All 180/80 160/70 160/70 160/70 200/90 ------Sodium Monophosphate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 --- Sodium Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Nitrite All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sodium Oxalate All 180/80 180/80 200/90 200/90 200/90 ------Sodium Persulfate 20 --- 200/90 --- 210/100 ------Sodium Polyacrylate All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 ------Sodium Silicate, pH <12 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 NR NR Sodium Silicate, pH >12 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 200/90 NR NR NR NR Sodium Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 180/80 170/75 150/65 80/25 Sodium Sulfide All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 80/25 80/25 NR 140/60 Sodium Sulfite All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 80/25 170/75 NR 200/90 Sodium Tetraborate All 200/90 170/75 170/75 170/75 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 170/75 Sodium Tetrabromide All --- 160/70 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Sodium Thiocyanate 57 180/80 --- 180/80 --- 180/80 140/60 140/60 ------Sodium Thiosulfate All 180/80 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 140/60 ------Sodium Triphosphate All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 80/25 125/50 Sodium Xylene Sulfonate 40 --- 200/90 210/100 210/100 --- 140/60 80/25 NR 150/65 Sorbitol All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 175/80 170/75 150/65 --- Soybean Oil All 210/100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 170/75 170/75 --- 200/90 Soy Sauce All ------110/40 --- 80/25 ------NR Spearmint Oil All --- 150/65 150/65 150/65 --- 80/25 ------Stannic Chloride All 210/100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 170/75 170/75 80/25 80/25 Stannous Chloride All 210/100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Stearic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 Styrene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Styrene Acrylic Emulsion All 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------80/25 Styrene Butadiene Latex All 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 120/45 ------80/25 Succinonitrile, Aqueous All 100/35 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 80/25 ------Sucrose All 210/100 190/85 210/100 190/85 210/100 140/60 140/60 --- 200/90 10 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 --- 200/90 Sulfamic Acid 25 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 110/40 110/40 --- 160/70 Sulfanilic Acid All --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 80/25 ------160/70 Sulfite/Sulfate Liquors (pulp mill) --- 200/90 200/90 180/80 210/100 210/100 140/60 NR 150/65 NR
41
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Sulfonated Animal Fats 100 --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 140/60 --- NR 180/80 Sulfonyl Chloride, Aromatic --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Sulfur Dichloride --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Sulfur DioxideH (dry or wet gas) 5 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 170/75 140/60 NR 200/90 (See Selected Applications) Sulfur, Molten ------150/65 --- 220/105 220/105 ------150/65 Sulfur Trioxide Gas (dry) trace 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 220/105 NR NR NR 200/90 (See Selected Applications) 0-25 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 120/45 200/90 50 180/80 200/90 180/80 210/100 200/90 160/70 140/60 NR 200/90 70 180/80 190/85 160/70 170/75 180/80 NR NR NR 190/85 Sulfuric Acid 75 120/45 110/40 100/35 110/40 110/40 NR NR --- 175/80 93 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Dry Fumes 210/100 200/90 200/90 200/90 200/90 175/80 170/75 150/65 200/90 Sulfuric Acid/Ferrous Sulfate 10/Sat'd --- 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 ------200/90 Sulfuric Acid/Phosphoric Acid 10/20 --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------200/90 Sulfuryl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Superphosphoric Acid 100 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 140/60 120/45 --- 200/90 (105% H3PO4) T Tall Oil All 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 150/65 140/60 140/60 --- 150/65 Tannic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Tartaric Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 150/65 200/90 Tert-Amylmethyl Ether(TAME) All 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 180/80 170/75 170/75 --- 170/75 Tetrachloroethane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Tetrachloropentane 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Tetrachloropyridine --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Tetrapotassium Pyrophosphate 