A Global Forum

ContentsContents THEME:THEME: Heirs ofTransitions the Reformation HeirsEditorial of the Reformationpage 291 EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 41, NO 4, October 2017 EVANGELICAL REVIEW OF THEOLOGY VOLUME 39, NO 3, July 2015 General Revelation MakesEmilio Cross-Cultural Antonio núñ ECommunicationz Possible page 196 Gordon r. Lewis The Mandate of Asian pageAmerican 292 Evangelical Theology Amos Yong ‘Moving beyond’ Scripturepage 204to Theology – Towards a ‘mere evangelical’ account A Trinitarian Doctrine of Christian Vocation MichaeL Borowski scott HArrowEr pagepage 308218 JonathanLaudato Edwards, Si: An Slavery, Evangelical and AfricaResponse Missions wTAYiMnoET hyAl AT.n nD.E LtzliMEr pagepage 321229 What’sThe in aRole Name? of Divine Should Healing All Followers in Cross-Cultural of Jesus Call Ministry Themselves richard hiBBerT, G. Geoffrey‘Christians’? harper and eveLyn hiBBerT EDitED bpageY l.D 339 wAtErmAn page 243 For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings Articles and book reviews reflecting UnDErstAnDing AnD EvAlUAtingin Africa tHE PArticiPAtion of frAncoPHonE A Global Forum AfricAns in worlD mission: congolEsE working in bUrUnDi bY foHlE kLaus fiedLer global evangelical theology for the purpose lYgUnDA li-m pagepage 355255 of discerning the obedience of faith ‘Discerning the ObedienceReviews of Faith’: A history of the WEA Theologicalpage Commission369 AnnualD AIndexviD P AVolumerkEr 41 pagepage 385271 Book Reviews page 280

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VolumeVolume 41 39 No. No. 4 3 October July 2015 2017

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ERT cover 39-3.indd 1 21/05/2015 14:04 ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Atonement as Gift: Re-Imagining the Cross for the Church Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. Box 4, Cedarville, and the World OH 45314, USA. Katie M. Heffelfinger and Patrick G. McGlinchey (eds) It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: [email protected], Web: This volume grows out of the conviction that the central Christian doctrine of the atone- www.atla.com/ ment has wide reaching, life-giving, and practical implications for some of the deepest MICROFORM pastoral and theological questions individuals and communities face today. It asks the question, what difference does the atonement make for ecumenics, pastoral care, theodicy, This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 gender, ecology, and social division? The answers given by experts in their fields point to the considerable potential of the doctrine to renew Christian theology and spirituality. Subscriptions 2017 What a marvelous collection! It covers a wondrously wide set of issues. Each chapter made me *Sterling rates do not apply to USA and Canada subscriptions. Please see below for further information. think. One has to work quickly when writing a blurb for a book, but when this volume comes out, I Institutions and Libraries Individuals shall want to read it again slowly. John Goldingay, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California Period UK Elsewhere UK Elsewhere Atonement as Gift is a treasure that combines sound scholarship with faithful practices for Overseas* Overseas* contemporary communities. This volume will benefit people who seek an introductory understanding as

One Year: well as those who desire to delve deeply into the topic. hard copy £81.00 £88.00 £48.00 £52.00 Michael S. Koppel, Wesley Theological Seminary, USA electronic version £81.00 £88.00 £48.00 £52.00 Katie M. Heffelfinger and Patrick G. McGlinchey are Lecturers at the Church of Ire- joint subscription £97.00 £104.00 £56.00 £60.00 land Theological Institute Two/Three Years, ISBN 9781842278161 (e.9781842278628) / 250pp / 216x140mm / £11.99 per year hard copy £74.00 £79.00 £43.00 £46.00 electronic version £74.00 £79.00 £43.00 £46.00 Job’s Way Through Pain joint subscription £88.00 £94.00 £52.00 £56.00 Karma, Clichés & Questions All USA and Canada subscriptions to: Paul Hedley Jones EBSCO Subscription Services, P.O. Box 1493, Birmingham, AL 35201-1943, USA All UK and International subscriptions to: This book offers guidance to sufferers by identifying three stages in Job’s way through Paternoster Periodicals, c/o AlphaGraphics, 3.2 Clarendon Park, Nottingham, NG5 1AH, UK pain. In the opening scenes, Job is forced to come to terms with the reality that people do Tel: UK 0800 597 5980; Fax: 0115 704 3327 not always get what they deserve in life (karma). He is then bombarded with the one-size- Tel Overseas: +44 (0)115 704 3315; Fax: +44 (0)115 704 3327 fits-all solutions of his friends, who reduce life’s complexities to clichés. Finding these Email [email protected] unsatisfactory, Job presses on with his own remarkably bold questions until God finally Subscriptions can be ordered online at: responds to him from the whirlwind. The conversation that ensues leaves Job transformed, www.paternosterperiodicals.co.uk (Non USA and Canada subscriptions only) Special Offer though not in any way he could have anticipated. All orders placed via our websites will receive a 5% discount off the total price. In this engaging study Paul Jones offers a fine example of holding together pastoral insight and Rates displayed on the websites will reflect this discount scholarly attentiveness. This is a study that will help careful readers of Job to think more deeply and reflectively: about God; about life with God; and in particular about letting Job accompany them on a Important Note to all Postal Subscribers journey through pain and towards restoration. When contacting our Subscription Office in Nottingham for any reason Richard Briggs, Cranmer Hall, St John’s College, Durham always quote your Subscription Reference Number. Paul Hedley Jones combines his scholarly and pastoral sensibilities to provide insight from the book of Job on our pain and suffering. Photocopying Licensing Tremper Longman III, Westmont College, USA No part of the material in this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Paul Hedley Jones is an Australian author, teacher and musician, and currently a doc- transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, record- ing or otherwise without the prior permission of Paternoster Periodicals, except where a toral student, working under Professor R.W.L. Moberly, at Durham University, UK. licence is held to make photocopies. ISBN 9781842278222 (e.9781842278611) / 120pp / 216x140mm / £12.99 Applications for such licences should be made to the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] It is illegal to take multiple copies of copyright material. Evangelical Review of Theology A Global Forum

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

Volume 41 • Number 4 • October 2017

Published by

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for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 41 No. 4 October 2017

General Editor Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany Executive Editor Dr David Parker, Australia Assistant Editor Thomas K. Johnson, Czech Republic Book Review Editor Michael Borowski, Germany

Committee Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Germany, Executive Chair Dr James O. Nkansah, Kenya, Vice-Chair Dr Rosalee V. Ewell, Brasil, Executive Director

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor Dr Thomas Schirrmacher, Friedrichstrasse 38, 53111 Bonn, Germany.

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] http://www.worldea.org/tc

Printed and bound in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals by AlphaGraphics, 8-9 Vanguard Court, Preston Farm, Stockton-on-Tees, TS18 3TR ERT (2017) 41:4, 291 Editorial: Transition

As we come to the end of another vol- apart from a short break, 2009-2010, ume, we begin a transition to a new after which the editorial work (and the year. TC) operated on a somewhat differ- Our articles mark a transition also, ent basis from previously. My editorial moving from first principles to applica- work also involved production of WEA tion. First, there is a legacy article from Theological News, a task which has also Gordon R. Lewis (USA) on general rev- continued up to the present. Alongside elation, followed by Michael Borowski this work, I also became Administra- (Germany) with further reflections tor and then Executive Director of the on ‘moving beyond’ from Scripture to Commission. theology, both dealing with fundamen- There have been many changes tal issues of theology and method. along the way, both for the TC and its Then we turn to practical application. publications, as well as for the evan- Timothy Lim (Singapore) gives careful gelical world in general. I am pleased evaluation of an important recent papal to have been involved with ERT in encyclical on the environment. This is particular because of its unique role followed by Richard Hibbert and col- and positioning. This is perhaps best leagues (Australia) on divine healing summed up in its original slogan which in a cross-cultural setting. Finally, we said its articles were aimed at helping turn to Klaus Fiedler (Malawi) who readers in ‘discerning the obedience of deals with a pressing practical matter faith’—an academically rigorous jour- in Africa: wedding practices, and what nal but not competing with specialist they mean for Christian witness. disciplinary publications because of its There is another transition as well. focus on showing how good theology This is my last issue as editor. I now impacts Christian life and witness. The hand over to Dr Bruce Barron of Bethel journal is also broadly evangelical, not Park, PA, USA. Dr Barron, (PhD, Uni- ‘sectarian’, and ‘a global forum’ (as the versity of Pittsburgh), who has been current slogan states), aimed at and working with me for several months drawing upon the entire oikoumene, not now. He is a meticulous and widely any particular country, region or insti- experienced editor and author, and will tution. bring his own stamp to this journal. It has been a long journey since I It remains only for me now to thank first became involved with the WEF (as very sincerely all those who have been it was then) Theological Commission part of the team during my time—I at a highly significant consultation in think particularly of our typesetters, Singapore in 1986. I began my work copyeditor, publishers, and especially with this journal in 1994 as Book Re- the authors and most of all, you dear view Editor, assisting the founder, Dr reader, and to wish my successor well. Bruce Nicholls. I took over as Editor Thomas Schirrmacher, General Editor in 1998 and have continued ever since, David Parker, Executive Editor ERT (2017) 41:4, 292-307 General Revelation Makes Cross- Cultural Communication Possible

Gordon R. Lewis

Christian missions in the Orient had missiological, biblical, and theological diminished effectiveness, observed materials. Lit-sen Chang, when dependent upon Not all missiologists affirm a divine either general or special revelation revelation to all everywhere. Hendrik exclusively. On the one hand, liberals Kraemer represents those who follow failed because they so identified with Christomonistic theologian Karl Barth the natural theology of the people that in denying the contributions of gen- they did not adequately present the dis- eral revelation and natural theology. tinctive gospel of Christ. On the other Kraemer explained that Karl Barth ad- hand, pietistic fundamentalists failed mitted points of contact between God because they so emphasized the gos- and man ‘because the fact that faith in pel that they ignored the cross-cultural God’s revelation occurs pre-supposes points of contact provided by general that it can be communicated to man revelation;1 a more effective theology and apprehended by him as revelation of missions than either encompasses coming from God’. Nevertheless, with both God’s universal and particular fierce emphasis Barth’s assumption revelations. of an infinite qualitative distinction For present purposes, however, I between God and man led him to as- emphasize general revelation and its sert that ‘There is no point of contact’. relationship to cross-cultural commu- Kramer explains, nication whatever the culture or lan- … The sole agent of real faith in guage in use. I seek also to integrate Christ is the Holy Spirit. … Intent some contributions of philosophical, on maintaining integrally the unique character of the Christian revelation as God’s sovereign condescending 1 Lit-sen Chang, Strategy of Missions in the Orient: Christian Impact on the Pagan World act, what it says is that there are no (Phillipsburg, NJ: Presbyterian and Reformed, bridges from human religious con- 1970), 105. sciousness to the reality in Christ,

This article was originally published in our issue, Vol 24:2 April 2000. At the time, the author, Gordon R. Lewis (1926-2016), who had served as a member of the World Evangelical Fellowship Theological Commis- sion, was a Senior Professor of Theology and Philosophy at Denver Seminary, Colorado, USA. He was a faculty member of this school from 1958 to 1993. Dr Lewis held a PhD from Syracuse University and was co-author of the 3 volume Integrative Theology (Zondervan, 1987-1994)) and Testing Christianity’s Truth Claims (Moody, 1976). General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 293

and that it is exclusively God’s his prohibitions upon the use of com- grace and no human contribution mon ground in apologetics or missions or disposition whatever that effects conflict with Paul’s use of the teaching ‘the falling of the scales from the in Romans 1 and 2 and when minister- eyes’.2 ing as the apostle to Gentiles (pagans) Kraemer’s Barthian missiology val- at Athens and elsewhere.6 After sur- idly underlines the uniqueness of sal- veying numerous alternative theologi- vation through Christ, but unjustifiably cal perspectives, and exegetinrelevant denies a general revelation and a natu- biblical evidence, Bruce Demarest and ral theology by common grace. The I developed a doctrine of general rev- Holy Spirit has chosen to work univer- elation in volume one of Integrative sally through means such as physical Theology with some of its missiological and moral laws. Although salvation is relevance.7 We conclude as did Robert Christomonistic, revelation is given, Webber elsewhere that not only in Christ, but also in nature God created the world with which (Rom 1:20) and the human heart (Rom He is in relationship. The world 2:14). Barth does not succeed exegeti- reflects the Creator (yet is not an cally in overriding Romans chapters 1 extension of Him) and therefore and 2 on the consideration that they communication is central. God’s are not Paul’s primary teaching on communication of Himself to the salvific experience. In his Commentary world is through nature as well as on Romans while trying to be free from in time, space and history. This es- philosophical presuppositions, Barth tablishes the principle that creation astonishingly interprets Romans 1:20 in a self-contradictory manner. The is a worthy vehicle through which 8 passage says, ‘For since the creation of God can be communicated. the world God’s invisible qualities—his What makes cross-cultural commu- eternal power and divine nature—have nication possible is the universal illu- been clearly seen, being understood mination of the human heart and mind from what has been made’.3 Barth com- to the truths of general revelation by ments, ‘And what does this mean but that we can know nothing of God … ?’4 Although Cornelius Van Til also de- the Philosophy and Apologetics of Cornelius Van Til (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed, nies common ground ‘in principle’, he 1970), 349–368. admits it in fact, but does not want mis- 6 G.R. Lewis, Testing Christianity’s Truth 5 sionary apologists to use it. However, Claims: Approaches to Christian Apologetics (Chicago: Moody, 1976), 125–150, and ‘Gos- pel on Campus: An Expository Study of Acts 2 Henrik Kraemer, The Christian Message in 17’, Parts 1–4, His, (October-December, 1966, a Non-Christian World (New York: Harper and January 1977). Brothers, 1947), 131–132. 7 G.R. Lewis and B.A. Demarest, Integrative 3 Scripture quotations are from the NIV. Theology (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987), 4 Karl Barth, The Epistle to the Romans (Lon- I:61–91. See also Bruce A. Demarest, General don: Oxford University Press, 1963), 47. Revelation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982). 5 G.R. Lewis, ‘Van Til and Carnell’, ed. Gee- 8 Robert E. Webber, God Still Speaks (Nash- han, Jerusalem and Athens: Critical Discussion of ville: Thomas Nelson, 1980), 81. 294 Gordon R. Lewis the Logos (John 1:1–3). Regardless of and research. Writers in philosophy the depth of the diversities of the lan- also magnify contrasts among histori- guages in use and the cultural mores, cal systems and contemporary existen- the one Creator made us to know and tialist, analytic, process, and theistic love him and our neighbours, and to ways of thinking and speaking. The rule the world as accountable stew- upshot of much of the philosophical ards. Our accountability for our stew- and missiological work focused on var- ardship of nature and our opportunities iables tends toward a conceptual rela- to serve others imply some conformity tivism and could proliferate in count- of the categories of our minds with less ethnocentric theologies and local those of the world and of our common ‘truths’. Both philosophers and mis- Creator. siologists need to emphasize also the I respect the anthropological ap- similarities of all humans qua humans proaches of Mayers and Hiebert, the in the imago Dei with some common hu- missiological emphases of Anderson man frames of reference or categories and Lubzetak, the communicational and common human moral values. emphases of Charles Kraft and David However, some philosophers and Hesselgrave, and the theological ap- missiologists appear to have given proach of Harvey Conn who seeks to up hope of ever arriving at the truth moderate ‘the angry dialogue between about ‘the facts’. They are like a medi- cultural anthropology and theology’.9 cal specialist who told me, ‘I used to To these approaches I urge adding axi- think that there were three sides in ological and epistemological approach- counselling a married couple: her side, es in preparing for communication from his side, and the truth. If I could only one world-view (weltanschauung) to an- discover the truth and tell them, that other. The epistemological-axiological would solve their problems. Now I do hypothesis concerning a universal rev- not think there is a third side, ‘the elation and illumination is proposed in truth’. Each has to forgive the other, part I. How it conforms to experience and that’s it. They wouldn’t accept the morally and intellectually is presented truth if they heard it’. in part II. The question of whether it From both philosophical and missio- involves redemptive analogies is con- logical fields it seems conclusive that sidered in part III. we are indeed related primarily to the one specific culture in which we were raised. I say culture-related rather I Globally Normative Truth than culture-bound because some rebel The culturally specific missiologists against their parents’ cultural influ- properly call attention to numerous dif- ences. Admittedly, however, some of ferences among the languages and mo- our knowledge is not only time-related, res in the contexts of their experience but time-bound and merely culture-specific. Some distinctive requirements for a specific cultural setting may not be 9 Harvie M. Conn, Eternal Word and Changing Worlds: Theology, Anthropology, and Mission normative for all times and all peoples. in Trialogue (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Acad- Some culturally specific knowledge, emie, 1984), 10. however, has significance for culture General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 295 after culture. And some known ethical extent that Niebuhr manages to avoid principles like justice are normative subjectivism and religious scepticism for all cultures and subcultures. Even he inconsistently appeals to universal the claims for an apparently total cul- principles of logic, evidence, and value. tural or philosophical relativism are Holding that all human understanding proposed as supportable with objective is language-dependent and socially validity to all others for belief. If it is determinate, he fails to explain how universally true that all human know- relative viewpoints are confirmed or ing is influenced by the standpoint of changed and how different speech the knower, then we can attain at least communities with different confes- one transcultural truth!10 sional faiths can communicate with The fact that all interpreters’ per- one another.11 spectives of nature are culturally in- Unless Niebuhr can recognize basic fluenced by changing historical situ- common categories of thought and be- ations, nevertheless, does not mean ing in the world and in persons created that we know nothing but our chang- to know and love God, to know and ing perspectives. Because reporters love each other and to rule the world, put a slant on the news does not mean he lacks a basis for cross-cultural com- that nothing happened which is dis- munication and progress in thought tinct from their slants or that we can among different communities of peo- reduce all-knowing merely to slanted ple. If God created the earth and image- opinions. Some reporters are better bearers to know it, to rule it, and to relate informed than others about what hap- to one another under God, changeable pened in another part of our world. and sinful though we are, we are not Humans as divine image-bearers have left to solipsistic relativisms or totally conceptual criteria for testing truth time-bound contextualizations. claims and critical methods of know- When judgmentally scrambling hu- ing that enable discerning people to man languages at Babel, God did not sift more reliable from less adequate destroy the basic common categories of interpretations. thought or values necessary to mean- Historian H. Richard Niebuhr’s ingful human existence on earth. Since works are properly concerned about Babel cross-cultural communication is the dangers of absolutizing the rela- more difficult, but not impossible. Even tive in history and in religion. But Nie- though fallen and judged, God’s image- buhr argues that his confessional faith bearers from East and West discover makes ‘reasonable sense of human similarities in human moral and intel- life and thought’ in terms of values, lectual capacities and categories. rather than a rational demonstration. Linguist Eugene Nida has explained That claim, however, appeals to some that although absolute communication objective, non-confessional meaning of what is reasonable and of value. To the 11 See my ‘The Niebuhr’s Relativism, Rela- tionalism, Contextualization, and Revelation’, 10 Gordon Lewis, ‘Relativism’, Evangelical Challenges to Inerrancy: A Theological Response, Dictionary of Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, ed. Gordon R. Lewis and Bruce A. Demarest 1984), 926–930. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1984), 155–156. 296 Gordon R. Lewis is not possible, effective communica- gans were wise critically to evaluate tion is possible between persons of dif- their own conduct by standards (not ferent cultures. He offers three reasons essentially different from the com- for this: ‘(1) the processes of human mandments of Moses). Because of the reasoning are essentially the same, ir- internal analogue of moral laws mak- respective of cultural diversity; (2) all ing claims upon them, the biblically people have a common range of experi- uninformed cannot escape divine judg- ence, and (3) all peoples possess the ment.13 If God universally and always capacity for at least some adjustment reveals basic moral values as Scripture to the symbolic “grids” of others.’12 and experience indicate, then, contrary Across whatever languages may be to Willard Van Orman Quine, all moral in use in any context, human reason- values do not differ with the language ing from experience is essentially the in use and cannot be reduced to dis- same and our ‘grids’ are compatible crete behavioural dispositions.14 because of divinely revealed transcul- If what Paul teaches is true, people tural categories and standards of truth everywhere independent of Moses’ ten and morality. These thought forms and commandments know that they ought norms make worthwhile the efforts at to value their Creator above all and cross-cultural personal relationships worship the Logos as distinct from any and make meaningful cross-cultural creature. Furthermore they know they communication and confirmation of ought not to murder, steal, commit truth claims. adultery, or bear false witness against If universally humans are account- one another, but to respect others’ able to the same Creator and Sustainer God-given inherent rights. Although for ethical norms (like justice) in their this truth may be suppressed, it re- relationships with each other, we must mains a basis of accountability for all be able to know some ‘oughts’ in spite persons in all cultures. of our finiteness, fallenness, and our Before communicating claims con- cultural and linguistic diversities. In- cerning Christ as Saviour to people of wardly known moral laws, like the other philosophies, religions, or cults, outwardly written law of Moses, make ordinarily we need to establish mean- human life and cross-cultural respect ingful relationships and help people and communication possible. The re- realize their moral need for the gos- quirements of God’s moral demands pel of grace. The conditions necessary are reflected in the behaviour of those to meaningful experience within and who did not have Moses’ formulation (Rom 2:14, 15). All non-Jews of any and every cul- 13 See Ernst Kasemann, Commentary on Ro- mans (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980), 63–65. ture (Gentiles) in concrete situations 14 See ‘Quine, Willard Van Orman’, Dictionary encounter the demands of the law of Philosophy and Religion Eastern and Western within. As self-conscious persons, pa- Thought, W.L. Reese (Atlantic Highlands, New Jersey: Humanities, 1980), 474–75; C.F. Pres- ley, ‘Quine, Willard Van Orman’, Encyclopedia 12 Eugene Nida, Message and Mission (New of Philosophy, ed. Paul Edwards (New York: York: Harper, 1960), 90. Macmillan, 1967), 53–55. General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 297 across cultures do not compromise the II An Analysis of Experience distinctiveness of the gospel message. Confirms Universal Norms They reveal our sinfulness and dem- If our Creator has implanted some men- onstrate our need for mercy and grace provided by the Messiah’s atonement. tal categories and moral standards in But the question persists. How? our natures, Edward John Carnell rea- How does general revelation make soned, we should be able to discover cross-cultural communication possi- them in our experience and make use ble? Answers to ‘how’ questions are of them in our cross-philosophical com- notoriously difficult, and mechanical, munication. Carnell sought to discover biological or physical explanations will divinely given principles by an analy- not be forthcoming. Rather, I suggest a sis. Analysis is not inductive or deduc- theological explanation. The Logos who tive inference from experience to some- created everything illumines the darkness thing outside it. Neither is analysis of our fallenness whenever humans learn simply a phenomenological description truth about a matter of fact or a princi- of culturally influenced experiences. ple of morality (John 1:3–5). Having Analysis is a reflective discrimination implanted in all humans capacities for of the various elements already present knowing conditions that make any mean- in our relationships with other people ingful relationships possible, God also which make distinctively human life illumines all people to these standards, meaningful. It is our own unique expe- making understanding and communica- rience that we analyse. And we simply tion possible within or across differences ask, ‘What, if anything, makes human of age, race, sex, world-view, or cultural experience meaningful?’16 expression. Are moral values too emotively In addition to a general revelation, explosive for productive cognitive depraved sinners need and receive evaluation across radically differ- a general illumination to attain any ent philosophical preunderstandings changeless truths about what hap- or long-standing cultural traditions? pens once-for-all or uniformly under Is it possible to consider with a high given conditions. Hence in Augustinian degree of philosophical fairness and fashion, teachers in the final analysis objectivity issues with such deep, po- are mere occasions for the teaching of larizing loyalties? Can we find a basis the divine Magistro. And knowledge for meaningful relationships, dialogue, learned from the divine Teacher is and evaluation? Difficult as it may be, God’s truth wherever it may be found.15 an analysis of meaningful relationships So, if all humans are dependent on God between persons of different religious and accountable to one God, some glo- cultures and world views disclose bally normative truth is possible several non-negotiable values best ac-