60 125/50 125/50 120/45 125/50 125/50 80/25 80/25 NR 80/25 Tetrasodium Ethylenediamine All --- 120/45 --- 120/45 ------80/25 Tetracetic Acid Salts Tetrasodium Ethylenediammine --- 120/45 ------120/45 120/45 80/25 ------Tetrasodium Pyrophosphate 5 125/50 125/50 120/45 125/50 150/65 -- 130/55 NR --- Tetrapotassium pyrophosphate 60 125/50 125/50 120/45 125/50 150/65 80/25 80/25 ------Textone7 ------200/90 --- 210/100 --- 140/60 80/25 ------Thioglycolic Acid 10 100/35 120/45 --- 120/45 140/60 80/25 80/25 ------Thionyl Chloride 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Tobias Acid (2-Naphthylamine ------180/80 200/90 210/100 210/100 ------Sulfonic Acid) Toluene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Toluene Di-isocyanate (TDI) Fumes 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 80/25 --- NR 80/25 Toluene Sulfonic Acid All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 --- 100/35 --- 100/35 Transformer Oils 100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 140/60 --- 175/80 Tributyl Phosphate 100 --- 140/60 120/45 140/60 140/60 ------Trichloroacetaldehyde 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Trichloroacetic Acid 50 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 80/25 80/25 NR --- Trichloroethane 100 --- NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Trichlorophenol 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR --- NR Tridecylbenzene All --- 200/90 --- 210/100 ------Tridecylbenzene Sulfonate All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 210/100 140/60 ------120/45 Triethanolamine All --- 150/65 120/45 150/65 --- 120/45 110/40 ------
42
Additional Reference Sources
Suggested Temperature Limit, °F/ °C
Vinyl Ester Bisphenol Fumarate Terephthalic Isophthalic Chlorendic % ® Chemical Environment DION Concentration 9100 DION® ® DION® DION® DION® DION® DION IMPACT DION® 382 DION® 490 DION® 797 9800 6694 6631 6246 9102 9400 DION® 9300 Triethanolamine Lauryl Sulfate All --- 110/40 --- 110/40 --- 80/25 ------Triethylamine All --- 125/50 120/45 125/50 --- 80/25 ------Triethylene Glycol 100 --- 180/80 180/80 180/80 ------Trimethylamine Chlorobromide --- NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Trimethylamine Hydrochloride All 130/55 130/55 --- 130/55 130/55 NR 100/35 150/65 --- Triphenyl Phosphite All ------100/35 NR NR NR --- Tripropylene Glycol 100 --- 180/80 --- 180/80 ------Trisodium Phosphate 50 175/80 175/80 190/85 175/80 175/80 140/60 120/45 NR --- Turpentine ------150/65 --- 150/65 150/65 80/25 NR NR --- U Uranium Extraction (See Selected ------180/80 --- 180/80 ------NR Applications) Urea All 150/65 150/65 150/65 170/75 150/65 80/25 120/45 80/25 --- V Vegetable Oils All 210/100 200/90 210/100 200/90 220/105 170/75 170/75 --- 170/75 Vinegar All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 150/65 150/65 150/65 200/90 Vinyl Acetate All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------Vinyl Toluene 100 NR NR NR NR NR NR NR ------W Water, Deionized (see Selected All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 200/90 175/80 170/75 ------Applications) Water, Distilled (See Selected All 210/100 200/90 200/90 210/100 200/90 175/80 170/75 ------Applications) Water, Sea --- 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 210/100 175/80 170/75 --- 180/80 Whiskey All ------110/40 ------White Liquor (pulp mill) (See All 180/80 180/80 180/80 200/90 --- NR NR --- NR notes) Wine4 All ------110/40 --- 80/25 80/25 ------X Xylene All NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR NR Z Zeolite All --- 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 ------Zinc Chlorate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 --- 200/90 Zinc Chloride All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 210/100 170/75 170/75 --- 200/90 Zinc Cyanide All ------160/70 180/80 180/80 ------Zinc Nitrate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 --- 200/90 Zinc Sulfate All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 175/80 170/75 --- 200/90 Zinc Sulfite All 210/100 200/90 210/100 210/100 220/105 170/75 170/75 ------
43
ASTM Reinforced Plastic Related Standards