16 Edward John Carnell, Christian Commit- 15 On general illumination see my ‘Faith and ment (New York: Macmillan, 1957), 44–46. For Reason in the Thought of St. Augustine’, (Syr- a condensation and discussion see also G.R. acuse University: Unpublished Dissertation, Lewis, Testing Christianity’s Truth Claims (Chi- 1959) 25–54. cago: Moody, 1976), 176–284. 298 Gordon R. Lewis counted for as given by the Logos who becomes possible. Total relativism, re- illumines the darkness of all. lationalism, and contextualization cannot account for the universality and the 1. Universal intrinsic human necessity of the obligation under which rights all human beings find themselves to respect the rights of all other persons. Universally people’s intrinsic human And on the basis of that oughtness we rights ought to be respected. Whenever do find cross-cultural communication we walk in a park and meet other hu- taking place at the Olympics and, how- man beings, we find ourselves under ever painfully, at the United Nations. obligations greater than those of ei- As empirical evidence of the cor- ther things or animals. In relationships rectness of this analysis, on December with persons, however different from 10, 1948, the United Nations adopted us, we are obligated to respect their its Universal Bill of Human Rights. rights to life and liberty. If injured we An analysis finds that a sine qua non ought not to take advantage of them, of meaningful human experience and but to help them. If starving we ought communication cross-culturally is re- to feed them, if hurting we ought to spect for the inalienable rights of per- assist them. If Jews and Arabs, for ex- sons, however differently interpreted ample, are to communicate with each in Marxist lands. The impact of this other harmoniously, they must respect universal truth was perhaps a key fac- each other’s rights to exist. Similarly, tor in Russian glasnost and peristroika. if Christians are to communicate with And Chinese young people gave their non-Christians effectively, Christians lives for it in Tiananmen Square. must respect their human rights. The most adequate explanation of The confirmation of this analysis the universal recognition that we ought of human relations can be observed in to respect others is a universal divine relationships between humans of radi- revelation of moral law. God gave the cally different political loyalties at the negatives of the moral law to protect United Nations. Participation in the human rights. Because all humans of United Nations requires assent to its diverse cultures are my image-bearers 17 International Bill of Human Rights. you shall not murder, violate, or steal An analysis of the basic recognition from them. All in God’s likeness have of the inherent value of human life re- a right to life, spouse, possessions, and gardless of political or religious differ- religion. All also have a right to hear ences is necessary for communication the way to eternal life and the gift of between people of the East and West, Christ’s perfect righteousness. North and South. With tolerance for the How does general revelation make inherent value and rights of those with cross-cultural communication possi- whom we differ culturally and philo- ble? It grounds the rights of the Chris- sophically, meaningful communication tian and the pre-Christian, not in individual or collective achievements, but 17 Reproduced by Allen O. Miller, A Christian in the very constitution of our being as Declaration on Human Rights, (Grand Rapids: made in God’s image and sustained by Eerdmans, 1977), Appendix 159–182. God. No earthly culture or authority General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 299 can legitimately deny or suspend the or worse societies reflect universal intrinsic rights of a person to freedom norms. Social justice is judged ulti- in life, thought and religion. Universal mately, not by varying national cultural and necessary moral principles come traditions, but by universal, normative from above, they are not derived by in- criteria. These would include not only ductive polls of human opinion. A mor- that we ought always to respect oth- al law implanted in every human heart ers’ rights and dignity as persons, but demands respect for the rights of all also to say in word and deed what we other human beings. That law may be intend in meaning. violated, suppressed, and held down in When teaching and living in cen- unrighteousness, but those who disre- tral India my wife and I and our tall gard it remain inexcusable (Rom 1:20). fourteen-year-old son—all obviously from the USA—were distinct curiosi- 2. Universal demand for justice ties in a city not frequented by tourists. Although at the time the government Universally people can communicate of India was displeased with the U.S. because all appeal to the demand for jus- government and suspicious of even tice. All know that they ought not treat American missionaries as ‘spies’, others unjustly or unfairly. The univer- our freedom depended on a universality and necessity of the obligation sal sense of justice from a population to just thought and conduct can best overwhelmingly Hindu, Muslim, and be explained as a product of universal Buddhist. When any country unjustly revelation from above. Satanists and deprives foreigners or citizens of their others may deliberately suppress this inherent rights, they incur greater guilt inner sense of obligation to the right before the divine Judge of all the earth versus the wrong and reverse it. But who does right. in doing so they disclose the depths of Contrary to Charles Manson’s rea- their sinful distortion. Nevertheless, no soning, as influenced by monism, a one desires to be treated unjustly wheth- vast difference remains between help- er by another person, a gang, a tribe, ing a person and murdering her (Sha- a government or a religion. The right ron Tate). Violations of the rights to life of all men and women to equality of and liberty ought never to take place. concern and respect, Dworkin argues, The outcries of the victims of mass is not derived from social status, merit, murders in any culture assume a uni- or national citizenship. versal and necessary norm of justice. The right is intrinsic to human- The former dominance of the Nazi pow- 18 ness. All desire to be treated fairly er did not make discrimination against even beyond the realm of their country the Jewish people in the Holocaust ex- and its social contract. Prophets speak cusable. up against the mores of their cultures. In the name of ‘law and order’ it Comparative judgments about better is always wrong everywhere for ‘the haves’ to oppress and exploit ‘the 18 See Ronald Dworkin, Taking Rights Seri- have-nots’. It is also unjust everywhere ously (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University and always for the have-nots to become Press, 1977), 182. accuser, judge, jury, and executioner 300 Gordon R. Lewis in personal vengeance against those norms because God has implanted this who wrong them, even in the name of capacity in their hearts. Beyond legal- ‘liberation’. Violations of the norms of ism, we can invite our children to obey universal revelation resulted in guilt these principles as motivated by love before their Source for the Canaanite for their divine Source. However sup- nations whose land became that of the pressed or rejected, universal princi- Jews and for the Jewish people when ples distinguishing the just from the they committed the same types of of- unjust can be discovered. God’s nega- fences and were taken captive. tive commandments in their affirma- Talk about justice is cheap if no uni- tive import protect each human’s right versal Administrator of justice exists. to life, spouse and possessions in any Personally we cannot take vengeance contextual situation. and are not free to administer proper penalties. Societies and court systems do not always achieve a just resolution. 3. Universal need for mercy And societies and courts themselves Universally, furthermore, all people need at times to have justice admin- fail to live up to the standards of jus- istered to them. But in every culture, tice and need mercy, the withholding of for meaningful human life and com- deserved penalties and grace, the lov- munication, justice is non-negotiable. ing bestowal of undeserved benefits. The most adequate explanation of this General revelation, like Moses’ law, is remarkable agreement in the midst of a a school master to help fallen people host of relative differences is that God realize their need for mercy and grace. has imprinted this sense of obligation It prepares fallen people to seek mer- on the hearts of all persons in high cy and grace from their Creator. And places and low. The human heart longs when the missionaries arrive, sensitive for the restoration of the just peace persons have often been found, like lost in the Fall.19 Cornelius, prepared for the gospel of a In any culture or weltanschauung merciful pardon from all guilt and the parents are responsible to educate gracious imputation of Christ’s perfect their children morally. Why can chil- righteousness. dren eventually be asked to do right, When visiting mission fields in ten not simply for rewards, pragmatic ad- different nations travelling to and from vantage, conventional approval, law India, I found that people in cultures and order considerations, or a social as different as those in Athens, Jeru- contract made for them by others? salem, Calcutta, Bangkok, Hong Kong, How can Kohlberg expect us to teach Taipei, Manila, and Tokyo wanted love. our children to act morally in terms of Wherever love is wanting all else is universal ethical principles? In an age inconsequential. It is no accident that of relativism we can teach children to love is the highest of human values. It make judgments on universal moral makes all else worthwhile. Love is the fulfilling of the law, not only the law 19 For a development of the relationship of written on stone, but the law written missions to justice see Waldron Scott, Bring on our hearts. Forth Justice (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980). Again, it is difficult to explain the General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 301 universality of the value humans put from the givens themselves (phenom- on faithful love apart from our Sus- enalism). Ben Kimpel argues, ‘A dis- tainer’s universal communication that tinction must be made between knowl- above all else God wants our love, and edge which consists of interpretations he wants his image-bearers to love and knowledge which is exclusively one another. He made us also to need of interpretations.’20 Some interpreta- people, merciful people, loving people, tions, furthermore, are better informed faithful people. Believers in a Creator than others. The determination of who has made known his existence, which are the more reliable interpreta- power and moral values universally tions can be decided only by referring have a basis for faith in meaningful re- again and again to the given data. As lationships cross-culturally because of Kimpel reasoned, ‘Neither Immanuel these universal values revealed in our Kant, nor anyone else has made it fully hearts by common grace. clear that our knowledge is only of interpretations and not of reality itself.’21 4. Universal humility and Washington columnist James Res- integrity ton reported that when Stalin’s purges were in full swing a resident news cor- For meaningful human relationships respondent in Moscow was asked by a and cross-cultural communication wide-eyed visiting leftist how far the people from the varied cultures need court proceedings could be believed: humility before relevant givens in real- ‘Everything was true’, he replied, ‘ex- ity and the integrity to report the data cept the facts’.22 with intellectual honesty. That is, if a In spite of all the subjective differ- missionary’s or a pre-Christian’s view ences influenced by childhood experi- of an event or matter of fact should be ences (Freud), economic status (Marx), inadequate, we may need openness to educational communities (Dewey), assess new evidence and/or willing- historical standpoints (H.R. Niebuhr), ness to accept a more adequate inter- non-rational impulses (Reinhold Nie- pretation. buhr), and cultural contexts (Kraft), The value of intellectual openness people do critically examine data and and honesty is important in so simple a communication as seeking directions determine some truth about events, to a place in a strange land, reporting crimes and nature’s laws. On this ba- the causes of an airline disaster to the sis our diagnoses of actual problems world press, or describing the situation in the status quo in societies, schools, in an area of the world involved in revo- and churches need not be imaginary lution. We know from the requirements predicaments. of the law written on our hearts not The ought of our social concern can- only that we should not bear false wit- not be understood without a grasp of ness, but that the theories we propose for acceptance should fit the relevant, 20 Ben F. Kimpel, Language and Religion (NY: given data. Philosophical Library, 1957), 39. Our knowledge is not limited to ex- 21 Kimpel, Language and Religion, 39. periential reactions entirely divorced 22 New York Times (January 30, 1980). 302 Gordon R. Lewis the is of actual human existence. Last- 5. Universal communication ing justice will not be built on false In meaningful human relationships witnesses or half-truths. Responsible persons from varied cultures must policy for liberation of the poor does communicate in ways that others can not grow out of irresponsible analy- follow. For meaningful communication sis. With the help of criteria of truth to take place within or across cultures as checks and balances, and a critical people need to express themselves method for confirming or disconfirming without self-contradiction. If what is hypotheses people can overcome sin- affirmed is also denied at the same ful biases and achieve a high degree time and in the same respect, nothing of probability for critically determined remains for the receptor to receive. conclusions. The attainment of truth in For lasting meaningful relationships matters of fact is not easy, but its value settlers of the Americas ought not to is worth the painstaking effort. Unless contradict their promises to the Indi- one’s knowledge in some respect con- ans already living in the land. Neither forms to reality, it misleads in relation- men nor women ought to contradict the ships to others and to God who knows spirit or the wording of their marriage what is the case. or other vows. How to choose among the chang- The givenness of the law of non- ing paradigms in rapidly developing contradiction in general revelation is sciences? Kuhn wrote, ‘As in political indicated by the fact that one cannot revolutions, so in paradigm choice— argue against it without assuming its there is no standard higher than the validity. The recognition of the error of assent of the relevant community.’23 self-contradiction by children at very Apparently Kuhn and his followers do young ages and people of differing not see the contradiction in speaking cultures everywhere can most coher- of the ‘structure’ of scientific revolu- ently be accounted for as a product of tions since a structure transcends the general revelation. God is faithful; his events. As Stanley I. Jaki pointed out, judgments and words are faithful. Simi- Kuhn failed to ask, ‘What must nature, larly, we know that the judgments and including man, be like in order that sci- words of God’s image-bearers ought to ence be possible at all?’ or ‘What must be without hypocrisy and without self- the world be like in order that man may contradiction. The Creator who cannot know it?’24 deny himself creates us to communicate with himself and with others created in his image. Integrity in thought and communication is as important as integrity in action. Non-contradiction is the norm of integrity in thought and word. Al- 23 Thomas Samuel Kuhn, The Structure of though some Eastern writers advo- Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), 93. cate abandoning the law, what is com- 24 Stanley I. Jaki, The Road of Science and municable in their writings adheres the Ways to God (Chicago: Chicago University, to it. Hinduism may be presented as 1978), 239. embracing all contradictory positions, General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 303 but when one suggests the contradic- understanding to presume that humil- tory of the basic tenets of Hinduism, a ity and respect demand glossing over Hindu monist suddenly uses the law of the question of truth. logic. Hindu monists do not admit the The universal presence of such contradictory of ‘all is Brahman’ or of personal, moral, relational, and intel- ‘all that we observe is maya’. On the lectual standards enables people in unquestioned authority of the guru’s a pluralistic world to overcome total affirmation of monism we are expected relativism and have more than mere to deny the contradictories: a dualism opinions, fleeting images, or passing of Creator and creature and the reality models of thought. Granted that God of the observable world. has implanted within us moral, factual Intellectual truth and personal and logical values, people everywhere faithfulness, although often divorced can live, learn, and relate with increas- in our experience, are closely related ingly well-informed, correctable opin- in Scripture. Intellectually, truth is a ions for which they are accountable to quality of propositions that conform one another and God. On the basis of to reality. Existentially, faithfulness is such non-negotiable absolutes as these a quality of persons who conform to we can account for the success of com- universally revealed norms of what is munication, time-consuming and diffi- and what ought to be. The hypocrisy cult though it may be, across different so castigated by the existentialists is presuppositions of diverse cultures, inconsistency of life with what is pro- philosophies, and religions. fessed. Jesus faithfully taught the truth The God-given inner demands for conceptually; he authentically lived the personal integrity and intellectual hon- truth existentially. Hence he is the way, esty provide the bases on which Marvin both in thought and life. K. Mayers can expect cross-cultural If the central claims of Christian- communicators to begin by develop- ity are true, then it follows that the ing a trust bond in mutual respect. At incompatible claims made by other the end of each of the fine chapters religious and philosophical writers are in Christianity Confronts Culture, May- false. Harold Netland, a missionary to ers provides helpful biblical illustra- Japan, has effectively shown that the tions of mutual respect and personal exclusivism of Christianity’s claims is trust.26 But the possibility of success not different in kind from other logical is there for the missionaries in these claims to truth.25 All of the teachings biblical examples because of the moral of other religions are not false, only and epistemological laws esseniial to those that contradict teachings val- meaningful human relationships with idly derived from soundly interpreted God and one another. Scripture. Humility and respect should How is it that people from cultures characterize our interaction with those all over the world at the United Na- of other faiths. But it is a serious mis- tions have the potential to develop in

25 Harold Netland, ‘Exclusivism, Tolerance 26 Marvin K. Mayers, Christianity Confronts and Truth’, Missiology 15:2 (April 1987), Culture (Grand Rapids: Zondervan Academie, 77–95. Revised, 1987), 5–73. 304 Gordon R. Lewis respecting one another’s rights? De- III Does General Revelation manding justice? Caring about others? Supply ‘Redemptive Conforming to reality? Representing states of affairs faithfully (without self- Analogies?’ contradiction)? Capacities for the eter- With all the values of general revela- nal are in their hearts! God has created tion for theism and moral norms, we the inner person with these moral and have found no evidence in it of God’s noetic values in his image. plan of redemption through the incar- nate Logos or his sacrificial death and resurrection. General revelation pre- 6. The best explanation of values pares people for the good news of spe- Summing up, general revelation pro- cial revelation. Can we find in nature vides the most adequate explanation of and history analogies of the Messiah’s values essential to meaningful human redemption? relationships and communication. Like Don Richardson has popularized the source of this revelation to all, all the view that general revelation pro- effective communicators should be provides ‘redemptive analogies’. As he life in the broadest sense. All need jus- says, instances from ordinary history tice, mercy, grace and love, knowledge may serve as ‘eye-openers’ for some of given data, and logical consistency aspects of redemptive revelation when 27 in reference to their lives. people first hear the gospel of Christ General revelation explains the de- illumined by the special calling of the pendence, obligation, and guilt of all Holy Spirit. Analogies from history do people and cultures. By making clear not communicate the gospel before it our sinful disrespect of others, injus- comes via special revelation. Neither tices to others, lack of love for others, biblical nor experiential evidence indi- misrepresentation of our neighbours cates that general revelation redeems, and inconsistencies, general revela- regenerates, or reconciles to God. The tion points up our need. Like Moses’ people missionaries have found already outward expression of God’s law, this prepared to receive Christ, do in fact inner expression prepares us for the receive him and mark their salvation missionary who comes with the salva- from the time of their commitment to tion of Christ. The telos of the law in Christ. Cornelius was redeemed when either case is Christ. he received the gospel. Paul’s approach to the Athenians utilizes points of contact from Stoic thought for theism but not for the gospel of Christ. Paul quotes a Stoic poet when he affirms our common Creator of all humans, but not when he reports the resurrection of the crucified Christ. The Lord of all is, of course, the Lord of the plague and the unknown God the 27 Lewis and Demarest, Integrative Theology, Athenians should have sought. An ele- 1:82–90. ment of truth is found in the Stoic pan- General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 305 theistic writer, that God is immanent fact that Melchizedek was greater than and actively sustaining life on earth. Abraham as indicated by his receiving But the Stoic poet is not therefore a Abraham’s tithes, also indicates that sinner who, as Don Richardson said, he had more than general revelation ‘reached out and found’ God redemp- (vv 4–10). Apart from Melchizedek, tively.28 Rather, Paul commanded all Richardson could speak of the general everywhere to repent for not worship- revelation factor preceding special rev- ping and serving God more than the elation. creation. Richardson has well pointed out General revelation logically and that in any culture we need to distin- temporally precedes special revelation, guish the intermingled factors of good as Don Richardson agrees. But Rich- and evil. We need to respond to ele- ardson’s designation of general revela- ments of revealed truth about God and tion as ‘the Melchizedek factor’ prior to about morality already there and reject Abraham confuses general and special the evil factors resulting from rebellion revelation. Melchizedek, Richardson against it, such as Richardson’s occult says, stands as ‘a figurehead or type of or Sodom factor.31 29 God’s general revelation to mankind’. Also in agreement with Richardson To follow Richardson and most critics against some of his critics, we need in taking Melchizedek as a Canaanite not jump to the conclusion that general priest, Bruce Waltke argues, ‘presup- revelation in any way threatens the poses that Scripture is deceptive and uniqueness of the Bible as God’s only that man’s historical reconstructions inspired, written revelation.32 Beliefs are more trustworthy than the inspired 30 in folk religions paralleling those in Word of God’. Scripture need not be discredited as Melchizedek, ‘like the Son of God’, distortions or Satanic counterfeits in had no pedigree recorded in Scripture so far as they portray the content of (Heb 7:3). Most likely he is a human theism and morality. Any non-Christian specially called prior to the Abraham- parallels to the redemptive plans of ic covenant and so is a type of Jesus God, however may be traced to some Christ. Since the Messiah is the su- influence of the Bible or people who preme instance of special revelation, have accepted its special revelation. it seems out of character to take him In agreement with Richardson, fur- as a type of general revelation. The au- thermore, the misinterpretations of thor of Hebrews demonstrates that he some missionaries (calling Jesus the is a type of Christ, for both are a king of righteousness, and of peace, and tenth incarnation of Vishnu!) need not both are without descent and abide as keep us from finding some similarities priests continually (Heb 7:1–3). The that help in communicating the message of Christ once-for-all. Richardson says that his references 28 Don Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts to redemptive analogies do not mean (Ventura, CA: Regal, 1981), 22–23. 29 Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts, 31. 30 Bruce Waltke, ‘Melchizedek’, ZPEB 31 Richardson, Eternity in Their Hearts, 33. 4:177. 32 Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts, 52. 306 Gordon R. Lewis redeeming, i.e., that people could find eral revelation utilizes the capacities relationship with God through their that all humans as divine image-bear- own lore apart from the gospel. By ers have for recognizing objectively ‘redemptive’ he means, ‘contributing valid truths about God’s existence, to the redemption of a people, but not power, and moral values and supplies culminating it’.33 So there may be ‘God- the criteria for testing claims to special fearers’ in the midst of otherwise pa- revelation. gan people.34 But Richardson’s use of Culturally specific missiology may ‘the Melchizedek factor’ goes further tend to focus on communicative func- than this and tends to confuse general tions more than communicated con- revelation and illumination with the tent. Philosophers and theologians are specially revealed redemptive mes- generally more concerned with issues sage. of communicated content than the process. Both contributions are needed for the sake of cross-cultural communi- Conclusions cation. We need not limit ourselves to In cross-cultural communication of the dynamic equivalents, but on the above faith Christians can capitalize upon the analysis of general revelation our points of contact provided by general cross-cultural communication can also revelation, but should not consider the achieve conceptual equivalents. gaining of agreements on theism and More cross-disciplinary communi- morality sufficient for salvation. Hav- cation would help to develop a more ing attained some metaphysical, moral, adequate view of the objective valid- and epistemological common ground, ity of truth and value claims and a Christians ought by all means and more effective communication of them analogies to communicate the good to specific peoples. Yet, if this article news of the Logos who came to save has some validity, then one cannot fol- those who in fact do not live up to the low postmodernism’s denial of epis- truth they know. temological ‘foundationalism’ without Both transcultural absolutes and explicitly contradicting the Creator’s their culture-specific applications have universally revealed basis for cross- crucial contributions to make in both cultural communication and moral ac- the East and the West. Some philoso- countability. phers emphasize the objective valid- The issues of missiological contex- ity of Christianity’s transcultural truth tualization are not radically different claims. And some missiologists seem from those of philosophical relativism. to be more concerned with the culture- Philosophers have been struggling for specific adaptations or applications of years with the issues of persuading Christian truth. The objective validity others with radically different presup- of Christianity’s truth-claims is neither positions, categories, and methods of Western nor Eastern, but human. Gen- reasoning. The history of philosophy is the history of attempts at communication across radically different world 33 Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts, 59. views and radically different values. 34 Richardson, Eternity in their Hearts, 107. As philosophers attempt to commu- General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible 307 nicate across different weltanschauungs tural expressions of these world views. they can learn something from the Philosophers and theologians do well history of missions that exhibits the to listen to missiologists and missiolo- attempts to communicate with people gists may profit from listening afresh of different contextualized interpreta- to philosophically perceptive theolo- tions of experience in different cul- gians.

Dangerous Prayer Discovering a missional spirituality in the Lord’s Prayer Darren Cronshaw Dangerous Prayer offers a strategy for fostering prayer and spirituality in mission that focuses on neighbourhood transformation and global needs using the Lord’s Prayer as a radical blueprint. Sustainability in mission is not possible without prayer; vibrancy in prayer is not possible without mission. Christians on mission need a vibrant life of prayer in order to be effective yet to have a vibrant prayer life they need an outlet in mission. The Lord’s Prayer offers a radical inspirational framework to help move Christians beyond praying just for themselves and to have their imaginations captured by the mission of God and concern for global needs. Jesus’ words guide us to pray for God’s Kingdom on earth, for restoration, for food for all who are hungry, for people to experience forgiveness and all that really is good news about Jesus. It is a dangerous prayer because of its counter- cultural and radical stance, and because it invites us to be, in part, the answer to our prayers. This book offers inspiring and practical approaches for unleashing the whole people of God for missional prayer and prayerful mission. …Darren Cronshaw’s challenging book on Dangerous Prayer will inspire and motivate you to pray and live differently. Structured around the Lord’s Prayer, the book is filled with profound and often overlooked insights, whilst always remaining readable and accessible. This is a book you will keep returning to. It is also ideal for small group study and discussion. Risk reading it. Dr Brian Harris, Principal Vose Seminary, Perth, Australia Darren Cronshaw is Pastor of AuburnLife, Researcher with the Baptist Union of Victoria, and Professor of Missional Research with Australian College of Ministries.

ISBN 9781842279762 (e. 9781780782775) / 177pp / 216mm x 140mm / £14.99

Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] ERT (2017) 41:4, 308-320 ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology—Towards a ‘Mere Evangelical’ Account

Michael Borowski

I find myself at a decisive point—after other hand, make strong theological witnessing significant damage within claims. How does one live in a commu- the German evangelical community nity that consists of such individuals? and before starting doctoral studies. With frustration, I guess, and with the Although these seem to be rather di- hope that not too many calamities reverse categories for locating oneself, sult from it. they both share the topic of this essay: In view of all this, I have come to theological method. For it is theologi- believe that evangelical theology in cal method (or maybe more the lack general must catch up in various ways, thereof) that I hold personally respon- particularly in the area of theological sible for a good portion of the calamity method. In his Theological Method— I sense within German evangelicalism A Guide for the Perplexed, Paul Allen in particular, and more broadly in evan- identifies five key issues of theologi- gelicalism as a whole. cal method, which he addresses under While I have not personally suffered the following headings: philosophy (for these calamities too much myself, too often I find the state of evangelical instance, the relationship between the- churches to be frustrating. One way of ology and philosophy), criteria (most describing the cause of such frustra- importantly the determination of valid tion is to refer to the state of doctrine: criteria to make theological claims in it seems to me that doctrine was first the first place), sources (the Bible, ex- overemphasized (middle of the twenti- perience, tradition and reason), ontol- eth century), then ignored (end of the ogy (seeking to answer the question twentieth century), and today we have of what the nature of the theological to deal with churches consisting of in- task is) and procedure (for instance, dividuals who on the one hand have no answering the question of which pro- theological training, but who, on the cedure actually follows from a given

Michael Borowski, M.Th. (Evangelische Theologische Faculteit Leuven, Belgium), M.Div. (Columbia Interna- tional University, USA), Diploma in Public Management and Law. He is Review-Editor of Evangelical Review of Theology and Lecturer of Systematic Theology and Ethics at Martin Bucer Seminary and the University of Applied Sciences for Public Administration Nordrhein-Westfalen (Germany). He is affiliated with the Inter- national Institute of Religious Freedom and about to start his dissertation on the issue of ‘moving beyond’ scripture to theology. ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 309 theological method).1 Grudem’s Systematic treated biblical It may be granted that theologi- passages ‘as timeless and culture-free cal method is a rather unpopular field statements that can be assembled to within theology, and Allen readily iden- yield a timeless and culture-free theolo- tifies a number of reasons for this. For gy that stands over and above the shift- some, theological method would be too ing sands of our postmodern culture.’6 far removed from the content of the- Vanhoozer, on the other hand, proposed ology (which they would consider to a different approach to theology, fo- be of higher importance). For others, cussing on communication, herme- theological method would be too philo- neutics, prolegomena, and doctrine. sophical (and less ‘divine’, somehow), Now, for almost two decades Gru- or simply boring.2 At the same time, dem has produced more systematic Allen argues that reflection on theo- works that seem to be aiming for appli- logical method since the middle of the cation both in church and society, while twentieth century has not yet yielded Vanhoozer has pursued studies on the satisfying results.3 foundations of mere evangelical theol- 7 Similarly, but with an explicitly ogy as such. While I am certain that evangelical perspective in mind, Al- both Grudem and Vanhoozer share the lister McGrath has addressed the same ultimate goals with their work, quest for a proper theological method I believe that they exemplify different by pointing to the theological ap- approaches to theological method. proaches of Wayne Grudem and Kevin So in the first section of this paper J. Vanhoozer, both of whom professors I will interact with Grudem’s work to analyse the theological method he at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School demonstrates. I will conclude that his in Deerfield, Illinois back in 2000. Gru- work seems to be carried out under a dem was well known for his Systematic specific assumption and with a specific Theology,4 while Vanhoozer was recog- method. I will conclude further that nized for his studies in hermeneutics both the assumption and the method and the ‘meaning of meaning’.5 are valuable, yet not without danger. McGrath drew attention to some Ultimately, I will conclude that there is issues with the theological approach a case to be made for further reflection of Grudem, especially claiming that on theological method. In my second section, I will sur- 1 Paul L. Allen, Theological Method—A Guide vey Vanhoozer’s work regarding the for the Perplexed (London: T&T Clark Interna- development of doctrine as a case of tional, 2012), 4. theological reflection, with the aim of 2 Allen, Theological Method, 1. laying a foundation for further studies 3 Allen, Theological Method, 1-2. 4 Wayne Grudem, Systematic Theology—An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine (Grand Rapids: 6 Allister McGrath, ‘Evangelical Theological Zondervan, 2000). Method—The State of the Art’, in Evangelical 5 Kevin J. Vanhoozer, Is there a meaning in the Futures—A Conversation on Theological Method text?—The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 2000), 30. Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 7 I will address some examples in the course 1998). of this essay. 310 Michael Borowski in theological method in general, and ple start to think theologically, in this hence the development of (evangelical) case, within a rather reformed frame- doctrine.8 work. However, my concern here is not Grudem’s explicit positions like the trinity, or election, but rather the less I The Case for Theological obvious theological method which he Reflection exemplifies throughout his work. In this section, I present an analysis With John Frame, Grudem holds of Grudem’s theological method and that systematic theology is ‘any study praxis. I deliberately say ‘an’ analysis, that answers the question, “What does since I do not claim that this analysis the whole Bible teach us today?” about is complete regarding everything that any given topic.’10 Grudem goes on to should be said. However, I believe that claim that this ‘definition indicates that this analysis proves the claim that systematic theology involves collecting informs the following section (ie, the and understanding all the relevant pas- survey on a case of theological reflec- sages in the Bible on various topics tion), which is that evangelicals need and then summarizing their teachings to invest more into their theological clearly so that we know what to believe method. about each topic.’11 I think it is safe to say that this very definition already 1. On Grudem’s theological represents Grudem’s first principle of method theology. However, Grudem goes on to ad- Grudem’s flagship volume, Systematic dress the issue of theological method Theology—An Introduction to Biblical in this introductory chapter (he always Doctrine, has now been in print for over never applies the term, but rather asks two decades. It is, I believe, among the ‘how then should we study system- most popular introductions to theol- atic theology?’).12 Grudem names six ogy in the evangelical realm. Beyond methodological items: prayer, humility, the US, it is in use in many countries reason, the help of others, by collect- 9 around the globe. There are also ing and understanding all the relevant courses available based on it, among passages of Scripture on any topic, and them audio- and video-format. Now, as praise.13 any other popular textbook, Grudem’s Now, while I do believe that Gru- Systematic has a foundational impact dem applies all his six items in his own on the shaping of the evangelical com- work, it appears to me that ‘collecting munity—pastors, teachers and laypeo- and understanding all the relevant passages of Scripture on any topic’ is the 8 For now, I am using the terms ‘development most traceable, and therefore the most of doctrine’ and ‘moving beyond’ (i.e., moving beyond Scripture to theology) interchangeably. 9 In fact, Grudem’s Systematic Theology has 10 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 21. recently been translated into German and is, 11 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 21. for instance, the standard textbook also at the 12 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 32. Martin Bucer Seminary, where I myself teach. 13 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 32-37. ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 311 formative tool throughout his work. The fourth and final characteristic This becomes evident in the first part of Scripture then is its sufficiency: Is of Systematic Theology, where Grudem the Bible enough for knowing what outlines the doctrine of the word of God wants us to think or do? Here Gru- God. Here he surveys ‘four characteris- dem states: tics of Scripture’, of which the second The sufficiency of Scripture means and fourth are of importance for my that Scripture contained all the argument. words of God he intended his people The second characteristic of Scrip- to have at each stage of redemptive ture is clarity: Can only Bible scholars history, and that it now contains all understand the Bible rightly? Grudem the words of God we need for salva- offers this definition: ‘The clarity of tion, for trusting him perfectly, and Scripture means that the Bible is writ- for obeying him perfectly.17 ten in such a way that its teachings In this chapter, there are two fol- are able to be understood by all who lowing sections, both identified with a will read it seeking God’s help and ‘proposition’. 14 being willing to follow it’ Grudem Proposition (1) reads: ‘We can find has addressed the clarity of Scripture all that God has said on particular more recently by referring back to the topics, and we can find answers to time when he wrote his Systematic our questions.’18 The claim here not 15 Theology: Despite the critique of some only seems to be ontological (i.e., that evangelical scholars, who would think Scripture would provide all the an- that one needs much more research in swers), but also explicitly pragmatic commentaries, historical theology and (i.e., Christians can focus on Scripture so forth, he concluded and collect all relevant passages rather that to do such original research than on all writings of Christianity).19 thoroughly for all the topics in the- Proposition (2) reads: ‘The Amount ology would take several lifetimes. of Scripture given was sufficient at And yet I did not believe that God each stage of redemptive History.’20 would require several lifetimes of As with the first proposition, the claim work just to learn or to teach what here is pragmatic: At a given time in he wanted us to believe.16 history, the individual had the means It seems, then, that Grudem gives to know what he or she had to know. the reason for what I termed his ‘first And again, the argument for Grudem’s principle’ above: his approach of sys- reasoning for his method is that it is tematizing passages of scripture is pos- possible for an individual. sible for the individual. Overall, a central underlying assumption is that theology is developed from God’s communication for human’s 14 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 108. 15 Grudem had prepared the paper for the John Wenham Lecture in 2009 (Cambridge, 17 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 127. England). 18 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 128. 16 Wayne Grudem, ‘The Perspicuity of Scrip- 19 Grudem, Systematic Theology, 128. ture’, in Themelios, 34 no 3 Nov 2009, 290. 20 Grudem, Systematic Theology,129. 312 Michael Borowski application. Now, it is hard to take is- work on theology proper, and in par- sue with this assumption. However, ticular with regard to the Trinity. it is also not true that Grudem’s ac- Morrison explained that Grudem’s tual work is inherently reductionist as expressed method is, again, to go di- some have claimed, because he does, rectly to relevant texts and to then for instance, apply other elements in summarize ‘the clear biblical teach- his theological enterprise—elements ing on the Trinity’. But does Scripture such as reason, tradition, experience at make direct statements concerning the times. The problem seems to be, how- Trinity as classically formulated? Scrip- ever, that he does not make the overall ture is explicitly handled by Grudem as process transparent. though a Trinitarian doctrinal summa- However, in the next subsection I ry comes immediately off the surface will show that this is not only a prob- of Scripture and not also through the lem for the student who might con- soteriological-hermeneutical concep- clude that turning to Scripture is basi- tualization as created (properly, I be- cally everything Grudem does, but that lieve) by the history of interpretation. a lack of transparency is at times also But implicitly Grudem assumes Nicaea a problem for Grudem’s theological in all scriptural summaries and only praxis in itself. then alludes to theological controversies in order to show what to avoid.21 2. On Grudem’s theological Grudem is said to be applying his- praxis torical concepts as an a priori framework of interpretation. This procedure a) Example 1: Theology proper would not represent a problem if done My first example of Grudem’s theologi- properly, but Grudem’s claim on his cal praxis comes also from his System- theological method does not address atic Theology, of which the second part this issue. One could argue that a lack is dedicated to theology proper. Here in of transparency is due to the fact that the first chapter Grudem addresses the Systematic Theology is an introduction. issue of the existence of God: how do Even then I would see the danger of we know that God exists? using a problematic example regarding There are three major sections: hu- the applied theological method. manity’s inner sense of God, believing b) Example 2: Gender the evidence in Scripture and nature, and then the traditional ‘proofs’ for However, I would like to turn to a sec- the existence of God. One must rec- ond example for Grudem’s theological ognize, however, that there is no bibli- praxis, which I find in his Evangelical cal reasoning for these very headings Feminism and Biblical Truth. The first that Grudem develops. That is a real two chapters are foundational for the problem, since it is Grudem’s outline approach of the entire 850-page book. that eventually determines the train of thought, not the passages of Scripture 21 John D. Morrison, ‘Trinity and Church: An to which he refers. I found that John D. Examination of Theological Methodology’, in Morrison had pointed out this problem Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, earlier, when commenting on Grudem’s 40 no 3 Sep 1997, 449. ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 313

In the first chapter, Grudem argues forth. Now, David McIlroy argues that for his ‘Biblical Vision of Manhood and the general approach, as well as the Womanhood as created by God’: man initial chapters, for that matter, is very and women are equal in value and dig- commendable: ‘He is to be commended nity, but would have different roles (as for his commitment to the relevance is the case in the Trinity). Chapter two of the Bible to contemporary political addresses the ‘Biblical Vision of Man- questions. There is much useful ma- hood and Womanhood in the Church’. terial in the opening four chapters.’23 Here Grudem develops the themes of However, McIlroy also offers ‘serious chapter 1 more for the context of the criticism’, focusing on Grudem’s scep- church. He concludes that there are ticism regarding climate change, lack roles in a church that are clearly for- of interaction with other commentators bidden by Scripture, yet there are roles in the field and the lack of a consistent that are clearly permitted. Grudem hermeneutic. McIlroy states: then proposes a spectrum ranging from Grudem does not deploy a consist- what is clearly forbidden to what is ent hermeneutic. … Grudem’s book clearly allowed, arguing it needs ‘wis- identifies for European Christians dom’ to determine, which roles along the selective readings from the Bi- the spectrum would be permitted in a ble upon which Republican Chris- given situation. tians in America rely in support of It is clear then, that Grudem sees their positions. However, Grudem the need for ‘moving beyond’ Scripture, has not allowed the biblical per- and that ‘wisdom’ is the proper tool for spective on the priorities of relationships, love, justice and mercy such a move. Yet how this move via to result in a radical critique of the wisdom is to be made is not explicated. values of his culture and as a result Furthermore, it appears to me that the has merely found support in the Bi- very spectrum Grudem proposes could ble for positions he had already de- be challenged once it comes to theo- cided to adopt.24 logical method.22 In a similar fashion, Bart Bruehler argues that the greatest weakness of c) Example 3: Politics this book is ‘its lack of exegesis and As a third and final example I refer hermeneutical reflection’25—exegesis to some of the reviews of Grudem’s more recent book, Politics According to the Bible. Here Grudem lays out what 23 David McIlroy, ‘Politics according to the he understands to be basic principles Bible—a comprehensive resource for understanding modern political issues in light of of scripture regarding politics. In the Scripture,’ review in European Journal of Theol- major part of this 600-page volume he ogy, 21 no 1 2012, 81. addresses specific issues, such as fam- 24 McIlroy, ‘Politics according to the Bible’, ily, economics, national defence and so 81. 25 Bart Bruehler, ‘Politics according to the Bible—a comprehensive resource for under- 22 For the sake of argument I will state that standing modern political issues in light of I do not take issues with Grudem’s position on Scripture’, review in Wesleyan Theological Jour- biblical man- and womanhood in itself. nal, 47 no 2, Fall 2012, 203. 314 Michael Borowski is limited, his applications of both methods from an advanced standpoint Scripture and theological concepts are with a particular goal in mind. subjective at times, and the choice of However, some tendencies are trou- biblical passages ‘very selective’ in bling. For one: doubtlessly Grudem certain cases. made major contributions in important Likewise, Peter Sanlon fears that areas of evangelical theology (see, for ‘the book assumes a reductionist view instance, my second example of Gru- on the nature of the Bible and how dem’s work above—gender). Neverthe- we move from texts in it to the advo- less his research method seems to fall cation of cultural change in a fallen short. His work lacks transparency of world’.26 He continues: ‘Repeatedly when and how he applies which tool Grudem states a political view aligned (see my first example above—theol- with the libertarian right and then ogy proper), and in some cases he falls backs it up with a Bible verse. This is short in establishing convincing theo- taken to demonstrate the said view as logical proposals (see my third exam- biblical’.27 ple above—politics). Sanlon identifies several major in- Secondly, while I share Grudem’s stances and also more generally, he conviction that Scripture must be ac- claims that Grudem is selective in his cessible to every believer in a sufficient choice of biblical passages. Although way, this does not necessarily mean he applauds several of Grudem’s posi- that an individual must be able to de- tions as well as the general interaction velop a systematic theology on his or between state and church as welcome, her own. Since these are actually two overall he finds ‘Grudem’s book want- different things, Grudem’s argument ing both exegetically and hermeneuti- for what I termed his ‘first principle’ cally’. earlier is not convincing. Thirdly, Grudem’s work creates a problematic pattern for the innumer- 3. Conclusion able students of his work. It seems to While some critics claim that Grudem me that an uncritical student may be applies a reductionist method by inter- inclined to follow either one of two acting with Scripture entirely ‘on his problematic trails: accepting the posi- own’, I hold that Grudem at times does tions Grudem holds, or applying the apply a more complex method for ‘mov- method of ‘collecting and understanding beyond’ than he claims to do. This ing all the relevant passages of Scrip- should be the case: given the scholar ture on any topic’ on his or her own, he is, Grudem naturally applies certain coming up then with a subjective yet normative (!) ‘theology’. In any case, I believe that further 26 Peter Sanlon, ‘Politics according to the study in theological method is neces- Bible—a comprehensive resource for under- sary. For if theological method is at standing modern political issues in light of Scripture’, review in Themelios, 36 no 3 Nov least an issue in the work of Wayne 2011, 593. Grudem, it definitely is a problem in 27 Sanlon, ‘Politics according to the Bible’, several local churches. These local 539. churches are the real stages for the ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 315 calamities I referred to in my intro- er’s approach of ‘moving beyond’ in duction. It is here that naïve biblicism the larger context of Vanhoozer’s work results in simplistic proof-texting, by laying out the development of Van- leading to simplistic theologies and hoozer’s normative theological herme- worldviews, and thereby challenges neutics.29 the unity of these churches and the Putman briefly touches on Van- sanctification of individual lives. hoozer’s dissertation (1985), published Therefore, I claim that there is a in 1990 as Biblical Narrative in the case to be made for further theological Philosophy of Paul Ricoeur: A Study in reflection. I will start with that work in Hermeneutics and Theology. Secondly, the following section. he addresses Vanhoozer’s major work, Is there a Meaning in this Text? (1998), then his collection of essays on theo- II A Case of Theological logical method up to 2002, published Reflection under the title First Theology. He gives There are many ways to start a con- some more room to The Drama of Doc- versation on ‘moving beyond’ Scripture trine (2005), which would be the most to theology from an evangelical per- comprehensive exploration of the rela- spective. However, at this time I find tionship between hermeneutical theory the work of Kevin Vanhoozer the most and theological method.30 appealing for various reasons. This is With Daniel Treier, Putman identi- why I present my attempt of a survey fies a new period in Vanhoozer’s work on his case of theological reflection in within the Drama.31 For Putman, the this second section. relevant point in the light of our concern is Vanhoozer’s approach of following Scripture, by ‘making theologi- 1. Vanhoozer on ‘moving cal judgment patterned after biblical beyond’—up to 2015 texts’.32 For ‘it is not enough simply to Rhyne R. Putman has recently pro- understand the grammar, background, vided a comprehensive overview on and meaning of a text. Interpreters Vanhoozer’s theology.28 Putman’s must strive to understand the authorial published dissertation does not refer discourse, but they must put Scripture to Vanhoozer, hermeneutics or theo- into practice as well.’33 logical method in general, but it deals more specifically with the development of doctrine. Since his dissertation was 29 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 176-184. published in 2015, I will survey Van- 30 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 179. hoozer via Putman first, and present 31 My personal impression that proposing ‘something new’ here is similar to the attempt a survey of Vanhoozer’s related works to relate modernity and postmodernity to after 2015 in the following subsection. each other—and in case of Vanhoozer’s work, Putman starts by locating Vanhooz- I think there are overall more indicators for great continuity. 32 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 181, ital- 28 Rhyne R. Putman, In Defense of Doctrine— ics his. Evangelicalism, Theology and Scripture (Minne- 33 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 181, ital- apolis: Fortress Press, 2015). ics his. 316 Michael Borowski

This approach is unfolded further by khtinian Dialogism and the concept Putman in his second section where he of theodrama in the work of Urs von characterizes the Canonical-Linguistic Balthasar. or theo-dramatic theological method With regards to the Bakhtinian Dial- as ‘a means of going beyond the writ- ogism, Putman defines Dialogism with ten word of Scripture in a way that is Susan M. Felch: faithful to the spirit and direction of Dialogism insists on the priority of 34 Scripture’. Here Putman offers some two or more persons who remain important summaries on Vanhoozer’s distinct from one another. Thus, it concern for ‘moving beyond’ Scripture: is not words that communicate, but Canonical-linguistic theology … is we who communicate in interactions an ongoing means of developing ha- that require, as a minimum, the ir- bitual, practical wisdom grounded reducible community of two.37 in the canon or Scripture. This no- For the development of doctrine, tion of theology practical wisdom this approach is crucial. The relation- stems from the Augustinian distinc- ship between Scripture and tradition tion between scientia (knowledge) is not in dialectical synthesis between and sapientia (wisdom), between biblical texts and contemporary philo- knowledge and wisdom. For Van- sophical or cultural thought. Rather, hoozer, theology must be both sci- doctrinal development grows out of an entia and sapientia, concerned first ongoing exchange occurring between with biblical exegesis and doctri- new interpreters in new settings and nal content of Scripture (scientia) the human-divine authorship of the Bi- and then with cultivating practical ble.38 judgment based on Scripture for Four dialogical terms of Bakhtin contemporary settings (sapientia). would be foundational for Vanhoozer’s The canon must guide the church’s model of doctrinal development: Po- action, but to do so, the text must lyphony (the concept of multiple voices move from the past into the present. in one document), chronotope (indicat- The canonical-linguistic approach, ing the intersection of axes as spatial then represents a new, favourable and temporal), great time (referring to evangelical approach to doctrinal 35 the growing importance of important development. works over time) and creative under- Vanhoozer’s approach would clearly standing.39 Creative understanding differ from approaches such as princi- is the most important, since theology plizing, second hermeneutics, or tra- is not a creation ex nihilo, but rather jectory hermeneutics.36 the setting forth of what is already in Regarding Vanhoozer’s method of place.40 developing doctrine, Putman traces two major sources: the impact of Ba- 37 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 188, italics hers. 34 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 184. 38 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 188. 35 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 185-6. 39 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 188-202. 36 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 184, fn. 40 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 193. ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 317

With regards to the concept of development of doctrine. As far as I theodrama, Putman addresses the can see, there are two books and two overarching theatrical metaphor of articles of special importance. I will the Swiss Roman Catholic Urs von first survey all of them very briefly, and Balthasar, proposing dramaturgical then attempt to summarize some major categories (author, actor, director, role, contributions specifically to the quest action and so forth). His five-volume of moving beyond. cannot be addressed in this paper. Yet Putman summarizes Vanhoozer’s dif- a) Overviews ference from Balthasar by pointing out The first book is Theology and the Mir- that Balthasar ‘focuses on the dramat- ror of Scripture—A Mere Evangelical Ac- ic content of Christian doctrine’, while count, co-authored by Daniel J. Treier the focus of Vanhoozer’s ‘canonical-lin- (2015). I have summarized the argu- guistic approach is on the performative ment elsewhere a little more closely;43 41 nature of doctrine itself.’ so here I can outline the two parts of While there are numerous terms the book. Part one proposes a ‘mere from theatre, it is probably the concept evangelical agenda’: what is the ba- of improvisation that is most important sis of evangelical theology, and how for Vanhoozer’s doctrinal development. should it be structured? Hence, ‘Theology’s ongoing task is Vanhoozer and Treier discuss how training to think about the world bibli- to apply the ‘material’ and the ‘formal’ cally and cultivating a gospel-oriented principles of protestant theology (i.e. phronesis that aids in faithful improvi- the ‘Gospel of God and the God of the sation’ of the biblical theo-drama in Gospel’ for one, and Scripture for the new contexts.’42 Vanhoozer—as Put- other). After addressing ontology and man—is quick to address concerns and epistemology, Part Two relates this misunderstandings which can easily agenda more to the current praxis of derive from the term of improvisation evangelical theology. It argues that in the realm of theology. Yet there are wisdom must be the nature of evan- many issues of life which are not ad- gelical theology (chapter 3). Vanhoozer dressed specifically by Scripture, and and Treier then address theological in- these may function as examples for terpretation as a means for doing jus- instances, in which ‘moving beyond’ tice to such a nature (chapter 4), and (and thereby improvisation) is without relate both within the church (chapter alternatives. 5) and the academia (chapter 6). In 2015 Vanhoozer also published 2. Vanhoozer on ‘moving an essay of some relevance with the ti- beyond’—2015 and following tle ‘Scripture and theology—On ‘prov- Vanhoozer has recently published several works that are related to the 43 Michael Borowski, ‘Of Mirrors and Men— Surveying a Trajectory for “Moving Beyond” from Scripture to Theology’, in Evangelical 41 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 197. Review of Theology, Apr2017, Vol. 41 Issue 2, 42 Putman, In Defense of Doctrine, 199. 127-130. 318 Michael Borowski ing’ doctrine biblically’.44 In this piece, According to McGrath, this approach he calls for a ‘biblical’ theology, pro- is dangerous, for because of it Protes- posing a way forward by following ‘the tantism is not only highly adaptable –it way the biblical words go’:45 One must is also out of control. appeal to the diverse discourses of Following Graeme Goldsworthy and the canon of Scripture by giving credit Herman Bavinck, Vanhoozer argues to the individual kind of discourse at that the five Protestantsolas represent hand. He concludes that—as exem- ‘what we might call the first theology of plified in the way Jesus referred to mere Protestant Christianity.’50 Scripture—the task of the theologian Firstly, Sola Gratia can be under- is proof-texting,46 but a kind of proof- stood as the framework of biblical in- texting of a ‘higher order’.47 In this terpretation (chapter 1). Secondly, Sola higher order, one sets forth ‘the way Fide would be the antidote to epistemo- the words go’ rather than finding indi- logical scepticism, namely epistemic vidual passages of Scripture to back up trust (chapter 2). Vanhoozer sets the propositional claims.48 authority of the Bible (Sola Scriptura) Then in 2016, Vanhoozer published in context (chapter 3), for instance in his book entitled ‘Biblical Authority its context to tradition. Solus Christus, after Babel—Retrieving the Solas in the then, refers to Christ—yet what is real- Spirit of Mere Protestant Christianity’. ity in Christ cannot be separated from the church, which is why Vanhoozer Here he addresses the challenge of addresses both the authority and the what he perceives as ‘interpretational responsibility of the royal priesthood, anarchy’ by referring to Allister Mc- the (local) church (chapter 4). Finally, Grath’s stance of Christianity’s ‘dan- with Soli Deo Gloria, Vanhoozer calls gerous idea’. According to McGrath, for a celebration of the diverse, yet ‘Protestantism took its stand on the united catholic church (chapter 5). right of individuals to interpret the Bi- Vanhoozer concludes that the solas, ble for themselves rather than being taken together, provide a powerful first forced to submit to “official” interpre- theology for the local, and therefore for tations handed down by popes or other the catholic church. 49 centralized religious authorities.’ In addition to these three work, there is also an important essay pub- 44 Kevin Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theolo- lished in 2016, asking ‘May we Go Be- 51 gy—On “proving” doctrine biblically’ in: Mike yond what is written after all?’ Here Higton and James Fodor (ed.), The Routledge Vanhoozer addresses the principle and Companion to the Practice of Christian Theology the pattern of ‘moving beyond’. He (Oxon: Routledge, 2015). comments on the use of creeds and 45 Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theology’, 148. 46 Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theology’, 154. 47 Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theology’, 154. 50 Vanhoozer, Biblical Authority after Babel, 48 Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theology’, 155. 27, italics his. 49 Kevin Vanhoozer, Biblical Authority after 51 Kevin Vanhoozer, ‘May we Go Beyond Babel—Retrieving the Solas in the Spirit of Mere what is written after all?’ in The Enduring Protestant Christianity (Grand Rapids: Brazos Authority of the Christian Scriptures (London: Press, 2016), 3. Apollos, 2016), 747-793. ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology 319 confessions as potential examples of of biblical discourse. He depicts four ‘moving beyond’. His programmatic quadrants in a diagram of two axes proposal for following biblical direc- (proposition/statement and narrative/ tions includes imitation, imagination story on the horizontal and spiritual/ and improvisation. ideal and earthly/literal on the vertical axis). The four quadrants—principles, b) Systematization images, testimony and data—are all In the foregoing overview I could only different aspects of what Scripture is,52 give a brief idea regarding Vanhoozer’s and dealing with them (or setting them recent work. However, in the following forth) must do justice to the nature of I present an initial idea for the sys- each particular discourse. tematization of Vanhoozer’s four con- Having established this approach as tributions surveyed above: What are the pattern, Vanhoozer explicates three major aspects of his proposal to ‘move ways of ‘moving further along the grain beyond’ Scripture? of what is written’:53 imitation (that is, I hold, then, that Theology and the walking in Jesus steps), imagination Mirror of Scripture represents the gen- (for instance, by locating oneself in the eral agenda for evangelical theology, bigger story), and improvisation (that and that the first part in particular is, acting in accordance with the pat- highlights core-elements for doctrinal tern of Scripture in a given situation).54 development. In the first chapter, Van- While these ways are not ‘methodo- hoozer and Treier indicate that in some logical operations as much as means way biblical theology does not start or cultivating good habits of evangeli- with the Bible, but with the reality of cal … judgment’,55 one can still deter- which it speaks—they literally anchor mine the fittingness of given attempts evangelical theology in the triune God for ‘moving beyond’ by applying the and the cross of Jesus Christ. criteria of canon sense (i.e., by locating With the second chapter, Vanhooz- oneself in the divine drama), catholic er and Treier relate the ontological sensibility (i.e., by taking into account considerations regarding ‘what is in the apostolic tradition) and contextual Christ’ to their epistemological theo- sensitivity (i.e., by translating into a ry: the gospel of God is witnessed in given cultural situation).56 Scripture, which thereby mirrors the However, the task of putting doc- reality ‘in Christ’, and of which also trine into praxis is yet an integral part the church is a part. The overall task of the doctrinal task. In sum, Vanhooz- of theology, then, is to help the church to understand the story of salvation, its reality, and the place of the church 52 Vanhoozer, ‘Scripture and theology’, 151. within it. 53 Vanhoozer, ‘May we Go beyond what is These are very general outlines. To written after all?’, 777. 54 Vanhoozer, ‘May we Go beyond what is be more specific, the task of evangeli- written after all?’, 777-784. cal theology is to ‘set forth’ the gospel. 55 Vanhoozer, ‘May we Go beyond what is It seems to me that for this ‘setting written after all?’, 777. forth’ Vanhoozer stresses in ‘Scrip- 56 Vanhoozer, ‘May we Go beyond what is ture and theology’ the various types written after all?’, 788-790. 320 Michael Borowski er’s essay ‘May we Go Beyond what is Conclusion written after all?’ seems to be the con- I get the strong suspicion that Kevin tribution among the four that interacts Vanhoozer is (still) following the lead best with these comparatively practical of Bernhard Ramm, who named five issues. areas relevant for sound ‘moving be- The task of setting forth the gospel yond’: Scripture, the inner structure (and, one might add, performing it!) is of evangelical theology, cultural cli- given to the local church—a church mate, the God-world-relation, and that might be on the edge of living in Linguistics/Philosophy of language/ interpretational anarchy and doctrinal communications. I believe that this is chaos. Vanhoozer covers these chal- an approach worth further following, lenges specifically in Biblical‘ Authority especially regarding Scripture, evan- after Babel’. Nevertheless, the church is gelical theology and the God-world- required to exemplify the ecclesia sem- relation. I believe such work is worthy per reformanda, most evidently by ap- to be pursued. I hope it will ultimately plying the five solas, and thereby dem- help to limit the doctrinal chaos, doc- onstrating ‘that the glory and genius of trinal illiteracy and doctrinal apathy mere Protestant Christianity is “mere within some of our local churches— 57 evangelicalism”.’ and the calamities that go with it.