Calculating stress in plastic pipe under internal ANSI/ ASTM E 84 Surface burning characteristics of building materials ASTM D 2153 pressure Testing rigid sheet and plate materials used in Apparent tensile strength of ring or tubular plastics by ASTM D 229 ASTM D 2290 electrical insulation split disk method Impact resistance of plastic and electrical insulating Classification for machine-made reinforced ASTM D 256 ASTM D 2310 materials thermosetting resin pipe Standard definition of terms relating to plastic piping Underground installation of flexible thermoplastic ASTM F 412 ANSI/ ASTM D 2321 systems sewer pipe Tensile properties of glass fiber strands, yarns, and ANSI/ ASTM D 445 Kinematic viscosity of transparent and opaque liquids ASTM D 2343 roving used in reinforced plastics Apparent horizontal shear strength of reinforced ASTM D 543 Resistance of plastics to chemical reagents ASTM D 2344 plastics by short beam method External loading properties of plastic pipe by parallel- ANSI/ ASTM D 570 Water absorption of plastics ASTM D 2412 plate loading ASTM D 579 Woven glass fabrics ANSI/ ASTM D 2487 Classification of soils for engineering purposes Chemical resistance of thermosetting resins used in Reinforced thermosetting plastic gas pressure pipe ASTM C 581 ASTM D 2517 glass fiber-reinforced structures and fittings Conditioning plastics and electrical insulating Classifying visual defects in glass-reinforced plastic ASTM D 618 ANSI/ ASTM D 2563 materials for testing laminate parts Indentation hardness of plastics by means of a Barcol ASTM D 621 Deformation of plastics under load ASTM D 2583 Impressor Rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning of ANSI/ ASTM D 635 ASTM D 2584 Ignition loss of cured reinforced resins self-supporting plastics in a horizontal position Preparation and tension testing of filament-wound ANSI/ ASTM D 638 Tensile properties of plastics ASTM D 2585 pressure vessels Hydrostatic compressive strength of glass reinforced ASTM D 648 Deflection temperature of plastics under flexural load ASTM D 2586 plastics cylinders Flexural fatigue of plastics by constant-amplitude-of- Interlaminar shear strength of structural reinforced ASTM D 671 ASTM D 2733 force plastics at elevated temperatures Long-time creep or stress-relation test of plastics Underground installation of thermoplastic pressure ASTM D 674 under tension or compression loads at different ASTM D 2774 piping temperatures ANSI/ ASTM D 695 Compressive properties of rigid plastics ASTM D 2924 Test for external pressure resistance of plastic pipe Beam deflection of reinforced thermoset plastic pipe ASTM D 696 Coefficient of linear thermal expansion of plastics ASTM D 2925 under full bore flow ASTM D 747 Stiffness of plastics by means of cantilever beam ASTM D 2990 Tensile and compressive creep rupture of plastics Determining the physical properties of plastics at ASTM D 759 ASTM D 2991 Stress relaxation of plastics subnormal and supernormal temperatures Rockwell harness of plastics and electrical insulating Obtaining hydrostatic design basis for reinforced ASTM D 785 ASTM D 2992 materials thermosetting resin pipe Specification for filament-wound reinforced ASTM D 790 Flexural properties of plastics ASTM D 2996 thermosetting resin pipe Specific gravity and density of plastics by Specification for centrifugally cast reinforced ASTM D 792 ASTM D 2997 displacement thermosetting resin pipe ASTM D 883 Definition of terms relating to plastics ANSI/ ASTM D 3262 Reinforced plastic mortar sewer pipe Classification of soil-aggregate mixtures for highway ASTM D 1045 Sampling and testing plasticizers used in plastics ASTM D 3282 construction purposes Filament-wound glass fiber-reinforced polyester ASTM D 1180 Bursting strength of round rigid plastic tubing ASTM D 3299 chemical-resistant tanks Viscosity of paints, varnishes and lacquers by the Specification for reinforced plastic mortar pressure ANSI/ ASTM D 1200 ASTM D 3517 Ford viscosity cup pipe Fine-to-failure of plastic pipe under constant internal Determining dimensions of reinforced thermosetting ANSI/ ASTM D 1598 ASTM D 3567 pressure resin pipe and fittings Short-time rupture strength of plastic pipe, tubing, and Test for chemical resistance of thermoset molded ASTM D 1599 ASTM D 3615 fittings compounds used in manufacture Chemical resistance of reinforced thermosetting resin ASTM D 1600 Abbreviation of terms related to plastics ASTM D 3681 pipe in the deflected condition ASTM D 1694 Threads of reinforced thermoset resin pipe ASTM D 3753 Glass fiber-reinforced polyester manholes Longitudinal tensile properties of reinforced Specification for reinforced plastic mortar sewer and ASTM D 2105 ASTM D 3754 thermosetting plastic pipe and tube industrial pressure pipe Determining dimensions of thermoplastic pipe and Recommended practice for underground installation ANSI/ ASTM D 2122 ASTM D 3839 fittings of flexible RTRP and RTMP Cyclic pressure strength of reinforced thermosetting Specification for RP mortar pipe fittings for non- ASTM D 2143 ASTM D 3840 plastic pipe pressure applications Specification for woven roving glass fiber for polyester Specification for contact molded glass fiber-reinforced ASTM D 2150 ASTM D 4097 glass laminates thermoset resin chemical-resistant tanks ASTM – The American Society for Testing and Materials ANSI = The American National Standards Institute
44
Revision: 01.16.2012 (precedes 06.27.2011)