57 Vanhoozer, Biblical Authority after Babel, 217.

STUDIES IN CHRISTIAN HISTORY AND THOUGHT Participation in Christ and Eucharistic Formation John Calvin and the Theodrama of the Lord’s Supper Mary Patton Baker This wonderful book proposes a theological model for understanding Eucharistic celebration that demonstrates its centrality to the Christian believer’s sanctification and spiritual formation. Centring on John Calvin’s understanding of the Lord’s Supper, founded on the believer’s union with Christ, and bringing Calvin’s Eucharistic theology into conversation with contemporary speech act philosophy, Kevin Vanhoozer’s divine/communicative ontology, biblical theology, and historical and liturgical theology, this multi-disciplinary work provides a biblical and theological foundation for understanding the role the Eucharist plays in the worship, sanctification, and formation of the church and her communicants. Mary Patton Baker is a Deacon at All Souls Anglican Church in Wheaton, Il., involved in ministries of teaching, discipleship, and spiritual formation. ISBN 9781842279281 (e.9781842279298) / 260pp / 229mm x 152mm / £29.99 Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] ERT (2017) 41:4, 321-338 Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response

Timothy T. N. Lim I Introduction entrenched evangelical reservations 4 Catholics, evangelicals, and Protes- about creation care, as well as the tants globally have expressed their prevailing evangelical positions about desires to collaborate purposefully in dialogue or engagement with other 5 witnessing for the gospel.1 As a step Christian organizations. Evangelical- towards collaborative witness between ism generally has moved from ambiva- Catholics and evangelicals, this paper2 lence and reservations towards accept- presents an evangelical reading of ing some developments in the modern Pope Francis’ Laudato Si (LS).3 I seek ecumenical movement. to show how evangelicals can build This paper begins with a concise on the initiatives encouraged by the review of evangelical positions on encyclical regarding care for the bio- caring for creation. Next, I review LS sphere in conjunction with Catholics and place it in a broader context by and other Protestant groups. discussing relevant Catholic social To prepare churches for prospec- teaching and mainstream responses tive collaboration, one must consider to the release of the document. I then summarize evangelical responses of affirmation, ambivalence, and abstinence 1 Pope Francis, Evangelii Gaudium (Rome: towards this document’s appeal. I con- Vatican, 2013); Together Towards Life (Geneva: WCC, 2013), 10–11; The Cape Town Commit- ment (Cape Town: Lausanne Congress on 4 An example of fruitful Evangelical–Catho- World Evangelization, 2010), 218–22; Chris- lic dialogue is the Third Annual Evangelical tian Witness in a Multi-Religious World (Geneva: and Catholic Conversation, at University of St. World Council of Churches, Pontifical Council Mary of the Lake, Mundelein, III, 2–5 Septem- for Interreligious Dialogue and World Evan- ber 2015. gelical Alliance, 2011). 5 David W. Cloud, Evangelicals and Rome, rev. 2 I wish to thank Dr Gail Trzcinski for proof- ed. (Port Huron, Michigan: Way of Life Litera- reading the original and revised drafts, and ture, 1999); Gabriel Fackre, Ecumenical Faith Ms Sherry Hamilton for copyediting the final in Evangelical Perspective (Grand Rapids, MI: version. Eerdmans, 1993); Brad Harper and Paul Louis 3 Pope Francis, Laudato Si (Rome: Vatican, Metzger, Exploring Ecclesiology (Grand Rap- 24 May 2015), hereafter cited as LS. ids, MI: Zondervan, 2009).

Dr Timothy T. N. Lim (PhD, Regent University, Virginia) is a visiting lecturer at London School of Theol- ogy, UK and Research Tutor at Kings Evangelical Divinity School, Broadstairs, UK. An ordained Presbyterian minister, he has published Ecclesial Recognition with Hegelian Philosophy, Social Psychology and Continental Political Theory (Leiden: Brill, 2017) and various chapters and essays in other international publications. 322 Timothy T. N. Lim clude by affirming the possibility of col- Age beliefs, interreligious unity and laborative ecological witness. liberal Protestantism.9 Consequently, evangelicals have not been regarded as avid supporters of ecological care, de- II No Longer Observers: spite earlier invitations by theologians Evangelicals, Social Witness like Francis Schaffer and, three dec- and Earth Care ades later, by John Stott.10 Both Schaf- Evangelicalism’s approach to eco-care fer and Stott reminded evangelicals of has mirrored its larger struggle to em- their God-given responsibility in the brace social witness as a core commit- creation mandate to care for the earth. ment to the gospel. Evangelicals who Today, evangelicals are no longer trace their roots to the eighteenth-cen- merely observers on eco-care. A pro- tury pietistic and Wesleyan movements liferation of literature attests to their in Europe and North America have al- commitment.11 In recent years, evan- ways been committed to the direct and gelicals in North America have organ- indirect proclamation of the gospel in thought and action.6 Overall, however, evangelicalism has maintained an un- 9 John Grim and Mary Evelyn Tucker, Ecology easy stance regarding social witness and Religion (Washington, DC: Island Press, and activism that do not directly pro- 2014), 87; Jonas Jonson, Wounded Visions claim the salvific message of Jesus (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2013), 22, 31– 2, 43, 50, 60, 128. A favourable evangelical Christ. Thus, evangelicals have also exception is Douglas John Hall, Imaging God been critical of liberation theology, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1986). which was first developed in Latin 10 Chris Sugden, ‘Evangelicals and Environ- America7 and which has been regarded ment in Process’, Evangelical Review of Theol- in some quarters as subverting the gos- ogy 17.2 (1993): 119–21; Francis Schaeffer, pel’s central message about the eternal Pollution and the Death of Man (Wheaton, IL: salvation of souls. Tyndale, 1970); E. Calvin Beisner, Where Gar- den Meets Wilderness (Grand Rapids, MI: Acton From the 1960s through the 1990s, Institute and Eerdmans, 1997); John Stott, evangelicals were ambivalent at best foreword to R. J. Berry, The Care of Creation towards environmental initiatives by (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2000), 7. committees of the World Council of 11 Loren Wilkinson, ed., Earthkeeping (Grand Churches.8 Often the reason was a Rapids: Eerdmans, 1980) and Earthkeeping in mis-association of these initiatives the Nineties (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991); Fred van Dyke, David C. Mahan, Joseph K. with developments that evangelicals Sheldon, and Raymond H. Brand, Redeem- considered unacceptable, such as New ing Creation (Downers Grove: IVP Academic, 1996); Ed Brown, Our Father’s World (Downers Grove: IVP, 2008); Steven Bouma-Prediger, For 6 Michael P. Young, Bearing Witness against the Beauty of the Earth, 2nd ed. (Grand Rapids: Sin (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Baker Academic, 2010); Richard Bauckham, 2007). The Bible and Ecology (Waco: Baylor Universi- 7 Carl F. H. Henry, The Uneasy Conscience of ty Press, 2010) and Living with Other Creatures Modern Fundamentalism (Grand Rapids, MI: (Waco, Texas: Baylor University Press, 2011); Eerdmans, 1947). Daniel L. Brunner, Jennifer L. Butler, and A. J. 8 Ulrich Duchrow and Gerhard Liedke, Sha- Swoboda, Introducing Evangelical Ecotheology lom (Geneva: WCC, 1987). (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2014). Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 323 ized forums and issued statements 2008, its consultation with the Micah on science and faith, chemical safety, Network in 2009, and the co-hosting clean air and water, mercury exposure, of a global Call to Action with the and threats to the environment. In the Lausanne movement in 2012.16 US, the National Association of Evan- Transformation has indeed occurred gelicals (NAE) has featured environ- among American evangelicals with mental concerns,12 and the Southern regard to their role and participation Baptists, generally viewed as evangeli- in climate change.17 Relative to their cal, have published a statement on the prior ambivalence (primarily due to as- 13 topic. Nationally, however, the 2014 sessing it as a social-gospel emphasis), US Pew Religious Landscape Study evangelicals have now been more will- (released on 3 November 2015) reporting to accept eco-care as a Christian ed that evangelicals tend to disdain responsibility. But this resurgence of stricter environmental laws because hopeful engagement on eco-care is lim- enforcement hurts the economy and ited for the most part to working with costs too many jobs.14 fellow evangelicals.18 At a global level, the World Evan- A backlash against evangelical- gelical Alliance’s Creation Care Task ism’s support for environmental care Force organized its first project—the Joint Lausanne–WEA Global Creation came from the Cornwall Alliance, a Care Consultation in Jamaica from 29 non-profit, evangelical, earth steward- October to 3 November 2012.15 The WEA Global Issues Series saw publica- 16 Ken Gnanakan, Responsible Stewardship tions on evangelical engagement with of God’s Creation, rev. ed. (Bonn: Verlag für environmental ethics, public ethics, Kultur und Wissenschaft, 2014), and Tho- and responsible creation care in 2014 mas Schirrmacher and Thomas K. Johnson, and 2016. These built on the initiatives Creation Care and Loving Our Neighbors (Bonn: Verlag für Kultur und Wissenschaft, 2016). and statements adopted by the WEA See Declaration on Creation Stewardship and membership at its General Assembly in Climate Change (adopted by the WEA General Assembly, 2008); On the Care of Creation (the collaborative initiative with the Micah Net- 12 On the NAE, see http://nae.net/tag/envi- work, 2009); and WEA’s co-hosting of a global ronment/ (accessed 21 April 2017). The Crea- consultation, Call to Action (with the Lausanne tion Care document has received signatories Movement, 2012). from hundreds of Evangelical leaders. 17 Victor Lam, ‘The Heat Is On: The Role 13 ‘A Southern Baptist Declaration on the and Transformation of American Evangeli- Environment and Climate Change’, http:// cals in Climate Change Dialogue in the United www.cfr.org/religion/southern-baptist-decla- States’, Human Dimensions of Climate Change ration-environment-climate-change/p15847 (2014): 1–11. (accessed 21 April 2017). The declaration has 18 David Landis Barnhill and Roger S. Gott- hundreds of signatories. lieb, eds., Deep Ecology and World Religions 14 ‘U.S. Public Becoming Less Religious’ (New York: State University Press of New (Pew Research Center, 3 November 2015), York, 2001); Roger S. Gottlieb, ed., This Sacred 105. Earth (New York: Routledge, 2003; rpt. Taylor 15 See Evangelical Environment Network, & Francis, 2004); Anne Marie Dalton, Ecothe- http://creationcare.org/ (accessed 21 April ology and the Practice of Hope (New York: State 2017). University Press of New York, 2010). 324 Timothy T. N. Lim ship organization.19 This group warns consider the possibility of collaborative that ‘radical environmentalism’ repre- witness with Catholics. sents a ‘false religion’ of secular and First, LS is the only encyclical pagan religious environmentalism. It devoted to ecological care, and it ad- warns that the National Association of dresses the widest possible audience. Evangelicals’ Creation Care Declaration LS is aimed at the whole world, unlike (2006) will be ‘deadly to the gospel of Lumen Fidei’s address ‘to the bishops, Jesus Christ’.20 The Cornwall Alliance priests, and deacons, consecrated has also expressed reservations about person[s], and the lay faithful’.21 It Pope Francis’ encyclical on the envi- calls all people to recognize and act on ronment. an urgent responsibility before us—to care for creation—as an expression of our commitments to God, creation and III Laudato Si: An Integral future generations. Francis expressly Ecology desires to ‘dialogue with all people about our common home’.22 He contin- 1. Background ues to call for widespread action, such as in his recent address to the UN Gen- The Pope’s encyclical, Laudato Si (LS), eral Assembly, which may be read as was released on 24 May 2015. This the quintessence of LS.23 document’s weighty, multi-disciplinary Second, LS presents a compelling analysis may have come as a surprise case for a broad and interdisciplinary for those who would have expected it openness to caring for creation. It not to focus solely on religious responsibility for creation. Advance leaks about only discusses environmental issues the document caused LS to be greatly but also explains how the many and anticipated. It is a substantive, impor- immense social and political crises tant contribution that we can study of our time (e.g. consumerism, global with interest and profit. inequality, social degradation, human Though not Pope Francis’ first en- trafficking, wars and conflicts, state- cyclical, LS stands out from his oth- craft) are interwoven with the ecologi- ers as well as from the declarations of cal crisis. LS explains why an effec- previous popes in at least three ways, tive ecological care program cannot which make it an important document compartmentalize or focus narrowly for evangelicals to examine as they on environmental issues. Caring for the earth would also have to address

19 Cornwall Alliance, www.cornwallalliance. org/about/what-we-do/ (accessed 21 April 21 Cf. LS 3, p. 2 with Pope Francis, Lumen 2017). Fidei (Rome: Vatican, 29 June 2015). 20 Cf. 12-part video, ‘Resisting the Green 22 LS 3, p. 2. Dragon,’ cited in John Collins Rudolf, ‘An 23 Pope Francis’s Address to 70th Session Evangelical Backlash Against Environmen- of the United Nations General Assembly (25 talism’, New York Times (30 December 2010), September 2015), http://en.radiovaticana.va/ http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/12/30/ news/2015/09/25/pope_francis_addresses_ an-evangelical-backlash-against-environmen- the_un_general_assembly/1174588 (accessed talism/?_r=0 (accessed 21 April 2017). 21 April 2017). Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 325 many pressing and interrelated social, 2. Structure economic and political concerns. The LS contains six chapters after the in- reason for the global appeal is that all troduction which hails Francis of Assisi 24 of life is interconnected. as an example par excellence in caring Third, LS is the only papal document for the vulnerable and for his integral in recent decades to have generated ecology.28 The introduction frames the great interest both before and after papal teaching as continuous with his 25 its release (on 24 May 2015). Epis- predecessors’ teachings, and in uni- copal Church of Europe Bishop Pierre son with philosophers, environmental Wahlon predicted that LS’ impact will scientists, civic advocacy groups, and be felt politically and in ‘the major en- leaders from other ecclesiastical tradi- vironmental and economic debates of tions.29 There is substantial mention of 26 our time’. Various Catholic agencies ecological thoughts from the works of have produced documents to instruct, the medieval theologian Bonaventure. apply and act on LS’ recommendations. LS also contains eighteen references to These activities and the designation of documents from various world confer- the World Day of Prayer for Care of ences of Catholic bishops. Creation (1 September 2015) indicate Chapter one reviews the present 27 the extent of LS’ impact. ecological crisis in light of the wide- ranging and interweaving socio-po- 24 LS 138, p 40. litical factors that have impacted the 25 Jim Yardley and Laurie Goodstein, ‘Pope rapid loss of biodiversity in our com- Francis, in Sweeping Encyclical, Calls mon home. Chapter two argues that for Swift Action on Climate Change,’ New the Judeo-Christian theology of crea- York Times (18 June 2015), www.nytimes. tion and the message of the gospel call com/2015/06/19/world/europe/pope-francis- Christians to commit to the environ- in-sweeping-encyclical-calls-for-swift-action- on-climate-change.html?_r=0 (accessed 21 ment. Chapter three analyses the hu- April 2017). man roots and deepest causes of the 26 Pierre Wahlon, ‘Laudato Si: What’s Miss- ecological crisis. Chapter four presents ing, What’s Not,’ The Huffington Post (22 the possibilities of conceiving intra- June 2015), www.huffingtonpost.com/bishop- individual, intra-organizational, and pierre-whalon/laudato-si-whats-missing- international solutions as an integral whats-not_b_7630516.html (accessed 21 ecology. April 2017). Chapter five proposes lines of ac- 27 See examples from the U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops www.usccb.org/issues- tion. Chapter six broadens the practical and-action/human-life-and-dignity/environment/; Catholic Social Teaching (UK) (www. catholicsocialteaching.org.uk/themes/care- catholicclimatecovenant.org/# (accessed 21 creation/reflection/); Cindy Wooden, ‘Pope April 2017). designates Sept. 1 as World Day of Prayer for 28 LS 10, p 3. Care of Creation,’ Catholic News Service (10 29 Francis draws from John XXIII’s Pacem in August 2015), www.catholicnews.com/serv- Ternis (1963), Paul VI’s Octogensima Adeniens ices/englishnews/2015/pope-designates-sept- (1971), John Paul II’s Sollietudo Rei Socalis 1-as-world-day-of-prayer-for-care-of-creation. (1987), Centesimus Annus (1991) and Cateche- cfm (all accessed 21 April 2017); for Catholic sis (2001), and Emeritus Pope Benedict XVI’s Climate Covenant program initiatives, www. Caritas in Veritate (2009). LS 3–6, 2–3. 326 Timothy T. N. Lim application from concrete ecological masters, consumers and exploiters of action to education and the cultivation creation for their selfish wants, they of virtues, ethics and spirituality. LS trade away their rights to be stewards ends with two prayers, one of which of creation.34 esteems Mary as the Mother of Jesus The encyclical identifies the influ- and as the Queen of Creation.30 ence of non-ecological factors that fuel today’s ecological crisis: depletion of 3. The integral care for our home natural resources, massive pollution, adverse effects on global warming, lack Humanity lives in a connected world in of fresh and safe water, devastating ef- which the rich, the poor and the vulner- fects of rapid climate change, loss of able are engulfed in the economy and biodiversity, and collateral damage to the exercise of power (in their many life, relationships and economy. This forms and contexts). Humans should collateral damage has been generated neither dominate nor exercise a ‘ty- by inefficient structures of production rannical anthropocentrism’ over crea- and consumption, the fragility of the tion.31 Humanity carries the respon- deified market interest, and the short- sibility to care for the environment.32 sighted, self-serving vision of political Instead of exercising sobriety and leaders and consumers in accumulat- tenderly caring for creation, Francis ing wealth. observes that humanity’s progress in science and technology in the market- The document frowns on the throw- based, consumerist economy has un- away culture and the inhumane exploi- wittingly driven the environment into tation of the poorest, all conducted at a crisis. the expense of others in present and In the papal analysis, the scientific future generations. The apathy or in- and technological advances of recent difference to ecological care is evident centuries, despite their immense good in the collusion of political, financial and benefit to mankind (especially in and corporate entities to maintain the alleviating human suffering and pain), status quo instead of collaborating to have mistreated the ecosystem and resolve the complex human and eco- 35 have caused drastic harm to the en- logical plight. The earth’s goods will 36 vironment and human civilization. By not indefinitely supply human wants. introducing man-made solutions to Francis recommends an integrated fulfil utilitarian goals, humanity has program of interdisciplinary dialogue inevitably upset the ecocycle, causing and multi-dimensional and multi-agen- 37 the environment to deteriorate at an cy efforts to shape a better future. He alarming rate.33 When humans become calls for (a) rethinking ecological care processes, (b) correcting the misdi-

30 LS 246, pp. 70-2. 31 LS 67–8, 82, pp. 20, 24. 15, 32, 47. 32 LS 95, 28; cf. Thomas Berry, The Christian 34 LS 11, p, 4. Future and the Fate of the Earth (New York: Or- 35 LS, ch. 1. bis 2009). 36 LS 106, p. 31. 33 LS 25, 32, 51, 107 and 162, pp. 8, 10–11, 37 LS 13–5, 53, 141, pp. 4–5, 16, 41. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 327 rected logic underlying the present-day lective good. culture,38 (c) convening dialogues, and The call of LS for humankind (and (d) commissioning regulated action not just the church) to seek common plans to overturn the current down- good and collective goodwill and to be ward ‘spiral of self-destruction’39 and in solidarity with and caring for crea- so as to arrive at a ‘global consensus’ tion, for the most vulnerable, and for of thought and action to confront the the poorest in the market economy is grave problems facing humanity.40 noteworthy. Humanity indeed needs Francis urges individual efforts to respect creation and demonstrate such as reduced driving, planting trees ways to preserve the biodiversity and and avoiding use of non-renewable eco-systems of life, minimize pollution, plastics, as well as teaching and mod- cut back on wasting resources, and elling ecological behaviour in the fam- restrain the selfish use of human and ily setting.41 Religions offer valuable political will power. It also needs to supportive resources and should not be exercise sobriety in the use of ‘techno- relegated to a negligible role or place science’, especially to facilitate human in the process.42 development towards justice, peace, love and beauty in society. 4. Laudato Si and Catholic social Catholic social teaching also urges correcting infrastructural, institu- teaching tional, communal and interpersonal LS is quite consistent with previous inequality and disrespect, along with Catholic social teaching, as contained financial, economic, social and political in the Pontifical Council for Justice and initiatives to improve the quality of hu- Peace’s Compendium of the Social Doc- man life, creational co-existence, and trine of the Church.43 Most specifically, society. Moreover, LS bases its appeal fighting poverty, fostering interna- on the interconnectedness of the uni- tional community and values, taming versal family of humanity and creation, or positive use of biotechnology (206), as Francis urges ‘an unwavering com- responsible sharing of goods, and sen- mitment’ of all people to this fraternal sitivity to new lifestyles all contribute bond and ‘universal communion’.44 to the protection or at least the safe- guarding of the environment as a col- 5. Responses from religious groups 38 LS 197, p. 57. Despite general consistency of this 39 LS 163, p. 47. document with Catholic social teach- 40 LS 164, p. 48. ings, the secular world seems to have 41 LS 211, 213, p. 61. received Francis’ appeal as a radically 42 LS 199, p. 57. new proposal. To those who have been 43 Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace, Compendium of the Social Doctrine of the Church sceptical about the calls of religious (Washington, DC: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, communities for social transforma- United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, tion, LS has become an instrument 2004). See also Sean McDonagh’s commentary on LS in Pope Francis, On Care for Our Common Home (New York: Orbis, 2016), Part 1. 44 LS 89, 91-2, pp. 26 and 27. 328 Timothy T. N. Lim for re-reception of the teachings, con- The Plymouth Brethren–born evan- victions and values of Christianity. gelical and internationally recognized Thus, LS has provoked many differ- climate scientist, Katherine Hayhoe, ent responses from those outside the who co-authored A Climate for Change, Roman Catholic Church, ranging from met with eleven evangelical leaders enthusiastic to scathing.45 Space does and a few George Fox Seminary profes- not permit a complete examination of sors from Portland, Oregon, USA be- these responses, but I will discuss five fore presenting ‘Climate Change: Facts responses from religious sources of and Faith’ to the World Affairs Council various prominence and perspectives. in June 2015. Acclaimed by Foreign The World Council of Churches’ Policy as one of the ‘Leading Global (WCC) Ecumenical Water Network Thinkers’ and by Time magazine as one (EWN), which comprises representa- of the ‘100 Most Influential People,’ tives from the Catholic bishops in Latin Hayhoe merits careful consideration. America and Africa, as well as regional At the gathering, she affirmed dis- ecumenical organizations and repre- cussion in LS of the urgency of pur- sentatives of the Orthodox and Prot- suing environmental ethics, agreeing estant churches in the WCC, issued that the problems of climate change a document in support of LS. EWN have transmuted into disproportion- evaluates LS as a document with ‘deep ate suffering among the poor and the insight and timely commentary’, espe- most vulnerable. The most affected, cially ‘on the critical and interconnect- she said, are those who reside in ar- ed issues of water, injustice, climate eas affected by heat waves, stronger change and the loss of biodiversity’. hurricanes, major changes in growing EWN agrees with Francis’ rejection of seasons, wildfires, etc. She expressed ‘ “tyrannical” and “distorted anthropo- agreement with analyses contained in centrism” and … affirms outright the LS about the ‘indirect impacts of cli- intrinsic value of all creatures’. It also mate change, such as civil unrest and finds credibility in Francis’ analysis climate refugees’. Hayhoe also men- that human greed, selfishness, igno- tioned the Pentagon’s concern that rance and self-interest are ‘the sources climate change may exacerbate other of human misconduct’ that contributed social problems and critiqued various to human judgements and decisions capitalist and market economy policies that wrecked the ecosystem.46 in a fashion similar to LS.47 Southern Baptist Theological Semi- nary President, Albert Mohler Jr., 45 See a page in Yale’s Forum on Religion and though not an expert on ecotheology, Ecology website dedicated to responses on the encyclical: http://fore.yale.edu/news-related- has also expressed appreciation for the to-pope-francis-climate-change-and-the-envi- Pope’s appeal. According to Mohler, ronment (accessed 21 April 2017). in ‘tell[ing] the poorest nations that 46 ‘Response from EWN on the Encyclical Laudato Si,’ World Council of Churches (24 July 2015), www.oikoumene.org/en/resourc- April 2017). es/documents/wcc-programmes/diakonia/ 47 Dan Brunner, ‘Climate Change: Evangeli- water-network/response-from-ewn-on-the- cals and the Pope’, Bearings (Collegeville In- encyclical-201claudato-si201d-1 (accessed 21 stitute), 6 August 2015. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 329 they must forego immediate needs for ment about the ‘grave implications’ refrigeration, modern medicine, and that may follow the ‘unprecedented advances of the modern age’,48 Francis destruction of ecosystems’. The group is not hiding behind an ulterior motive also shared Francis’ observation about to critique the free market system. how the lack of ‘culture and leader- Rather, he is urging all nations to be- ship’ would confront those residing come more environmentally conscious both in the more developed regions and in their lifestyles. the less developed regions.49 An interesting response by a lo- In his personal capacity as an eccle- cal parish with a commitment to care sial theologian, Russell R. Reno, the for the environment came from the editor of First Things and an Episcopa- Peace Lutheran Church of Seattle, lian by birth and who was received into Washington, a member congregation the Catholic fold in 2004, published of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in a weighty analysis of LS.50 Although America (ELCA). The Peace Lutheran Reno affirms Francis’ observations Church of Seattle received LS positive- about the ‘much-needed effort to grasp ly. For six consecutive weeks in March and respond to today’s global realities’ and April 2016, it invited members and his ‘strong, often comprehensive from various local Christian groups criticisms of the secular technological to explore how they could accept this project’ that would impinge upon the document’s ‘urgent challenge to pro- global, environmental concerns and tect our common home’ and ‘dialogue the ‘central ecological issue today’, he about how we are shaping the future also points out what he considers the of our planet’. Participants agreed ‘weakness’ of the encyclical. to seek ‘a non-consumerism model Indeed, LS utilizes a ‘dire’ and of life, recreation, and community’. ‘doomsday … rhetoric of crisis’ to com- They called for wider consensual, col- municate the urgency of the ecological laborative actions between community situation. Although there is nothing leaders (such as scientists, activists, inherently wrong with such a tactic, business leaders, politicians, and faith Reno contends that phrases in this community leaders). document such as ‘integral ecology’ Though the Peace Lutheran Church and ‘lines of approach and action’ fail consortium at Seattle affirmed many to provide cogently the ‘new synthe- of the Pope’s analyses, they disagreed sis’, ‘radical change’, or ‘bold cultural about how the wealthy regions ought to revolution’ needed to resolve ‘the spi- intervene. They warned that ‘under the ral of self-destruction which currently guise of noble claims’ proposals may generate ‘new wars’. The disagree- ment is notwithstanding their agree- 49 See Peace Lutheran Church, Seattle, Washington’s letter of response to Pope Fran- cis, www.peacelutheranseattle.org/?p=2378 48 R. Albert Mohler Jr., ‘Mohler responds to (accessed 21 April 2017). Pope Francis’ Laudato Si,’ Southern News (18 50 R. R. Reno, ‘The Weakness of Laudato Si,’ June 2015), http://news.sbts.edu/2015/06/18/ First Things (1 July 2015), https://www.firstth- mohler-responds-to-pope-francis-laudato-si/ ings.com/web-exclusives/2015/07/the-weak- (accessed 21 April 2017). ness-of-laudato-si (accessed 21 April 2017). 330 Timothy T. N. Lim engulfs us’. ‘ample continuities and equally ample According to Reno, LS sounds ‘like discontinuities with the great tradition just another version’ of weighing the that preceded him’,51 i.e. Catholic so- ‘trade-offs’ between ‘risks and bene- cial teaching and the tradition of west- fits’. Reno deems the current approach ern political philosophy. to choosing between ‘risks and benefits’ as the ‘signature achievements of scientific and technological mas- IV Locating an Evangelical tery’. While LS claims to offer a truly Response to Laudato Si ‘new, integral and interdisciplinary ap- In previous time periods, many evan- proach’, Reno contends that Francis’ gelicals held to a dominionist reading recommendations actually resemble of creation for human ends and did not the ‘best practices’ offered by McKin- imagine any possibility of rehabilitat- sey consultants. ing fallen creation (due to doomsday McKinsey’s ‘best practices’ are read eschatological presuppositions).52 Now, as ‘technocratic conceits’ of late mo- evangelicals accept more interconnect- dernity, ‘designed to avoid substantive ed theologies of creation and embrace moral and metaphysical questions’. the intrinsic beauty of creation even in McKinsey consultants would take God its post-lapsarian condition. Contempo- out of the puzzle instead of urging a rary evangelicals recognize more read- return to God to solve the problems ily their God-given roles as witnesses of humanity. If the root cause of the to eco-care, and to morality in various present ecological crisis is ‘the failure socio-political contexts. to acknowledge God’, Reno observes, This shift is demonstrated most then Francis’ endorsement of the Earth clearly in Introducing Evangelical Eco- Charter (a secular initiative for sus- theology (2014).53 The book presents tainable society) does not overcome a evangelicals’ journey in several parts: humanistic approach that seeks to ex- biblical-theological, historical and clude God. praxis. The authors affirm (a) the ne- Reno’s mixed review should be placed alongside other Catholic cri- cessity of ‘listening to scripture’ for tiques. For instance, Daniel Mahoney eco-care, (b) ‘the grandeur and groan- observes in National Review that Fran- ing of the earth’, (c) the history of cis’ ideological remarks in LS ‘some- Christian engagement with creation as times, too, confuse Christian charity with secular humanitarianism’. Ma- 51 Daniel J. Mahoney, ‘Laudato Si and the honey also thinks that LS has drawn Catholic Social Tradition,’ National Review from ‘secular apocalypticism’ which (10 October 2015), www.nationalreview.com/ ‘the pope must avoid’. Mahoney claims article/425349/laudato-si-and-catholic-social- that at times, ‘he [Pope Francis] con- tradition-daniel-j-mahoney (accessed 21 April fuses his personal judgments … with 2017). 52 Kyle S. Van Houtan and Michael S. North- the full weight of Catholic wisdom’. cott, eds., Diversity and Dominion (Eugene, OR: Still, Mahoney urges respect for Cascade, 2010). Francis’ artful engagement with envi- 53 Brunner, Butler and Swoboda, Introducing ronmental concerns. LS demonstrates Evangelical Ecotheology. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 331 a journey ‘in the wilderness’, and (d) LS makes no substantial mention of the Trinitarian call to restore earthly eschatological presuppositions and im- Eden. Evangelicals could follow the plications, which is a drawback in his book’s commitment to pursuing eco- treatment. I hold that eschatology is activism in six ways: justice, mercy, an integral aspect of Christian dogmat- heavenly-minded living for earthly ics and theology, and that it ought to good, embodied earthly living, support- influence the shape of ecotheology and ing greening efforts of the church, and be viewed as praxis of discipleship (as maintaining hope in the resurrection. God’s stewards in caring for life and In the spirit of promoting evangeli- creation). cal eco-care, and against the backdrop Adding an eschatological dimen- of shifts in evangelical ecotheology, I sion to an appeal for creation care is craft in this section of the paper a pos- also relevant for evangelicals who sible tripartite response to Laudato have been wearied by controversies in Si for evangelicals. My purpose is to eschatology. The eschatological reality consider how Francis’ appeal relates of the future should not inhibit evan- to evangelical understanding and thus gelical participation in eco-care in the to what extent evangelicals may accept present time, regardless of one’s es- LS’ appeal to witness collaboratively chatological stance.56 on eco-care. Evangelicals need not fear the es- In considering this question, we chatological dimension of ecotheol- should locate the appeal of LS for col- ogy. We need not reject ‘this-worldly’ laborative witness for the sake of the concerns to live an ‘otherworldly’ life gospel as one among other such invita- or vice versa. Neither do speculations tions extended in the Cape Town Com- about the plight of the earth at the es- mitment (2010), Christian Witness in a chaton (as complete destruction, rec- Multi-Religious World (2011), Together reation, or the transformation of the Towards Life (2013), and Evangelii Gau- present universe into a new heaven 54 dium (2013). and earth) imply the meaningfulness or futility of pursuing ecological praxis 1. Affirmations with additions in the present life. Like the biblical, theological treatment found in LS, the evangelical imperative Evangelical Environmentalism,’ in The Oxford to care for God’s earth rests on a bib- Handbook of Religion and Ecology, edited by lical basis for ecotheology.55 However, Roger S. Gottlieb (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 568–87. 56 See Thomas N. Finger, Evangelicals Escha- 54 See references in note 2. See also my tology and the Environment (Wynnewood, PA: reading of these documents in Timothy T. N. Evangelical Environmental Network, 1998); Lim, ‘The Holy Spirit in EG, TTL, and CTC: for more recent developments, see Jacques The Pneumatological Impulse for Christian Berlinerblau, Thumpin’ It (Louisville, KY: Mission,’ International Review of Mission 104.2 Westminster John Knox Press, 2008), ch. 2, (November 2015): 203–16. ‘The Bible and the Environment: Evangelicals 55 Bouma-Prediger, Beauty of the Earth, Discover Climate Change and Democrats Dis- 81–110 and 111–29; Calvin B. DeWitt, ‘The cover Evangelicals’. See also Bouma-Prediger, Scientist and the Shepherd: The Emergence of Beauty of the Earth, 57–80. 332 Timothy T. N. Lim

If the gospel entails the restoration tion, even if God may put an end to this and renewal of the earth and all crea- earth at a future time unknown to us.59 tion as part of Christ’s incarnational The social costs of greed, careless- mission (Rom 8:21–23), then the man- ness and ignorance have been enor- date of living the gospel includes our mous. Exploitation of the environment part in seeking the renewal of creation, and other socio-economically and po- which will be reconstituted in Christ.57 litically irresponsible decisions have As eschatological theologian Brian furthered ecological degradation and Hebblethwaite explains, drawing from caused our ecological crises to spiral. Jürgen Moltmann’s The Coming God, All humanity is responsible for pre- ‘the ultimate hope of resurrection, serving our complex, multi-layered, anticipated in Jesus Christ … opens interconnected, bio-diverse, ecological up, empowers, and demands Christian and atmospheric home. In response to hope for this-worldly liberation in all Francis’ plea, evangelicals may affirm its aspects’, which would include the with Catholics their eco-concern for pursuit of an ecological restoration as making the world a better place. a this-worldly responsibility for the other-worldly life to come. Hebblethwaite 2. Ambivalence amidst continues, ‘Just because the resurrec- agreement tion of Jesus is the anticipation of the Yet, unlike the explicit openness of LS end of universal history, the Christian to the use of the work of secular scien- must hope and work for the transfor- tists and environmentalists to inform mation of every aspect of the present.’58 a Christian response to the ecological Secularists, dating back to Lynn crisis, some evangelicals remain am- White in 1967, have frequently blamed bivalent about ‘environmental justice’, Christians’ otherworldly eschatology which is read as a notion advanced by for lack of interest in, or even for ex- secular environmentalists in either too acerbating, the environmental crisis. cosmocentric (and not sufficiently an- However, evangelical ecological views thropocentric and theocentric) or too have matured, showing that there is biocentric terms.60 Although scientific plenty of room for believers to care for findings do inform an understanding of this world as well. Christian eschatology generally values the transformation of creation, not its rampant destruc- 59 Lynn White Jr., ‘The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis,’ Science 155 (10 March 1967): 1203–7; for a response, Richard T. 57 William J. Dumbrell, The Search for Order Wright, ‘Responsibility for the Ecological Cri- (Grand Rapids: Baker Books, 1994), 297–8; sis,’ Bioscience 20.15 (August 1970): 851–3. Shane Clifton, ‘Preaching the “Full Gospel” 60 For secular environmental ethics, see Re- in the Context of Global Environmental Cri- nee Skelton and Vernice Miller, The Environ- ses’, in The Spirit Renews the Face of the Earth, mental Justice Movement (Natural Resources edited by Amos Yong (Eugene, OR: Cascade, Defense Council, 2016). https://www.nrdc. 2009), 117–34. org/stories/environmental-justice-movement 58 Brian Hebblethwaite, The Christian Hope (accessed 5 May 2017). For an evangelical (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010), 181, appropriation of ecojustice, see Brunner, Intro- 187. ducing Evangelical Ecotheology, 162–7. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 333 the natural world, not all evangelicals agree that salvation includes a healed could accept secular environmental- creation.65 ists’ de facto assumption that the sci- Even so, evangelical theology agrees ences provide concrete authority for on the value of all life, not just human their pursuits in environmental care.61 life, as does LS. However, evangeli- Neither do all evangelicals, especial- cals typically affirm the ‘instrumental ly American capitalistic evangelicals, value’ of creation. This is in contrast agree with LS’ analysis that economic to LS which agrees with environmental policies have exacerbated the ecologi- justice ethicists in recognising the ‘in- cal crisis rather than contributing to trinsic value’ of the non-human natural human flourishing.62 Evangelicals world.66 For those evangelicals, only generally see themselves as hopeful humans are moral beings, with the agents of God’s transformation,63 amid right to exercise dominion over other some literalists who still hold a more creatures, and non-human species are ephemeral view of the earth because resources for the use of humanity.67 of a doomsday or pre-millennial es- Still, creation is more than and not less chatology.64 Also, not all evangelicals than a resource for humanity, because, as the psalmist declared, creation sings forth the glory of God (Ps 19:1). 61 Evangelicals’ reservations about the sciences are more complex than a choice of ei- Humans do not own creation, but ther affirmation or rejection. See David N. are stewards entrusted with the care Livinstone, D.G. Hart and Mark A. Noll, eds., of creation. Together with all crea- Evangelicals and Science in Historical Perspec- tive (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); Michael Roberts, Evangelicals and Science 65 Howard A. Snyder, Salvation Means Crea- (New York: Greenwood, 2008). tion Healed (Eugene, OR: Cascade, 2011); cf. 62 For the Health of the Nation: An Evangelical Ernst M. Conradie, ed., Creation and Salvation, Call to Civic Responsibility (Washington, DC: 2 vols. (London: LIT Verlag, 2012). National Association of Evangelicals, 2004) 66 Norman Wirzba, The Paradise of God (New demonstrates a willingness not just to urge York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 61–2. policy changes but also to collaborate in socio- Among other things, Wirzba also critiques political spheres and, in that sense, to draw contemporary culture for abandoning the in- upon the political economy as a change agent. terconnectedness, which aids flourishing of 63 Jürgen Moltmann’s works The Future of life, and for displacing the relevance of God in Creation, trans. Margaret Kohl (Minneapolis: contemporary understanding of creation. Fortress, 1979), The Coming of God (Minneap- 67 Several corrections have emerged. David olis: Fortress, 1996), The Spirit of Life, trans. S. Cunningham, ‘The Way of All Flesh: Re- Margaret Kohl (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1992) thinking the Imago Dei’, in Creaturely Theol- and In the End–The Beginning, trans. Marga- ogy, edited by Celia Deane-Drummond and ret Kohl (London: SCM, 2004), among other David Clough (London: SCM Press, 2009), works, have been appropriated in various 100–18 rejects the imago dei as a distinctive evangelical eschatologies despite Moltmann’s feature of the human creation. Ryan Patrick pantheistic tendencies. For a different escha- McLaughlin, Christian Theology and the Sta- tological reading, see Hans Schwarz, Eschatol- tus of Animals (London: Palgrave Macmillan, ogy (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000). 2014), affirms cosmo-sacramental of peace. 64 Stanley J. Grenz, The Millennial Maze On Christian animal rights, see Stephen M. (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1992), Vantassel, Dominion over Wildlife? (Eugene, 213–4. OR: Resource Publications, 2009). 334 Timothy T. N. Lim tion, humanity showcases the Crea- mentalists, economists and anthro- tor’s handiwork, and in our earth and pologists, we can still heed its appeal animal stewardship, we too join all to collaborate with others, not just creation to give God the glory! As the Christians, in repairing the world we late Reformed scientific theologian, inhabit. Thomas Torrance, reminds us, ‘an un- Francis’ theological understanding, breakable bond’ in the Christian hope charitable spirit and recognition of the of redemption and recreation ‘extends urgency of the crisis have motivated not just to human beings but to the uni- his appeal for a holistic and interdis- verse as a whole’.68 ciplinary adoption of creation care, Thus, though evangelicals have working alongside constituencies out- maintained ambivalence about how side the Catholic tradition. Evangeli- to respond to the ecological crisis be- cals can learn from Francis’ goodwill cause of conflicting data in ecological and willingness to work with others for science, technology and theology,69 the the sake of ‘saving’ the world ecologi- invitation of LS provides an example cally. Ecological conversion is a part of for collaborative action amid disagree- the gospel.71 ments. However, I am not claiming that evangelicals have to formulate their re- 3. Abstinence sponses based on controversial scientific findings. Notwithstanding many evangelicals’ The relationship between science, positive appraisal of Pope Francis and/ 72 theology and ethics has been rigor- or LS, some within the evangelical ously discussed among a wide range camp would likely resist (or at least of evangelicals, and to date no clear abstain from following) LS and its ap- consensus has been reached.70 For our peal to activism, and in doing so they purpose, even if evangelicals may not would demonstrate historic continuity agree with the reading in LS about the with much of their own tradition. Evan- findings of secular scientists, environ- gelicals abstained from participation in the early days of global ecological coalitions, such as in 1972 when the Unit- 68 Thomas Torrance, The Christian Doctrine of God (Edinburgh: T & T Clark, 1996), 244. 69 John Jefferson Davis, ‘Ecological “Blind 71 Denis Edwards, Partaking of God (Colle- Spots” in the Structure and Content of Recent geville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2014), Part 3. Evangelical Systematic Theologies,’ Journal 72 For example, Evangelical Environmental of Evangelical Theological Society 43.2 (June Network President and CEO, Mitchell C. Hes- 2000): 273–86. cox, ‘All Children Deserve a Healthy Climate’, 70 J. P. Moreland, Christianity and the Na- National Catholic Reporter (3 June 2015), ht- ture of Science (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, tps://www.ncronline.org/blogs/eco-catholic/ 1989); Phillip E. Johnson, Reason in the Bal- all-children-deserve-healthy-climate (accessed ance (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1995); 21 April 2017); University of Wisconsin–Madi- Jürgen Moltmann, Science and Wisdom, trans. son environmental scientist. Calvin B. DeWitt, Margaret Kohl (Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003); ‘Evangelical Contributions to Earth Steward- James K. A. Smith and Amos Yong, eds., Sci- ship: Laudato Si and Stewardship as Con-Serv- ence and the Spirit (Bloomington: Indiana Uni- ice’, presented at the 100th anniversary of the versity Press, 2010). Ecological Society of America, 18 June 2015. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 335 ed Nations first convened an ecological escence of LS in engaging with native, conference titled ‘Only One Earth’. non-Christian, planetary spiritualities Evangelicals have also had limited rep- would sit uncomfortably with Evan- resentation at the Earth Charter, a glo- gelicals who have had unfriendly en- bal ethical project that declares ethical counters with folk spiritualities, and principles of building a sustainable fu- thus some degree of abstinence is to be ture and which held a worldwide civil expected. society consultation in 2000.73 In light of these historic and con- Historically, evangelicals’ distrust temporary cases of evangelical reluc- of government and suspicion of global tance to join in global collaborations, coalitions have led them to mis-char- albeit for noteworthy causes (such as acterize these entities as unfavour- the care of creation), one can likely able developments or even as works project that some evangelicals will not of the anti-Christ. Yet changes are be excited about the call of LS for glo- evident, particularly since evangelical bal collaboration on eco-care, though John Houghton’s involvement as co- they may be unlikely to speak against chair of the Intergovernmental Panel the necessity of joint or complemen- on Climate Change and the initiation tary efforts at some level. of American mega-church pastor Rick Still, with regard to these evangeli- Warren’s PEACE program.74 cal reasons for abstinence, it may be Moreover, ideas about ‘natural spir- relevant to consider George Fox Semi- ituality’ have frequently been inter- nary faculty member Randy Woodley’s twined in the quest for eco-care, and inquiry as to whether there can be a dif- evangelicalism maintains a studious ferent reception of ‘harmony’ through distance from New Age movements the notion of shalom.76 Or could bib- or groups that seek a harmonization lical scholar Walter Brueggemann’s with ‘Mother Earth’. This harmoniza- urge for harmony among all creation tion schema is an essential belief and be fruitfully appropriated to redirect practice of many New Age proponents, some evangelicals’ tendencies towards but evangelicals view it as incompat- abstinence?77 ible with Christian belief.75 The acqui- V Preliminary Preparations for 73 See The Earth Charter Initiative 2006; Collaborative Witness http://earthcharter.org/virtual-library2/the- The recommendation for evangelicals earth-charter-text/ (accessed Apr. 21, 2017). 74 Brunner, Introducing Evangelical Ecothe- to participate collaboratively with ology, 94, 153; cf. Bob Goudzwaard, Mark Catholics and others in ‘caring for our Vander Vennen, and David van Heemst, Hope common home’ entails the following in Troubled Times (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), 16–23. 75 Douglas R. Groothuis, Unmasking the New 76 Randy Woodley, Shalom and the Commu- Age (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 1986); nity of Creation (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, Ron Rhodes, The Counterfeit Christ of the New 2012). Age Movement (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 77 Walter Brueggemann, Peace (St Louis: 1991) and New Age Movement (Grand Rapids, Chalice, 2001), 13-4; cf. Brunner, Introducing MI: Zondervan, 1995). Evangelical Ecotheology, 129. 336 Timothy T. N. Lim preliminary preparations, especially in Although many notable individu- light of the prior considerations of why als have published various useful re- some evangelicals may be cautiously sources, documenting officially the open to an action plan while others re- principles of dialogue and the ethics of main ambivalent or choose to abstain collaborative eco-witness will prepare from such collaborations. evangelicals ‘to enter into critical dialogue with the religious (and non-reli- 78 1. Extending the conversation gious) convictions of other people’. As these resources have highlighted Evangelicals could intentionally ex- in their examination of aspects of crea- tend their conversation to others who tion care, many potential challenges may not think, conceive, and act like may inhibit meaningful engagement.79 us—Christians and non-Christians, re- Still, without a representative commis- ligious and non-religious, governmen- sion of sorts, these individual voices do tal and non-governmental, etc. not speak for the diverse evangelical Evangelicals have been comfort- community. able talking and collaborating among Along with these insights, I wish themselves. Though some may inter- to emphasize that collaboration is also pret willingness to dialogue as a tacit about partnership and that there is val- approval of other groups’ beliefs and ue in learning the dynamics of group practices, in most cases dialogue mere- interaction and of intra- and inter- ly provides an occasion for understand- group engagement. Skilful use of group ing ourselves and others better. processes can help dialogue partners Because evangelicals do not have to overcome inhibitions, encourage ef- resources like the Catholic magisteri- fective group interaction, and prevent um and do not look to an authoritative collaborative pitfalls.80 A call for more teaching office, esteemed evangelical para-church organizations such as the World Evangelical Alliance ultimately 78 Schirmacher and Johnson, Environmental do not confer with or claim to establish Ethics, 60. any authoritative power over others in 79 For instance, Schirrmacher and Johnson’s the diverse evangelical conscience and Environmental Ethics (2016) has indirectly polity. Thus, collaborations with con- shown that the evangelical conscience does impact how we support of appeals for the right stituencies within and outside evan- to drinking water, respond to inappropriate gelicalism could occur only as volun- dualities in public ethics, converse with other tary participation. religious and non-religious, secular groups on their approaches to creation care and the use of technology, and so forth. Gnanakan’s 2. Providing resources evangelical adumbration of the theological, Evangelical leaders could provide a ecclesiological and practical aspects of eco- more representative set of resources understanding in Responsible Stewardship of to assist the re-thinking of a theology, God’s Creation (2014) can help congregations to formulate an evangelical consciousness of practice and ethics of dialogue, partici- and response to the environmental crisis. pation and collaboration with partici- 80 I have written on the dynamics of collabo- pants outside evangelicalism for the ration among churches in Ecclesial Recogni- care of creation. tion (Leiden: Brill, 2017). See also Christena Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response 337 representative efforts from the diverse As realistic supporters of technolog- evangelical community will hopefully ical research and use, evangelicals are provide resources for enabling effec- poised to provide a balanced response. tive dialogue and facilitating collabora- Evangelical theology reflects real- tion. ism (not naïvete) about the fallibility of humanity, the ethics of responsible 3. Articulating a response stewardship and the needed anchor of spirituality in a pleasure-seeking, con- Evangelicals who have been at the sumeristic, fallen world. Evangelicals forefront in the appreciative use of technology could come together to ar- have much to offer a world filled with ticulate a much-needed response, both misaligned hopes for the capabilities of to those who are ambivalent and fear- science and technology. God alone sat- ful about technological advancement isfies humanity’s deepest yearnings, (because they are horrified by the enor- and contentment is not measured by mously ‘unprecedented proportion’ of what the world offers or by the condi- 82 destructive capacities of technology), tions and situations of our life. and to avid champions of technological research. 4. Sharing results Given the weighty caution LS has is- Evangelical non-profit and advocacy sued about technology (while acknowl- groups could gather to share their edging technological contributions to successes and failures in influencing well-being and civilization) and the the wider culture. Evangelical lobby many emotional and highly charged groups, which have had various levels and contentious debates for and of success in bringing about cultural against LS in both religious and secu- change, could draw on their experi- lar communities, it seems that a fresh ences in policy-making and advocacy piece of deeper theological reflection is necessary ‘to clarify our [humanity’s] to start and lead new initiatives. dependence, fragility, and finitude’: I am not implying that a more gran- how should humans remain responsi- diose plan is better or more effective. ble in the development, production and From its small beginnings, the Earth use of technology?81 Technology may Charter has generated substantial promise utopia, yet improving mate- interest in environmental care. Evan- rial conditions, business practices, gelicals too, by pulling resources to- living standards and lifestyle conven- gether and galvanizing support, could ience and comfort cannot eradicate the more effectively generate awareness, world’s most pressing problems. influence policy-making, and mobilize action.83

Cleveland, Disunity in Christ (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2013). 82 James M. Houston, Joyful Exiles (Downers 81 I borrow insights from David Lewin, Grove, IL: InterVarsity, 2006). ‘Technology,’ Oxford Handbook of Theology and 83 2000-2010 Earth Charter Initiative: At a Modern European Thought (Oxford: Oxford Uni- Glance (San Jose, Costa Rica: Earth Charter versity Press, 2012), 457–76. International Secretariat, 2009). 338 Timothy T. N. Lim

5. Envisioning outcomes mulating ethical guidelines for encour- If envisioning a wide plan of action, aging collaboration among Catholics, which could be disseminated among evangelicals, and other Protestants. evangelicals’ global networks, is Maybe we need not more declarations achievable, what are some possible but an acknowledgement of what Ku- outcomes of a compelling, massive ini- sumita Pedersen summarizes as the tiative? fourfold norms of eco-care: solidarity, I am implicitly asking here if the sustainability, sufficiency and partici- appeals contained in LS and key evan- pation. gelical documents may be resources As Pedersen argues, the present for evangelical agencies’ officials to milieu is poised to welcome multiple begin conversations about inviting approaches to prophetic and prag- concrete participation across their re- matic action in eco-care, rather than lational and ecclesial networks. Which a further deferral of our moral respon- evangelical or non-evangelical bodies sibility. Despite our various religious and their leaders are willing to be the worldviews and their differing senses organizers? Maybe, after decades of di- of eco-responsibility, after decades alogue, we are now more ready to join of conversation at varying levels, we hands with others to serve the world ought to be able to draw from cross- we live in and are called to serve. cultural resources to catalyze change concretely, not just for our generation but also for posterity, so long as the VI Collaborating for Creation Lord Jesus tarries.84 Care Maybe it is time for our concrete I began by noting the expressed intent action to correct secular environmen- of various Catholic, evangelical, and talists’ still-unjust criticism that Chris- Protestant agencies to collaborate for tianity contributes only to ecological creation care. Yet efforts by the agen- denigration. Maybe eco-care can bring cies in these communions have largely the churches together in unprecedent- been stand-alone projects. Surely, ed ways.85 May the Trinitarian Spirit, we can do more together than if each who renews all creation, help us in our group makes its case separately or in- witness, ecologically and in all areas dependently. of discipleship, and pour out the Spirit Though evangelicals are less likely again without measure, for the trans- than Catholics or secular environmen- formation of our home. talists to call eco-actions a movement towards ‘environmental justice’, this article has also demonstrated evangel- 84 Kusumita P. Pedersen, ‘Religious Ethics and the Environment: A Review Essay’, Jour- icals’ deep acknowledgement of their nal of Religious Ethics 43.3 (2015): 558–85. biblical-theological ecological respon- 85 Max Oelschlaeger, Caring for Creation sibility as stewards and witnesses of (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), God. Perhaps the time is right for for- 120. ERT (2017) 41:4, 339-354 The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry

Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert Introduction Asia’s, or Latin America’s cities. Fol- When people first hear of Jesus, they lowing ethnographic fieldwork in a often wonder not so much about who Bogota barrio, she recalls, ‘Open sewer he is but what he is able to do for them. drains, piles of uncovered garbage, and They want to know whether Jesus has foul-smelling meat markets were com- power to help with the practical prob- mon sights… . Hygiene was a luxury lems that threaten to overwhelm them. that only a minority could afford, and Among the most pressing of these is even fewer had access to quality medi- 2 sickness. cal care.’ Despite advances in modern medi- At the same time, healing from ill- cine, the experience of being ill brings ness or injury is prominent in the con- people face to face with the frailty version narratives of many Christians of their bodies and their powerless- across the world. In the second month ness over life and death. For most of Richard and Evelyn’s church plant- people in the Global South, illness is ing ministry among the Millet (Turk- an everyday reality that threatens the ish Roma) in a Bulgarian city, three survival of both children and adults.1 believers from a town five hours’ train Sociologist Rebecca Bomann, who journey away arrived on our doorstep. studied sickness and healing in Colom- As we had arranged to travel to Turkey bia, describes the constant threats to the next day, they offered to stay for health posed by living in a marginal- the two weeks we would be away. Dur- ised neighbourhood in one of Africa’s, ing that time, they prayed for a nine-

1 World Health Organization, ‘The Top Ten 2 Rebecca Bomann, ‘The Salve of Divine Causes of Death,’ Fact Sheet 310, 2014, http:// Healing,’ in Global Pentecostal and Charismatic www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs310/ Healing, ed. Candy Gunther Brown (Oxford: en/. Oxford University Press, 2011), 198.

Richard Hibbert (PhD/Intercultural Studies, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School) is the Director of the Centre for Cross-Cultural Mission at Sydney Missionary and Bible College. G. Geoffrey Harper (PhD, Australian College of Theology) is lecturer in Old Testament at Sydney Missionary and Bible College. He is editor of Finding Lost Words: The Church’s Right to Lament (Wipf & Stock, 2017). Evelyn Hibbert (EdD, University of New England) is the Academic Dean at The Salvation Army Booth College, Sydney. She is the co-author with Richard Hibbert of Leading Multicultural Teams and Training Missionaries: Principles and Possibilities (William Carey Library, 2014, 2016). 340 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert year-old girl who had never been able On this basis, Philip Jenkins claims to speak. She ran to her devout Muslim that divine healing ‘is the key ele- mother crying, ‘Mummy, mummy, I can ment that has allowed Christianity to speak!’ Deeply impressed by the heal- compete so successfully with its ri- ing that followed prayer in the name of vals outside the Christian tradition’.7 Jesus, her mother started coming to the Illustrations of how healing has at- meetings of the newly formed church. tracted people to the gospel can be This is not an isolated incident. found throughout the history of mis- Reports of healing as a significant sion. Jesuit work in Vietnam in the element in people’s journey in and seventeenth century, for example, led towards faith in Christ can be found throughout the Global South. A multi- to around 70,000 Vietnamese becom- country survey of Pentecostals found ing Christians. Historian, Nola Cooke, that in eight countries across Latin points out that it was divine healing America, Asia, and Africa, more than that particularly caught the attention 70 per cent claimed they had received of the local people and attracted them divine healing for themselves or a fam- to Christ. Despite the Jesuits’ stress on ily member.3 the rationality of Catholicism, it was Todd Hartch suggests that divine the readiness of missionaries and local healing is part of the reason for the ‘re- converts to pray for the sick that gave birth’ of Latin American Christianity.4 A the Christian message legitimacy at recent study of Protestant churches in every level of society.8 China estimates that more than half of This article explores the role that all church members became Christians this ‘key element’ plays in people’s because they personally experienced faith journey. It begins by examin- divine healing or saw a family member ing reasons why the role of healing healed.5 In one Filipino denomination, in Christian ministry has often been 83 per cent of church attendees sur- downplayed and analyses the expecta- veyed reported that healing was highly significant in their conversion.6 tions of missionaries and other Chris- tian workers with respect to healing. It then explores the role of divine healing 3 Luis Lugo et al., Spirit and Power: A among the Turkish Roma in a recent 10-Country Survey of Pentecostals (Washing- church planting movement in Bulgaria. ton, DC, 2006), 17, http://www.pewforum.org/ files/2006/10/pentecostals-08.pdf. Reflecting on this analysis in the light 4 Todd Hartch, The Rebirth of Latin American of the Psalms, implications for Chris- Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, tian workers are drawn out. 2014), 101–102, 125. 5 Gotthard Oblau, ‘Divine Healing and the Growth of Practical Christianity,’ in Global 7 Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: The Pentecostal and Charismatic Healing, ed. Cathy Coming of Global Christianity (Oxford: Oxford Gunter Brown (Oxford: Oxford University University Press, 2011), 159. Press, 2011), 308, 313. 8 Nola Cooke, ‘Christian Conversion in 6 Melba Maggay, ‘The Persistence of the Old Cochinchina’, in Asia in the Making of Christian- Gods: Some Inter-Cultural Dimensions’, Jour- ity: 1600s to the Present, ed. Richard Young and nal of African Christian Thought 11, (2008): 26. Jonathan Seitz (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 39–40. The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 341

I The Search for Supernatural regularly seek spiritual help for sick- Power for Healing ness. Africans, for example, consult traditional spiritual healers far more Across the world, people from many often than they go to doctors or nurses religious traditions seek supernatural trained in modern medicine.13 power for healing and for protection Because of this assumption that from sickness.9 Unlike people from spiritual forces are at work in sick- western cultures, who tend to make ness, many people expect whatever a clear division between the natural faith they adopt to address all of life and the supernatural, the material and and to provide power to help them with the spiritual, most people from Africa, life’s challenges. More pointedly, they Asia, and Latin America are more ho- expect that the Christian God present- listic in their thinking.10 One reason for ed to them in the gospel will be able this is that they see life as an indivis- to help them with ill health. Like the ible whole. They believe that ‘nothing people who came to Jesus for healing, happens in the physical world that they expect God to be a God of the here does not have spiritual undertones.’11 Followers of primal and folk reli- and now, and believe that ‘a God who gions across the world believe that cannot provide the basic needs for both benevolent and malevolent spir- survival is not a true God, especially itual forces influence people’s health. when, before conversion, their ances- The majority of the Ghanian Akan, tor spirits were able to “bless” them’ 14 the Nigerian Kamwe, the Indian Mizo, holistically. the Thai, and the Navajo, for example, perceive that illness is caused by spir- II The Downplaying of Divine itual powers, and that spiritual power is needed for healing.12 They therefore Healing Reports of divine healing are often downplayed or excluded from offi- 9 Paul G. Hiebert, Daniel Shaw, and Tite Tienou, Understanding Folk Religion: A Chris- tian Response to Popular Beliefs and Practices Omenyo, ‘New Wine in an Old Wine Bottle? (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1999), 77; Charles Charismatic Healing in the Mainline Churches H. Kraft, Worldview for Christian Witness (Pa- in Ghana,’ in Global Pentecostal and Charismat- sadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2008), ic Healing, ed. Cathy Gunther Brown (Oxford: 242. Oxford University Press, 2011), 234; Margue- 10 Hwa Yung, Mangoes or Bananas? The Quest rite Kraft, Understanding Spiritual Power: A for an Authentic Asian Christian Theology (Ox- Forgotten Dimension of Cross-Cultural Ministry ford: Regnum Books, 2014), 3. (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1995), 16, 120. 11 Ben Y. Quarshie, ‘African Perspectives on 13 Meredith Long, Health, Healing, and God’s Theological Education for Mission’, in Reflect- Kingdom: New Pathways to Christian Health ing on and Equipping for Christian Mission, ed. Ministry in Africa (Carlisle: Regnum Books, Stephen Bevans et al. (Eugene, OR: Wipf and 2000), 118–21. Stock, 2015), 264. 14 Wonsuk Ma, ‘Asian (Classical) Pentecos- 12 Lalsangkima Pachuau, ‘Mizo ‘Sakhua’ in tal Theology in Context’, in Asian and Pente- Transition: Change and Continuity from Pri- costal: The Charismatic Face of Christianity in mal Religion to Christianity’, Missiology: An Asia, ed. Allan Anderson and Edmond Tang International Review 34 (2006): 43–45; Cephas (Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock, 2011), 54. 342 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert cial accounts of mission history. Gary For the reformers, taking this stance McGee has convincingly shown that minimised the danger that people standard histories of mission from the might be led astray by superstitions or late 1800s through to the 1970s mostly false teachers who claimed miracles as overlooked miracles in their writings.15 confirmations of their teachings.18 Possible reasons for this exclusion in- Yet, both Luther and Calvin affirmed clude doubts about the credibility of that miracles of healing did occasion- sources, questions over the ideological ally take place; in fact, Luther reported agenda of the authors, historiographi- that several people were healed when cal presuppositions of the academy he prayed for them.19 Nevertheless, that do not allow for speculation about Miroslav Volf argues that Protestant cause and effect, theological presup- theology, following Luther’s lead, has positions that authentic God-inspired largely tended to focus on salvation as miracles ended with the age of the a spiritual liberation of the inner per- apostles, and fear that the controver- son which does not directly affect the sial nature of miracles might harm health of the body.20 the goal of recruiting people into the However, there is a danger in Chris- missions movement. Yet there is com- tian workers downplaying divine heal- pelling evidence that physical healing ing: it can hinder people from coming has played a role in the conversion of to faith in Christ. People who might individuals, tribes, and nations from at otherwise be drawn to the salvation least the third century through to the God offers them through Jesus may present.16 walk away when they cannot see any Theological presuppositions are answer to their need for healing being particularly powerful in persuading presented in the communication of the Christians to ignore or de-emphasise gospel. Ignoring divine healing can the role that divine healing might play also encourage ‘split-level’ or ‘dual-al- in ministry. Some adopt a view that legiance’ Christianity in which people miracles ceased with the completion of turn to God for eternal life, but resort the canon. In subscribing to this view to amulets, charms, shamans, and al- they believe they are following reform- ternate spiritual forces for help with ers like Martin Luther, Ulrich Zwingli, sickness.21 and John Calvin, who are widely understood to have taught that signs and 18 James I. Packer, ‘The Empowered Chris- wonders were attestations of new rev- tian Life,’ in The Kingdom and the Power, ed. elation and therefore ceased with the Gary Greig and Kevin Springer (Ventura, CA: completion of the New Testament.17 Regal Books, 1993), 211. 19 Stanley M. Burgess, The Holy Spirit: Medi- eval Roman Catholic and Reformation Traditions 15 Gary McGee, ‘Miracles and Mission Re- (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1997), 151–52, visited,’ International Bulletin of Missionary 167. Research 25 (2001): 146–151. 20 Miroslav Volf, ‘The Materiality of Salva- 16 McGee, ‘Miracles and Mission Revisited,’ tion: An Investigation in the Soteriologies of 146, 147, 149. Liberation and Pentecostal Theologies,’ Jour- 17 McGee, ‘Miracles and Mission Revisited,’ nal of Ecumenical Studies 26 (1989): 453. 147. 21 Kraft, Worldview for Christian Witness, 336; The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 343

Filipina anthropologist and theolo- western naturalistic and materialis- gian Melba Maggay describes such du- tic view of germs and illness actually al-allegiance Christianity in the Philip- made it impossible for me to “believe” pines. She attributes this partly to the sufficiently for faith to heal,’ he ex- failure of early Protestant missionaries plains. His Choco brothers were pray- to relate the gospel to illness and healing that God would heal a woman with ing. Maggay cites a mid-1990s study pneumonia, but they felt they could not which found that more than half of Fili- invite Loewen or his fellow missionary pino Catholics interviewed performed to join in those prayers. They said, ‘I’m rituals of penitence during Holy Week sorry … but we couldn’t invite you. You with the aim of warding off illness and two fellows really don’t believe, and maintaining good health.22 you cannot heal by God’s power when According to her analysis, Filipino you have unbelievers in the circle.’24 culture has an ‘intense longing for a Regarding expectations of divine spirituality that integrates all of life’ healing, Christians can be categorised and a ‘vast subterranean tradition of into three broad groups. Those with healing’ that strongly emphasises spir- low to nil expectation could be termed itual sources of health and healing.23 ‘closed.’ They may believe that such But many early missionaries taught healing is theoretically possible but people to divide reality into physical have not consciously experienced or and spiritual realms and their message witnessed it themselves. Accordingly, did not address deeper Filipino world- this group holds that God in his sover- view assumptions concerning sick- eignty usually does not grant requests ness and health. Filipinos therefore for healing by performing a miracle.25 could not see how one of their deepest Their God is, in Gordon Fee’s words, needs—health and healing—was ad- the God of ‘standard-brand evangeli- dressed by the good news of the gospel. calism,’ who ‘is very much a God of the ordinary.’26 This expectation is well III Expectations of Divine represented in Kelly Hilderbrand’s experience of praying for a Lisu child who Healing had been deaf in one ear since birth. The expectations of Christian workers Honestly, I was not expecting any about divine healing influence their result. Being a Western Christian, responses to the sick. Linguist Jacob I believe in the power of God, but Loewen relates a poignant story from his ministry among the Choco in Co- lombia: ‘I suddenly realised that my 24 Jacob Loewen, ‘Evangelism and Culture,’ in The New Face of Evangelicalism, ed. Rene Padilla (Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 1976), 182. Paul Hiebert, Transforming Worldviews : An 25 Kate Bowler, Blessed: A History of The Amer- Anthropological Understanding of How People ican Prosperity Gospel (New York: Oxford Uni- Change (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Academ- versity Press, 2013), loc 229-239, doi:10.1093/ ic, 2008), 15. acprof:oso/9780199827695.001.0001. 22 Maggay, ‘Persistence of the Old Gods,’ 25. 26 Gordon Fee, The Disease of the Health and 23 Maggay, ‘Persistence of the Old Gods,’ 25, Wealth Gospels (Vancouver: Regent College 27. Publishing, 2006), 26. 344 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert

my worldview does not expect the ary doctor working in East Malaysia miraculous to be a daily occurrence. explains that his expectation of divine As things were being translated, healing increased markedly as a result the little girl spoke to her mother of his ministry among young, dynamic, and her mother began screaming and growing churches. These Malay- and dancing. The translator told me sian Christians assumed they should that the girl could now hear in her pray for the sick and expected God to previously deaf ear. I, of course, as- intervene.30 sumed that something had been lost Christian workers in a third group in translation, and I asked again if could be categorised as ‘expectant.’ the little girl could hear. I was as- With high-level expectations about sured that the little girl could now divine healing, members of this group hear from both her ears.27 frequently pray for the sick. Their an- A second group may be classed as ticipation is partly a result of experi- ‘open’. They have a significantly higher ence—they have witnessed healing in expectation that God heals people in the past—and partly a result of their response to prayer, an anticipation that theology. Many believe that Christ’s is often heightened through ministry work on the cross not only brings sal- experience in which healing occurred. vation for the soul but also secures Missionaries like C.T. Studd, Stanley healing for the body for everyone who Smith, and other members of the Cam- (truly) believes.31 Others hold that Je- bridge Seven, for example, came to be- sus empowered his followers not only lieve that divine healing is an ongoing to proclaim God’s kingdom but also to phenomenon in missions because of their own experiences of praying for demonstrate its coming through signs 32 people and seeing them healed.28 and wonders. While a subset of this Some of the first Presbyterian mis- group believes and proclaims that God sionaries to Korea arrived with the has obligated himself to heal every view that miracles ceased with the sickness for those who have faith, oth- completion of the canon. Neverthe- ers are cautious not to presume that less, they came to believe that divine healing was a valid part of missionary costal and Charismatic Healing, ed. Cathy Gunt- work as they saw Korean evangelists er Brown (Oxford: Oxford University Press, praying for the sick and people being 2011), 268–69. healed.29 Similarly, a British mission- 30 Bill Lees, ‘Hesitations about Expectancy,’ in Signs, Wonders, and Healing, ed. John Gold- ingay (Leicester: IVP, 1989), 123. 27 Kelly Hilderbrand, ‘What led Thai Bud- 31 Allan Anderson, An Introduction to Pen- dhist background believers to become Chris- tecostalism : Global Charismatic Christianity tians: A study of one church in Bangkok,’ (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 227; Guy Missiology: An International Review, 44 (2016): Duffield and Nathaniel Van Cleave, Founda- 411. tions of Pentecostal Theology (Los Angeles, CA: 28 McGee, ‘Miracles and Mission Revisited,’ L.I.F.E Bible College, 1983), 412–13. 152. 32 This forms the underlying thesis of John 29 Sean C. Kim, ‘Reenchanted: Divine Heal- Wimber and Kevin Springer, Power Evangelism ing in Korean Pentecostalism,’ in Global Pente- (Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 2009). The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 345 healing is always guaranteed.33 getting enough money to feed their families, staying healthy or finding a cure for sickness, and being protected IV Divine Healing in from evil spirits. Beginning in the late Conversion and the Growth 1980s and accelerating with the fall of Millet Churches of communism, thousands of previously Muslim Millet came to faith in Miracles of divine healing are reported Christ and formed Turkish-speaking in many parts of the world where the churches. The number of churches in church is relatively new and the gos- this previously unreached people group pel is being encountered by people for grew rapidly from about five at the end the first time. The question is how to of the 1980s to around one hundred in work with God in such situations. Un- 1995, with an estimated 10,000 church derstanding how healing helps people attendees.35 The majority of those who in their journey towards faith in Christ came to faith in Christ experienced mi- can help Christians to work with God raculous healing or had a family mem- more effectively. One way to deepen ber who was miraculously healed. One understanding of how God uses divine Millet church leader, Richard, inter- healing to draw people to himself is viewed, highlighted the role of healing to analyse the role that healing has when he stated, ‘Healthy people never played in the birth and growth of a par- start coming to church’.36 ticular group of churches—the Millet To investigate the role of illness churches of Bulgaria.34 and divine healing in Millet Christians’ Most Millet are pre-occupied with journey towards faith in Christ, conver- the problems of the here-and-now— sion narratives and hymns written by believers were analysed. Interviews were conducted in 2008 with thirty- Fee, 33 Disease of the Health and Wealth Gos- eight Millet Christians concerning how pels, 20; Frank Macchia, ‘Pentecostal Theol- ogy,’ in The New International Dictionary of they came to faith in Christ. An experi- Pentecostal Movements, ed. Stanley Burgess ence of divine healing was a significant (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2002), 1135. factor in the conversion narratives of 34 The Millet are a Turkish-speaking, tradi- sixteen (42 per cent).37 Indigenous tionally Muslim sub-group of Roma who live songs written by Christian Millet that in Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Greece, and mentioned sickness and/or healing increasingly across the countries of the Euro- pean Union where many have gone to work. were also examined. Of the 221 Mil- Nevertheless, the largest Millet population still lives in Bulgaria where they number about 300,000. Marginalised in Bulgarian so- 35 Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, ciety, the majority live in segregated ghetto- Operation World: 21st Century Edition (Carlisle: like neighbourhoods on the edges of towns Paternoster, 2001), 129. and cities. More detail can be found in Richard 36 Richard Y. Hibbert, ‘Stagnation and De- Y. Hibbert, ‘Why Do They Leave? An Ethno- cline Following Rapid Growth in Turkish- graphic Investigation of Defection from Turk- Speaking Roma Churches in Bulgaria’ (PhD ish-Speaking Roma Churches in Bulgaria,’ diss.; Trinity International University, 2008), Missiology: An International Review 41 (2013): 80. 315–16. 37 Hibbert, ‘Stagnation and Decline’, 117. 346 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert let songs published in a late-1990s role in mediating healing by praying Bulgarian Turkish songbook, forty-two for it with conviction and passion, mention sickness and/or healing. Sev- confidently testifying to God’s heal- eral common themes are evident. ing power, and praying for the sick in church meetings. One interviewee tells 1. Fervent prayer and everyone he meets, ‘Jesus has power. testimonies of healing by Whoever has a problem only needs to ask him, and he will heal him.’ believers as a group Testimonies like this act as a cata- Every conversion narrative involving lyst for people turning to Christians sickness and healing is unique, but a and then to the church for healing. basic pattern is nevertheless discern- When they get to the church, they are ible. Illness drives sick people and fervently prayed for by the gathered their families to find help, often ini- believers. This is reflected in several tially from the medical system or from hymns in phrases such as, ‘I came Muslim teachers. Next, the person or to your house and you healed me’ (in family seeks God’s help through Chris- which the believer is the speaker), tians, who pray fervently for them and and, ‘Come, come to my house and I invite them to a church meeting to will heal you’ (in which Jesus is the be prayed for by the whole group. A speaker). woman whose daughter developed a mental illness that the family believed was caused by an evil spirit illustrates 2. Being drawn to faith in Jesus this pattern and highlights the role through healing that Christians and churches played in For most of the sixteen interviewees, healing: being healed was a turning point in Because we weren’t believers, we their journey of faith. Bomann’s com- took her to the hoca [Muslim teach- ment that, ‘healing plays a pivotal er]. We paid people to do all kinds of role in drawing nonbelievers to church babıshki raboti [folk religious healing services—perhaps more than the idea rituals]… . When we didn’t see any of salvation, at least as this notion is cure, I took her to the doctor, and he commonly understood by North Ameri- sent her to Sofia to the hospital. She can and European interpreters of reli- stayed there one and a half months, gion’, is as true for the Millet as it is but she didn’t get better. She was for the residents of Bogota she inter- 38 the same. During that time, faith in viewed. Experiencing God as healer the mahalle [Millet neighbourhood] led many Millet interviewees to put started and began to grow. The be- their faith in Jesus. One man who had lievers said to me, ‘God comes into been paralysed explains, ‘[The Chris- our dreams and says you should tians] prayed for me and I was immedi- come to faith, and your child will ately healed. I began to believe at that be healed by God.’ … I said, ‘I don’t moment.’ know how to pray.’ They said, ‘We will tell you how to pray.’ 38 Bomann, ‘The Salve of Divine Healing,’ The Millet Christians played a key 194. The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 347

Healing seems to act as a window Through healing not only the person through which people see something healed but also their family members of God’s nature and character. Those are often drawn to the church and to healed see beyond the cure to what it faith in Christ. Many interviewees im- communicates: God’s power and mer- mediately began telling their family cy. Experiencing God’s power and love and neighbours what had happened to leads some to put their faith in Christ.39 them. A few lines of a song express how Not every person who is prayed for many Millet encounter God through is healed, however. Several interview- experiencing healing: ees spoke of ongoing sickness or pain, but also of their hope of complete heal- Jesus Christ, my Lord … I cannot ing one day. One woman told Richard, see your face … ‘My legs hurt, every part of me hurts, [But] by faith I have seen you; You but God says, “I am with you. I am go- healed me. ing to raise you from the dead. I am I have believed in you, my God, going you heal you. I am not going to without seeing your face. leave you.”’ A pastor and hymn writer, Being healed is a tangible experi- who suffered for many years from spi- ence of God’s power that gives those nal tuberculosis and eventually died healed ‘the sense of being tenderly from it, emphasises the need to keep cared for by a loving God’.40 Several praying because God helps his people Millet hymns praise God for his love in their suffering: and power expressed through heal- Everyone has problems. Everyone ing; phrases include, ‘You healed me, suffers. my mighty Father!’ and, ‘You give us I am giving you endurance. That is healing; you give us love’. Some in- sufficient for you. terviewees recalled that they also felt Whether I am sick, or am in pain, or peace and ‘warmth’ when they were dying, always pray to God. healed. One said, ‘A peace entered me. A newness came into me.’ Another was 3. Healing, forgiveness, and healed as she listened to a Christian in the hospital bed next to hers singing heaven hymns and reading from the Bible. She As Millet Christians reflect on their ex- recalls, ‘Those words the sister was periences of being healed and coming saying and the hymns she was sing- to faith in Christ, they express a close ing worked in my heart and made me link between healing and forgiveness. warm.’ Their hymns frequently portray this close connection through juxtaposi- tion; for example, ‘You forgive us our 39 Elizabeth S. Sanzana, “‘Silver and Gold sins; you heal us.’ Forgiveness and Have I None,’” in Pentecostal Mission and Glo- physical healing are both aspects of bal Christianity, ed. Wonsuk Ma, Veli-Matti salvation for the Christian Millet, as Karkkainen, and Kwabena Asamoah-Gyadu expressed in this hymn: (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2014), 132–33. 40 Bomann, ‘The Salve of Divine Healing’, I was very sinful, my Father 201–202. I was very sick 348 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert

Jesus my Lord found me the Scriptures with respect to healing. And healed me The apostle John paints a poignant es- While Millet Christians keenly seek chatological picture: ‘[God] will wipe physical healing, they also believe that every tear from their eyes. There will people need a healing of the heart in be no more death or mourning or crying order for them to enter heaven. This is or pain, for the old order of things has highlighted in several hymns. In one, a passed away’ (Rev 21:4 NIV). The cer- sick person prays for physical healing, tainty of final restoration and the swal- and Jesus responds: lowing up of death in victory (1 Cor 15:54) are made possible by Christ’s Let me come into your heart. death and resurrection, which inaugu- Let me wash your heart clean with rate a new world as well as pointing my blood… . forward to its full realisation.41 In the end I will heal you and give Thus Christ overcomes the full ef- you heaven. fects of Genesis 3 and makes possible the transformation of the cosmos. Sick- V Biblical Perspectives on ness is part of the ‘old order of things’ and is a consequence of the decay of Divine Healing the human body towards death. Sick- As with Millet hymns, the Bible has ness brings pain and grief to individu- much to say about divine healing. Yet, als and their communities. The promise even attempting to catalogue all the of a new heavens and earth includes relevant passages is beyond what we the certain hope shared by all believers can accomplish here. In this article, we that their bodies will be released from focus on the psalmists’ perspectives inevitable disease and decay and will regarding divine healing. be restored to physical wholeness. Like most people in today’s world, However, questions remain. What the psalmists do not separate the spir- should believers do in the present age, itual from the physical, and they rec- while still in ‘bondage to decay’ (Rom ognise the influence of sin and the de- 8:21), or when confronted with the rav- monic in illness. They resist dualistic ages of sickness in their family and conceptions of sickness that exclude friends? How should Christians think God from the sick person’s experience. biblically and theologically about di- This recognition that God is involved in vine healing? The psalms provide some their illness results in fervent prayer. answers to these questions. The psalms therefore present examples of how to pray for and give testimony about God’s healing. They also model how to respond when believers’ prayers do not result in healing and stress the role of the community in the experience of sickness and healing. 41 In the Gospels, Jesus’s healing miracles function as signs of the inbreaking Kingdom of Before focusing on the Psalms, God (e.g., Mt 11:2–5; Jn 4:54), a kingdom that however, it is worth considering the is both ‘now’ (Mt 12:28; Lk 4:17–21) and ‘not broader biblical-theological sweep of yet’ (Mt 25:31–34; Mk 1:15). The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 349

1. Causes and outcomes of Webb outlines the necessity of such sickness language: The psalmists challenge reduc- Here we make contact with an angst tionist views of the world, advocat- which is at the very heart of Isra- ing instead a holistic conception that elite religion with its uncompromis- upholds divine sovereignty even in ing monotheism. For if there is but illness.42 For example, the writer of one God, who is sovereign over all Psalm 88 complains: things, no final explanation for anything is possible other than that he You have put me in the depths of the is behind it, and there is nowhere pit, 44 in the regions dark and deep. else to run but into [God’s] arms. Your wrath lies heavy upon me, Yet, while YHWH is uncontestably and you overwhelm me with all sovereign, there is scope for a degree your waves. Selah of asymmetry with respect to causa- You have caused my companions to tion—that is, YHWH stands directly shun me; behind what is good; indirectly behind you have made me a horror to what is not good.45 Nevertheless, the them. language used by the psalmists empha- … sises that the appropriate response to calamity, including sickness, is to seek Afflicted and close to death from my God for help, regardless of its cause. youth up, The Psalms also illustrate that I suffer your terrors; I am help- there can be a connection between lack less. of physical wellbeing and sin. This cor- Your wrath has swept over me; relates with the wider testimony of the your dreadful assaults destroy Scriptures (e.g., Num 12:9–12; Acts me. (Ps 88:6–8, 15–16 ESV [emphasis added]) The second person language re- Psalm 88 is the ‘lament of a desolate man in veals an understanding that YHWH is mortal illness’—Mitchell Dahood, Psalms II. responsible for both blessing and ca- 51–100: Introduction, Translation, and Notes (AB 17; Garden City: Doubleday, 1983), 302. lamity (cf. Deut 32:39; 1 Sam 2:6–7), See, similarly, H. D. Preuss, ‘Psalm 88 als calamity that, in the context of Psalm Beispiel alttestamentlichen Redens vom 88, incudes extreme illness.43 Barry Tod,’ in Der Tod—ungelöstes Rätsel oder über- wundener Feind (ed. August Strobel; Stuttgart: Calwer, 1974), 71. 42 For further discussion, see G. Geoffrey 44 Barry G. Webb, Five Festal Garments: Harper, ‘Lament and the Sovereignty of God: Christian Reflections on the Song of Songs, Ruth, Theological Reflections on Psalm 88,’ in Lamentations, Ecclesiastes and Esther (NSBT Finding Lost Words: The Church’s Right to La- 10; Leicester: Apollos, 2000), 64. ment (ed. G. Geoffrey Harper and Kit Barker; 45 The language of asymmetry is borrowed ACTMS Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2017). from D. A. Carson, How Long, O Lord?: Reflec- 43 The causes of lament in Psalm 88 have tions on Suffering and Evil (2nd ed.; Grand Rap- been variously construed. Certainly, physical ids: Baker, 1990). Such asymmetry is demon- symptoms are mentioned (vv. 4, 9) and are at strated, for example, by the role of ‘the satan’ least part of the problem. Thus, for Dahood, in Job 1–2. 350 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert

12:21–23; Rev 16:10–11), even while is the possibility of demonic oppression recognising that sin is not necessar- as a reason for illness. With respect to ily the cause of illness (e.g., Job 1–2; Psalm 91, for instance, Qumran evi- Jn 9:1–3). When there is a connection, dence (11Q11) reveals that parts of the however, confession and repentance psalm were used for exorcisms in the are required (cf. Jas 5:15–16). The pen- first century AD.47 Particularly impor- itential psalms (Pss 6, 32, 38, 51, 102, tant were verses 5–6, where several 130, 143) demonstrate this dynamic.46 key terms had demonic associations in Psalm 38 makes a sin-illness nexus an Ancient Near East context. The ‘ar- explicit: row that flies by day’ (v. 5) may denote Because of your wrath there is no one of the sickness-bearing arrows of health in my body; Reshef, the god of pestilence.48 Similar- there is no soundness in my ly, the LXX translates v. 6b (‘the plague bones because of my sin. that destroys at midday’ [NIV]), as the My guilt has overwhelmed me ‘noonday demon’.49 Accordingly, Meir like a burden too heavy to bear. Malul argues that Psalm 91 ‘abounds My wounds fester and are loath- with names of … demons’.50 some Nevertheless, the point of the psalm because of my sinful folly. is clear: even when endangered by I am bowed down and brought very the demonic, YHWH is a refuge and low; fortress (v. 2; cf. vv. 4, 9). Those who all day long I go about mourning. make the Most High their dwelling will My back is filled with searing pain; be delivered from harm and disaster (v. there is no health in my body. 9–10). YHWH vows to rescue, protect, I am feeble and utterly crushed; answer, deliver, and satisfy those who I groan in anguish of heart. (vv. love and call upon him (vv. 14–16). As 3–8 NIV) Andrew Schmutzer concludes, ‘God The psalmist accordingly declares, ‘I confess my iniquity; I am sorry for my sin’ (v. 18 ESV). Psalm 32 evi- 47 Andrew J. Schmutzer, ‘Psalm 91: Refuge, Protection, and Their Use in the New Testa- dences a similar movement: ‘when I ment,’ in The Psalms: Language for All Seasons kept silent, my bones wasted away … I of the Soul (ed. Andrew J. Schmutzer and David said, “I will confess my transgressions M. Howard; Chicago: Moody, 2013), 98–99. to the LORD,” and you forgave the in- This section is indebted to Schmutzer’s iniquity of my sin’ (vv. 3, 5 ESV). As with sights. the recognition of God’s sovereignty in 48 Othmar Keel, The Symbolism of the Biblical World: Ancient Near Eastern Iconography and illness, recognition of sin’s part in ill- the Book of Psalms (trans. Timothy J. Hallett; ness drives the sinner to God to seek London: SPCK, 1978), 85. forgiveness and physical restoration. 49 δαιμονίου μεσημβρινοῦ. See Schmutzer, Also acknowledged by the psalmists ‘Psalm 91,’ 97. 50 Meir Malul, ‘Terror of the Night hlyl dtp,’ in Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the 46 Elements of physical distress appear in Bible (ed. Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, five of these psalms (6:2, 6–7; 32:3–5; 38:3–8; and Pieter W. van der Horst; Leiden: Brill, 51:8; 102:3–5). 1999), 852. The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 351

… pledges his self-involvement to to bring about the fullness of what he believers.’51 Psalm 91 therefore urges has promised: readers to actively seek refuge in God, Have mercy on me, LORD, for I am even when faced with demonic oppres- faint; sion. heal me, LORD, for my bones are Jesus likewise saw a connection be- in agony. tween healing and overcoming Satan’s My soul is in deep anguish. power. When he sent out his disciples How long, LORD, how long? (Ps in Luke 10 and commanded them to 6:2–3 NIV) ‘heal the sick’ (v. 9), they returned with joy declaring that even the demons sub- Moreover, fervent prayer is main- mitted to them (v. 17). Jesus’s response tained over time, even in the absence of adapts the wording of Psalm 91:13. ‘I response, because the psalmist knows have given you authority to trample on there is no one else to turn to: ‘Day and snakes and scorpions and to overcome night I cry out before you … I call out all the power of the enemy; nothing to you, O LORD, every day; … Why do will harm you’ (Luke 10:19 NIV).52 you hide your face from me?’ (Ps 88:2, 9, 14 [auth. trans.]). Their knowledge of God—his promises and his charac- 2. Praying for healing ter—drive the psalmists to persistent, The psalms provide a model of what fervent prayer fuelled by an unshaken prayer for healing ought to look like. belief that God is bringing about the The sovereignty of God over all things, restoration of all things. taken as granted by the psalmists, The psalms thus provide a model for evokes fervent petition. Voices of com- how believers can cry out to God for the plaint and lament in the psalms do not not-yet in the midst of their pain. They reflect crises of faith, or theological can express doubts and fears, yet still vacillation; on the contrary, it is un- remain steadfast in their confidence in moved confidence in YHWH’s rule that God’s sovereignty. When God delays provokes such appeal. the restoration that his character com- Psalms 1 and 2, functioning as an mits him to, the righteous response is introduction to the Psalter, set the to lament. The godly should cry out expectation clearly: the one who does ‘Why?’; they ought to complain to God not walk in the counsel of the wicked and demand to know ‘How long?’53 but meditates on torah will be blessed Indeed, rather than such question- (Ps 1:1–2); that blessing is secured by ing being merely permitted, the psalms taking refuge in the king YHWH has go further by suggesting this is the way installed on his throne (Ps 2:6, 12). It the people of God must respond, for all is the non-realisation of this blessing the psalms are presented as virtuous that provokes the cries of the psalm- responses—lament just as much as ists. Their pained use of ‘Why?’ and ‘How long?’ is thus an appeal for God 53 As in all theological discourse, correct grammar is essential. There is a world of dif- 51 Schmutzer, ‘Psalm 91,’ 107. ference between complaining to God and com- 52 Schmutzer, ‘Psalm 91,’ 106. plaining about God. 352 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert praise. God offers his people a variety is that thanksgiving psalms derive in- of expressions to use, depending on creased force when seen as responses circumstances. Thus, lament gives fol- to situations of lament. These psalms lowers of Christ a voice which enables accordingly reflect on a time of past them to express faith even in the ab- trial, acknowledge God’s deliverance, sence of sought-for healing.54 and then move to praise. Psalm 40 illustrates the movement: 3. Testifying about healing I waited patiently for the LORD; Many psalms are testimonies to God’s he turned to me and heard my healings that proclaim to the world cry. what God has done and encourage He lifted me out of the slimy pit, others to seek the same. Thus, the out of the mud and mire; psalmists instruct pray-ers regarding he set my feet on a rock the rightful place of thanksgiving. It and gave me a firm place to is here that insights derived from form stand. criticism, particularly the identification He put a new song in my mouth, of multiple genres within the Psalter, a hymn of praise to our God. (vv. prove beneficial.55 1–3 NIV.) Psalmic types are not only iden- This, then, provides a template to tifiable, but can be seen to work in instruct believers on how to communi- concert. Walter Brueggemann dem- cate what God has done for them. onstrates this by charting a flow from praise (his ‘Psalms of Orientation’) 4. The importance of community through lament (‘Psalms of Disorien- The psalms reveal the importance of tation’) to thanksgiving (‘Psalms of community for matters of life and faith, Re-Orientation’).56 Important to note including the issue of dealing with sickness. Although psalms are often 54 For an exploration of how lament might be utilised for individual spirituality, this recovered in corporate Christian spirituality, appropriation is somewhat at odds see G. Geoffrey Harper and Kit Barker, eds., with the collection as a whole.57 Even Finding Lost Words: The Church’s Right to La- granting that psalms were written by ment (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2017). single authors, they have nevertheless 55 The classic work remains Hermann Gunkel and Joachim Begrich, Introduction to been collected for communal use. This Psalms: The Genres of the Religious Lyric of is true even for psalms which use first Israel (trans. James D. Nogalski; Macon: Mer- person language.58 cer University Press, 1998 [orig. 1933]). See also, Claus Westermann, Praise and Lament in the Psalms (trans. Keith R. Crim and Richard 57 The historical development of individual N. Soulen; Atlanta: John Knox, 1981 [orig. piety vis-à-vis the psalms is charted by Gerald 1965]). H. Wilson, Psalms. Volume 1 (NIVAC; Grand 56 Walter Brueggemann, ‘Psalms and the Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 26–30. Life of Faith: A Suggested Typology of Func- 58 The rhetorical function of first-person tion’, JSOT 17 (1980), 3-32: 6-10. Bruegge- voicing is helpfully explored by Andrew mann also refers to ‘Psalms of Disorientation’ Sloane, ‘Weeping with the Afflicted: The Self- as ‘Psalms of Dislocation’ (7). Involving Language of the Laments’, in Find- The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry 353

The famous words of Psalm 22:1, VI Conclusion and for instance, ‘My God, my God, why Implications have you forsaken me?’ seem best suited to individual use. Yet, the su- perscription— ‘For the director of 1. Recognise that God uses music’—reveals that even this lan- healing to drive people to guage has been adopted for corporate himself expression. Psalm 88 illustrates the The role that divine healing has played point. The psalmist is afflicted (physi- across history and in the birth and cally and perhaps even spiritually), a growth of the church among the Mil- distress compounded by social isola- let highlights that sickness and divine tion (vv. 5, 8, 18). Yet the corporate vo- healing are often used by God as invita- calisation of the psalm (note ‘For the tions to turn to him. Despite this, west- director of music’), undoes the author’s ern Christian expectations of seeing sense of isolation and so begins to ad- the power and love of God expressed dress the seemingly unheard cries of through healing are often not as high the psalmist. as they should be.59 Yet, if missionar- This corporate dimension is no less ies and other Christian workers ignore important for followers of Jesus. Chris- tian communities can help to mediate a felt need for healing, people will be healing as they, together with the sick left on their own to find solutions. They person, seek God’s presence, power, may feel they have no option except to forgiveness, restoration, and refuge. live out a double allegiance—to Christ In summary, then, while the Bible and to other spiritual powers which has more to say on the topic of di- can help them with sickness. vine healing, the psalms provide sev- Christians should be wary of west- eral helpful (and needed) perspectives. ern cultural assumptions that dismiss They remind us that the appropriate other-than-physical dimensions in ill- reaction to illness is to petition God in ness. The psalms indicate that God is fervent prayer with other Christians. sovereign over illness even if some- When divine healing occurs, there times it is caused by sin or demonic ac- should be public testimony and thanks- tivity. Yet, whatever the cause, the ap- giving. If healing is withheld, ongoing propriate response is to seek God. Like lament is the righteous response. The the psalmists, we need to recognise next section teases out several impli- that humans are integrated wholes; cations for Christian workers. spiritual concerns cannot neatly be ex- cised from physical ones, or vice versa. Our aim in engaging with people who are ill, whether or not they are Chris- tians, should be to help them to turn to God. In order to do this, we should, in our Christian communities, pray ing Lost Words: The Church’s Right to Lament (ed. G. Geoffrey Harper and Kit Barker; Eu- 59 Packer, ‘The Empowered Christian Life,’ gene: Wipf & Stock, 2017). 211. 354 Richard Hibbert, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert fervently and encourage testimonies 3. Encourage testimonies about about healing. healing Just as the psalmists declared God’s 2. Pray fervently for divine work in their bodies, so we also should healing encourage Christians to declare how Christians play a key role in mediating God has healed and delivered them. healing. When Christians pray for sick Testimonies are public declarations of people who are searching for a super- human helplessness and despair that natural source of healing, the sick are have been addressed by the God who sometimes healed. Healing is a tangi- heals and restores his creation. As in ble experience of God’s love and power the psalms, testimonies should culmi- through which many begin to believe nate in thanksgiving to God for what in Jesus. Christians can pray fervently he has done. Public testimonies con- tinue God’s work through calamity to for healing, following the example of draw others to himself, as hearers are the psalmists, confident in God’s com- encouraged to seek God in their own mitment to restore creation to whole- pain, mourning, crying, and need. ness and to bring about blessing for his people. Divine healing is a God-given foretaste of the complete restoration 4. Do all this as a community to come. Those who fervently pray for Divine healing is a corporate affair. healing are more likely to see people Although healing occurs in individual healed and turning to God than those bodies, it occurs as believers, together, who ignore this pathway to salvation. pray for the person who is afflicted. The psalms are mimetic—that is, Testimonies of healing draw more peo- they invite conformity to their words ple into the community of faith, and and modes of expression as models the community of people among whom of virtuous response. Yet differing cir- Christ dwells, in itself, can provide cumstances require differing respons- restoration and relief for sufferers. At es. Accordingly, instances of healing the same time, when people are not should be met with thanksgiving; pe- healed, their lament does not have to riods of protracted or even terminal be an individual cry. Together, believ- illness should evoke ongoing lament. ers can express their pain to God and Both are faithful acts. Both are rightly support each other, just as the psalms carried out by individuals and commu- were sung together by the community nities. Christians must learn to ‘rejoice of Israel. Corporate lament and thanks- with those who rejoice, weep with giving are both expressions of faith in those who weep’ (Rom 12:15 ESV). the sovereign, healing God. ERT (2017) 41:4, 355-368 For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa

Klaus Fiedler

I Introduction tion between two cultures (and, to As a pastor and theologian, I am con some extent, two religions) as they vinced that marriage is one of the basic crystallize around the wedding cer- human institutions of abiding value for emony. Although I do not directly ad- all time. As such, it deserves the loving dress other family-related issues such care of the church, a fact emphasized as polygamy or divorce, I contend that by the special attention Jesus Christ the discussion of issues surrounding devoted to marriage in his teaching (Mt wedding ceremonies in Africa offers 19:1–12; Mk 10:1–12). important insight into a larger cultural I am deeply concerned that aspects conflict. of the interaction between African tra- The ethnic groups originally dealt ditional culture and Christianity have with in this essay are all patrilineal. blocked the application of the biblical When I moved to Malawi in 1992, I message with regard to marriage and found a country with mostly matrilin- have thereby caused significant spiritu- eal cultures, but much of the argumen- al and emotional harm to many people. Although my original research on this been updated from the version published as topic took place in northeast Congo ‘For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish and Kenya, I draw also on informa- Church Weddings’ in James L. Cox, ed., Rites tion from evangelical churches in East of Passage in Contemporary Africa: Interaction Africa and Malawi as well as from the between Christian and African Traditional Reli- gions (Cardiff: Cardiff University Press, 1998), Roman Catholic Church. 46–60 and under the same title in Religion in This study1 examines the interac- Malawi 5 (1995), 22–7. My original research on this topic, in 1986–87, was made possible by a grant from the Deutsche Forschungs 1 An earlier version of this essay appeared in gemeinschaft, Bonn, and much of the original 2015 as chapter 1 of Klaus Fiedler, Conflicted research is reflected in Klaus Fiedler,Ganz auf Power in Malawian Christianity: Essays Mis- Vertrauen. Geschichte und Kirchenverständnis der sionary and Evangelical from Malawi (Mzuzu, Glaubensmissionen (Giessen and Basel: Brun- Malawi: Mzuni Press, 2015), 6–21). It had nen, 1992), 493–9.

Klaus Fielder (ThD Heidelberg; PhD Dar-es-Salaam University) is a professor in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at Mzuzu University, Malawi and professor of missiology at the Evangelical Theological Faculty, Leuven, Belgium. He is author or co-author of ten books including The Story of Faith Missions: From Hudson Taylor to Present Day Africa (2nd ed., Regnum, 1995) and Fake Healing Claims for HIV and Aids in Malawi (Mzuni Press, 2016). 356 Klaus Fiedler tation fits patri- and matrilineal socie- a basic evangelical creed.3 ties equally.2 The first faith mission in Africa In this essay, I repeatedly make a was the Livingstone Inland Mission, distinction between theology talked founded in 1878 by Fanny Guinness in and theology acted. This differentiation London for pioneer work in the Congo, is crucial, and I consider theology acted starting from the mouth of the Congo as reality. River.4 The major faith missions relevant to this study are the Africa In- land Mission (AIM), founded by Peter II Historical and Theological Cameron Scott in Philadelphia in 1895, Background and WEC International, founded by C. T. Studd in Congo in 1913 with his wife Priscilla managing the home base in 1. History London.5 The Congolese and Kenyan churches The main churches resulting from in my case study are the result of the these missions were the Africa In- work of interde nominational faith mis- land Church in Kenya and, in Congo, sions, beginning with the China Inland CECA20 (Communauté Évangélique Mission, founded in 1865 by Hudson au Centre de l’Afrique) and CECCA16 and Maria Taylor. The Taylors’ press- (Communauté Évangélique du Christ ing concern was to reach ‘inland’ areas au Coeur d’Afrique).6 These were the of the globe that were still unreached pioneer Protestant churches in their by the gospel. To achieve this end, they respective areas, and their combined were very innovative: ordination was of no importance, lengthy theological 3 I differentiate the faith missions from what training was not required, and women I call the ‘classical missions’. The classical were seen as equal to men and there- missions (from 1792 onwards) have their spir- fore as qualified for independent pio- itual roots in the Great Awakening, whereas neer missionary work. the faith missions have their roots in the Holi- Money was not a major obstacle ei- ness Revival of 1859 (with Grattan Guinness as one of the central figures) and a second ther since the missionaries would trust wave starting in 1873, in which Dwight L. God that by prayer and faith (hence the Moody was the central figure. nickname ‘faith missions’) he would 4 For more details on the faith missions, see supply all their needs. Ecclesiastical Klaus Fiedler, The Story of Faith Missions from differences were downplayed, with the Hudson Taylor to Present-Day Africa (Oxford: result that Protestant Christi ans of any Regnum, 1994). A revised edition is planned for 2017. denomination could become faith mis 5 Eileen Vincent, C. T. Studd and Priscilla: sionaries, provided that they displayed United to Fight for Jesus (Bromley: STL), 1988. evidence of spirituality and could sign 6 During Mobutu’s rule, all Protestant churches had, by law, to be part of the Église du Christ au Zaire. So the mission-founded 2 Southern Malawi is matrilineal; with the denominations became Communautés of the exception of the Sena, the country’s central re- Église du Christ au Zaire, and each one had a gion is matrilineal, whereas the less populated number, which became part of the commonly north is mostly patrilineal. used abbreviation. For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 357 membership can be conservatively es- To many African laypeople, sacra timated as two million people. Their ments are solemn rites of the church creeds are broadly evangelical, and to which one has to be admitted first both missions developed a church pol- and which grant a certain status. Ac- ity that is somewhat Presbyterian in cording to this yardstick, marriage is a administration and somewhat Baptist sacrament, and perhaps the highest of in sacramental theology. all sacraments. These churches do not teach any The evangelical churches teach that doctrine of the sacraments, but they do marriage is a civil affair and not a sac- have baptisms, communion and wed- rament, but they behave in a very dif- dings. In line with general Protestant ferent way, according the initiation of conviction, marriage is not officially marriage (i.e. the wedding) the highest classified as a sacrament, and in line religious status. This means that there with Baptist practice, baptism and are two different theologies, one talked communion are generally described as and the other acted. I take theology divine ordinances rather than sacra- acted as the real one, since it matters ments. Although many faith mission- in the life of the people. aries came from Protestant churches that practised infant baptism, the three churches described here have opted for III Marriage and Wedding believers’ baptism. Practices in Africa

2. The number of sacraments 1. The crucial role of the ‘bride The faith missionaries were quite clear price’ in recognizing only two sacraments, Many early missionaries opposed baptism and communion. Members the practice of transferring money or of the modern churches that have de- goods to the bride’s family as implying scended from these faith missions are the selling of women, but they soon not as clear on this point, however. came to acknowledge that this was the Members often name marriage and established African way of constitut- sometimes the dedication of children ing a legal marriage. Therefore, just as as sacraments alongside baptism and many European wedding ceremonies communion. This increase in popular involved the fulfilment of civil requi perception of the number of sacra- rements (as embodied in the ceremo- ments was facilitated by the fact that nial question, ‘Who giveth away this the faith missions rarely taught what woman?’), so in (patrilineal) Africa the a sacrament was and often even did fulfilment of a civil requirement—the not use the term, referring simply to bride price—was expected. baptism and communion or the Lord’s This requirement was not integrat- 7 table. ed into the liturgy as some European requirements had been, but the bride 7 In some languages, such as in Kipsigi in price was seen as necessary and use- Kenya, there is no word for sacrament (Bill Re- ful. Within less than a generation of incheld, interview, 16 December 1986). missionary work, a considerable adap 358 Klaus Fiedler tation of the Christian theology of mar- quirements, the church got itself into a riage to the African cultural context fix. Without payment of the bride price, had taken place. there could be no Christian marriage, But African culture did not remain but since the bride price would not be static, and changes occurred not only fully paid until after the birth of several in the amount of bride price expected, children, the oldest children of a mar- but also in its social role and function. riage would be born out of wedlock. Whereas at the turn of the century, in Moreover, their parents would live in most African societies, the bride price concubinage and would, as such, be was paid in full (or almost so) in either excluded from the sacraments of the livestock or labour before the couple church (and thus from divine grace, began married life, this changed in too, since the sacraments are to convey many societies with the constant rise divine grace). of the bride price. Many churches at- This situation has occurred in vari- tempted to reduce the bride price or ous churches, including both the Ro- at least to slow down its rise, but with man Catholic Church in south Tanzania very limited success. and the Africa Inland Church in Kenya, Neither in northeast Congo, where which makes having a church wed- I did my initial research in the 1980s, ding a prere quisite for receiving com- nor in southwest Tanzania, where I munion. It explains in part why, when lived for seven years, was the man’s communion is celebrated in the Africa family expected to pay the full bride Inland Church, up to 70 percent of the price before the marriage. Payment of church members and faithful church maybe one-quarter of the total amount attenders leave as they are not quali- would allow them to live together. fied to participate in the sacrament. Completing the payments ten years af- CECCA16, on the other hand, does ac- ter the (traditional) wedding was concept a marriage as valid even without sidered a fast performance, and should the church wedding, as other evangeli- the wife die before the payments had cal churches do, like the Baptists in 8 been completed, the wife’s relatives Malawi. would retain one or more of the chil It is sad that some churches, which dren according to the completion rate. in their early days managed so well Even more significantly from a cul- to adapt to African marriage culture, tural and theological perspective, pay- lost this ability when African culture ing the full price before the marriage changed. The Roman Catholic Church was neither expected nor desired, be- does not tie the perfor mance of the sac- cause full payment would to some ex- rament of marriage to the full payment tent free the couple from control by the of the bride price, but that is theology parents’ generation, whereas partial non-payment would extend it. 8 In CECCA16, participation in communion is Since the church insists that the also low, because many people who are regu- civil requirements of a marriage must lar church attenders and (for all practical purposes) good Christians postpone baptism until be fulfilled, and since the church recog they consider themselves or are considered nized the payment of the bride price as by the local church leadership to be worthy of representing fulfilment of the civil re- baptism. For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 359 talked, not theology acted. Even if the tween the bridegroom’s and the bride’s priest correctly interprets canon law as families.10 not requiring the payment of the bride In patrilineal northern Malawi, the price (theology talked), by agreeing to marriage is constituted by the payment ‘marry’ couples who have already been of lobola (the bride price), and for the married for 20 years he teaches other- wedding the bride is brought ceremo- wise (theology acted). niously to the homestead of the hus- In popular theology, Christian mar- band’s family. riage is understood to be binding for Both forms of weddings have all life. Therefore, delaying church wed- the necessary ingredients: the couple’s dings gives the impression that the consent, the public event and recogni- couple is not really married and could tion, and the sexual consummation of still choose to separate. On the other the marriage after that.11 hand, if the church ceremony took place Among the matrilineal Chewa, Yawo earlier, the husband’s family might see and others, there is no bride price, as no reason to complete the bride price the husband moves into the wife’s vil- payments. No church teaches this, but lage, and land; house and children are many churches live it. This situation controlled by the wife (and the moth- can be remedied only if the church, er’s brother). In matrilineal marriages, which was initially successful in in- women have greater influence and the corporating Christian marriage into divorce rate is much higher than in the African culture, manages to disconnect patrilineal societies of the north. Still, its sacrament of marriage from the full church weddings are usually scarce payment of the bride price, since the here as well. role of the bride price in African society When I married my wife, Rachel has changed considerably. NyaGondwe (patrilineal Tumbuka from northern Malawi), in 2001, I checked 2. The situation in Malawi the marriage register of our Zomba Baptist Church and found that for at When I moved to Malawi in 1992, I least 10 years there had not been a found two different family systems: church wedding at the beginning of patrilineal (similar to what I observed a marriage, except for one other in in Congo and in Kenya, and where the which a foreigner was involved. When man is the centre of the family struc- I checked again 15 years later, I could ture) and matrilineal, where the wom- still hardly find such a wedding. The an is at the centre.9 The name for a traditional (matrilineal) wedding is chinkhoswe, indicating 10 The couple’s consent is required, but at that it is a union of two families. It can the chinkhoswe of my secretary, that consent take place anywhere, and the crucial was expressed not by the couple, but by the marriage guardians. moment is the exchange of chicken be- 11 If such a couple shares a Christian commitment, those elements constitute a Chris- 9 Both systems are nevertheless patriarchal, tian marriage, but traditional African ceremo- as in matrilineal societies the authority of the nies do not contain a vow of indissolubility, husband is replaced by the authority of the and the church should make provision for one mother’s brother. to be included. 360 Klaus Fiedler cost of the bride price presents the in the newspapers,12 but the enthusi- obstacle. In matrilineal societies with asm for such events is limited. no bride price, the expectations for a There are differences from church wedding feast pose a similar financial to church, but the overall picture is hurdle. that weddings at the beginning of a marriage are not the rule, and that After Zomba Baptist, we belonged their frequency depends heavily on the to a semi-urban congregation. Our pas- members’ social status and the avail- tor and his wife had been married prop- ability of money. erly in a traditional ceremony that was duly announced in and recognized by 3. Changing patterns of African the church. But he had no church wed- marriage: ‘marriage by eloping’ ding and felt that he could not conduct church weddings without having had The churches require—in good incul- turationist style—that civil require one himself. I offered to fix that defi- ments must be fulfilled for a marriage ciency by holding a simple ceremony, to be complete. But what constitutes a but he developed it into a big event. I valid civil marriage in changing African decided that from that time onwards I societies? would not get involved in such ‘after- Because of the high bride prices in thought’ weddings. many areas (including northeast Congo One of my students examined a Ro- and Kenya), ‘marriage by eloping’ has man Catholic parish in southern Ma- become frequent or even the rule. The lawi, finding that among couples who churches do not accept this as a form of engage in a sacramental marriage, civil marriage but instead look at it as each partner has been in an average of concubinage, to be punished by exclu sion from holy communion. Neverthe- three traditional marriages before that. less, in actual practice, elopement has The situation is partly different in become a thoroughly accepted form of the middle and upper classes, who civil marriage in northeast Congo. The have money. Here, weddings at the young man finds his bride by using the beginning of a marriage are more fre- traditional go-betweens, then he talks quent, and they offer social recognition to her. She makes inquiries about the and prestige worth the investment. If suitor, and when she finally agrees, the church ceremony has a hundred an evening is fixed for her elopement participants, at the reception in the af- from home. She is duly recei ved with ternoon you may expect six hundred. all honour by the bridegroom’s family, Those figures show the overwhelm- and sometimes good food is served too. ingly social character of a church wedding. 12 In one extreme case, a couple’s children There are a number of pastors (and arranged, with great pomp, a Presbyterian even sheikhs) who try to shepherd church wedding for their parents, who were around 90 years old at the time. At the man’s their faithful into large church wed- funeral, which I attended, this ‘wedding’ was dings, which always make nice reading cited as an important step in his Christian life. For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 361

They start to live together. Immediate- questioned and somewhat naive inter ly the bride’s family is infor med (‘don’t mingling between the two. look for your daughter, she is with us’), This intermixing applies to many so that a date for the bride price nego- conceptions connected with Chris- tiations can be set. tian weddings in Africa. They have This new (and nevertheless thor- to be in church and in style. And in a oughly African) way of getting married young church, isn’t it a joy when the could appeal to the churches in at least first Christian couple is to get- mar one aspect, because the consent of the ried? What male missionary would not marriage partners plays a prominent take care to ensure that the ceremony role. Such free and voluntary consent, is suitably dignified? And what female according to the churches’ teaching, is missionary would not care to ensure one of the most basic components of a that the church’s first-ever bride is proper marriage. But the churches usu- dressed properly (a bridal veil can eas- ally view elopement as a sin, to be rem- ily be made from some curtain mate- edied by a proper wedding (though only rial!) and that there is a little reception low-key since it is a second ceremony), after the ceremony (which must be a preceded by due repentance from the bit impressive too)? young couple. As for the solemnity of the rite, the In contrast to the churches’ posi- missionaries themselves set the exam- tion, neither the young couple nor ple. Here is one from the early Congo society sees this new style of getting Balolo Mission: married as sin, but rather as an effi Christmas Eve dawned a glorious cient way to cut short overly long ne- summer day for the wedding of Mr. gotiations and push forward those who Fred Gardner and Miss Elizabeth are slow to act. The ‘repentance’ that Henson. Preparations began in ear- takes place afterwards is thus largely ly morning. The native boys them staged, as people repent of a sin that selves decorated the church most they don’t acknowledge. Here I feel beautifully. After the official State that the churches should react to such ceremony in French at Basankusu, marriages with disapproval and coun- the Bride and Bridegroom returned selling, but not with church discipline. to the prettily decorated church at Ikan. Here in Lomongo, English and 4. The implications of the church Lingala13 an impressive service was wedding (and wedding feast) conducted by Mr. F. Anstice before The issues described above could be a large congregation. Much interest seen as problems resulting from the in- was aroused amongst the natives teraction of African culture with Chris- when the bridegroom endowed his tianity. But with Christianity came bride with ‘all his worldly goods’. European culture, too. Sometimes The happy couple left the church Christianity consciously opposed Eu- ropean culture in Africa, sometimes 13 Lomongo was the local language, Lingala it consciously cooperated with it, and the lingua franca of that part of the Congo, and perhaps most often there was an un- English the missionaries’ language. 362 Klaus Fiedler

amid scenes of rejoicing. A recep- ing extent of social stratification. Most tion was given at Mr. and Mrs An- people remain quite poor, but not all. stice’s house later in the day. After Even in Kenya, where there is much four days, the bride and bridegroom more wealth than in northeast Congo, returned to Bongandanga. We wish most people cannot afford a church them every blessing in their service wedding. Others can, and for them it is for the King.14 a major status symbol, as anyone who This ceremony was not theology looks at the wedding pages in Kenyan talked but theology acted, and therefore newspapers will realize. real and effective theolo gy, which the Thus, the wedding ceremony has nascent African church could not help become subject to a naive transfer of but accept and imitate. In the actual western customs to Africa under the teaching of the faith mission churches, guise of a Christian ceremony. Africans of course, there is no connection what- usually do not object to the mixing of soever between the church wedding cultures, and in the church’s doctrine and the (expensive) feast. However, there is nothing to oppose it either. So folk church practice seems to allow no there is no objection to the bridal veil, other option. For a church wedding, not bridesmaids, special dresses and suits, only is excellent food required, but also etc. Nor is there any objection to the the bridal dress and the bridegroom’s church requiring the fulfilment of civil suit must be of high quality. In accord- obligations like paying the bride price. ance with the solemnity required, spe- The problem is that the church did not cial clothes for the bridesmaids, best treat the wedding ceremony as the men, parents and relatives, and maybe blessing of an existing marriage, but transport for all the guests are obliga- as the real thing. Therefore, a marriage tory as well. without the church ceremony could not In northeast Congo, such a church be a real marriage, or at least not a real wedding could easily cost a quarter or Christian marriage. more of the bride price of eight cows, The consequence of all this is that, so that one to two years of work were because of either the high bride price required just to finance the event.15 or the expensive wedding feast or both, Church weddings have become even a Christian marriage is out of reach for more a difficult problem for Christian most Christians, however faithful they marriage because of another process might be (unless they are rich in mate- of change in African society: the grow- rial things).

5. Weddings as a means of 14 Congo Mission News/Nouvelles Mission- aires du Congo 98 (an internal newsletter of religious stratification the Protestant missions in the Congo), about The wide variation in ability to afford 1908. a church wedding is the result of so- 15 David Langford, ‘Areas of Pastoral Con cial stratification, combined with the cern: Marriage’ (unpublished manuscript, 1985), 8; another interviewee estimated that a high cost of what tradition has defined year of work would be required (Donald Much- as an appropriate wedding ceremony. more, interview, 30 December 1986). But a perhaps more important proc- For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 363 ess of stratification takes place within barred from the sacrament. In some the church in those cases where the faith mission churches, admission to church requires a church wedding as a communion is proof of a ‘proper’ mar- precondition either for full membership ried life (though the specific conditions or for the acquisition of special graces. for a proper married life vary greatly The Africa Inland Church, Roman between churches). On the other hand, Catholic Church and others make the even church members in good stan church wedding a precon dition for ding often do not partake in commun- receiving the sacraments. This inclu ion, because of what I call ‘fear of the des, for Catholics, even the sacrament sacrament’.18 of confession. In the Catholic Church, Ironically, as noted previously, the baptism is easy to obtain. Most peo- highest sacrament of all for many in ple receive it without even asking for Africa is the church wedding, though it. In CECCA16, CECA20 and the Af- in Protestant theology it is no sacra rica Inland Church, all of which do not ment at all. It is far more solemn than baptize infants, baptism also is easy to baptism and more difficult to attain obtain, though the precondition is the than communion. Its precon ditions in- experience of a genuine conversion. clude not only baptism and the right to The reason is that this requirement is share in the Lord’s table, but also the theology talked, not theology acted. In fulfilment of all civil requirements for practice, the profession of a conversion a marriage. Those who can achieve or is sufficient to gain admittance for bap- afford it are in the upper strata of reli- tismal instruction. Regular attendance gious society. then qualifies one for baptism, which This distinction is made clear in is being administered to ever younger CECCA16, for example. There you children.16 This is a definite change don’t need a church wedding for com- from the earlier practice of making ad- munion, but you need it for ordination. mission to baptism difficult.17 In the Africa Inland Church in western Admission to communion is more Kenya, an experienced Sunday school difficult to obtain. Here again the Ro- leader was nominated to become a man Catholic Church is the leader, church elder but could not accept the seeming content to have the vast ma- position because he had never had a jority of young and middle-aged adults church wedding. A Baptist pastor told me of a similar case from the Church of Central Africa Presbyterian in Malawi: 16 In theology talked, the youngest age for baptism was always around 12 years, quite My cousin, a Presbyterian, wanted in conformity with Baptist practice in many Western countries, but in theology acted, the baptized can be as young as 6 years. 18 This fear is not clearly defined, but it may 17 This was clearly the case in the early Af- be expressed as a feeling of not being ‘worthy’. rica Inland Mission, but not in the very early In Malawi, in both Presbyterian and Baptist WEC missionary work in Congo. Even in that contexts, women frequently do not participate instance, though, the practice of baptism in communion because they are menstruating. very soon after conversion (or ‘baptism on For a Presbyterian treatment of the issue, see demand’) was soon changed because of bad Felix L. Chingota, ‘Sacraments and Sexuality’, experiences with quick baptism. Religion in Malawi 8 (1998), 34–40. 364 Klaus Fiedler

to become a church deacon. But he and if anyone wanted to have a church had to have a church wedding first. wedding, he also had to pay for the cost To have a church wedding with of importing an ordained pastor into out the appropriate wedding feast this somewhat remote district. would have been a shame. The wed- Stratification through church wedding feast finally would cost 5,000 dings permits differentiation between a Kwachas [about 17 months’ pay for higher and a lower set of clergy.20 This a civil servant at that time]. He had differentiation is very much at variance to postpone having it because he with the earlier practice of the faith could not find the money in time. mission churches, which paid scant Now he is a deacon, after having had attention to ordination.21 The missions a church wedding. had introduced this differentiation by The attitude that a church wed- employing large numbers of ‘evange- ding is needed for certain offices in the lists’ and later by granting ordination church creates religious stratification. to a very small number among them. It is not easy to afford a church wed- The independent Africa Inland Church ding, so there must be a reward, like simply carried this differentiation into the office of deacon or elder. The high- the ranks of the ministers. It can be est reward is ordination, and there can argued that the AIC just followed the be no ordination without a church wed- mission’s acted theology. ding in most churches. Similar distinctions have been made Another way in which religious by the Evangelical Lutheran Church stratification is effected by church in Tanzania, which in its Northern weddings involves the right to perform Diocese permitted senior evangelists them. In the Africa Inland Church in (who were de facto pastors of a con Kenya, there is a distinction between gregation) to administer the sacra- licensed and ordained pastors. Licen sing, usually a temporary measure, has ments. When I inquired as to the dif- become a permanent feature in the Af- ference between such an ‘evangelist rica Inland Church, with at least two- of the synod’ and a minister, the reply thirds of the pastors never achieving was that ‘the evangelists of the synod ordination. Both licensed and ordained are not allowed to perform marriages’. ministers are allowed to administer In the Assemblies of God in Malawi, baptism and communion, but only an ordained ministers ‘are permitted to ordained minister can conduct a church perform all ordinances and ceremonies wedding.19 For many years a whole dis- of the church’, whereas licensed min- trict of the AIC with 18 congregations isters may ‘perform all ordinances and was without a single ordained pastor, ceremonies of the church except the

19 Sometimes it is claimed that this must be 20 It also seems to reduce the number of so since only ordained ministers can be regis- claimants on the material benefits that derive tered as ‘marriage officers’ of the government. from performing weddings. This view is not correct. Government does not 21 In the Africa Inland Mission, for example, look for ordination, but only for endorsement every male missionary, ordained or not, was by the church. accorded full sacramental rights. For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 365 marriage ceremony’.22 The need today is even greater today All this tells me that in these Prot- than when I first wrote this essay. Over estant churches, in theology acted, the the last 20 years, many have referred church wedding is the highest sacra to my views, but I am not aware that ment. they have had any positive influence If the church wedding can be likened on church practice. Meanwhile, the to the source of the river of Christian cleavage between marriage and wed- marriage, then this source is speedily dings has grown wider, church wed- drying up. Many years ago, the church dings have become more expensive (at wedding was the norm in northeast least for the middle class) and bridal Congo; by the 1980s it had become a showers (or ‘marriage send-offs’) have rare event. In Kisangani Congrega- become more elaborate and an almost tion (formerly Unevangelized Fields compulsory part of church weddings, Mission, an offshoot of WEC) there making them even more expensive had not been a church wedding for 10 (and probably less Christian).27 years,23 and in the northern CECA20 Does this mean that all those who territory there were practically none.24 have had no church wedding do not The southern area around Oicha had lead a Christian married life? Pro church weddings in about half of all testant theology talked would not cases, but even there the frequency agree to this conclusion, nor would was declining.25 In CECCA16, the honest observation support it. Having number of church weddings was low, a church wedding these days is less a but a church wedding is not required matter of Christian quality than of sec- there. The same is the case with the ular Kwachas (or shillings, Meticais or Baptists in Malawi. 26 Rands, depending on the country). This scarcity of church weddings has resulted from the fateful interac- 22 Assemblies of God in Malawi, Constitution and By-Laws, revised August 1990, Article 5, tion of three cultures (Christian, Euro- Section 1. pean, African) and the churches’ deci- 23 Even a legend helps to legitimize the ne- sion to link their moral standards to glect of church weddings. The legend claims waning aspects of African culture like that many years ago there was a church wed the payment of the bride price before ding, and the bride ran away from her husband marriage. If it is the church’s duty to that very night. After that, no church wedding ever took place, because it was regarded as a adapt to African culture, it must also bad omen for the success of a marriage (Hilde be willing to adapt to changes in that Moro, interview, 5 January 1987). same African culture. Therefore, the 24 Langford, ‘Areas of Pastoral Concern’, 8; churches should take new forms of Rev Ang’apoza Etsea Kila, interview, 30 De- cember 1986. 25 Rev Musangura Mbafele-Mussamba, in- alone, but a few in all the churches in Blan- terview, 3 January 1987. tyre.’ 26 I asked a Baptist pastor from Blantyre if 27 For a study of bridal showers and related in his church a church wedding was required. practices, see Towera Mwase, ‘The Marriage ‘No’, he said, ‘but then it’s not a Christian mar- Instructions for Girls and Women in Mzuzu riage.’ ‘How frequent are church weddings?’ Churches’, M.A. thesis, Mzuzu University, I asked. ‘There are a few—not in my church 2012. 366 Klaus Fiedler

African marriage as seriously as they wedding has become a status symbol took the old forms. for the laity, and for the clergy it is a Inculturation cannot be achieved major element in ecclesiastical power once and forever. It must be a dynamic structures. The theology talked is very process by which the churches continu- spiritual, but the theology acted is very ally seek to connect the eternal gospel secular. in a meaningful way to the processes of This contradiction, though not un- social change. known in America or Europe, has been greatly aggravated by interaction (on 6. The loss of Christian values different levels) between Christianity and the changing African culture. I The churches’ marriage policies have deeply regret that the churches have led to the loss of several Christian val- been either unable or unwilling to rem- ues. First, the value of Christian mar- edy this confused situation. riage was lost. By placing a high value on Christian marri age (through an emphasis on the need for a church wed IV A Proposal for a New ding) in theology talked, the churches Process of Inculturation kept many (often most) of the marriag- When the early missionaries accepted es of their members out of the reach the bride price as an institution com- of Christian influence. This situation is patible with the values of Christian not in accord with the New Testament’s marriage, they adapted church prac- view of Christian marriage or of the tice to African culture effectively in important role of marriage in African this regard (in contrast to other areas, culture. beyond the scope of this paper, where The Christian value of honesty has they were less successful). But many also been lost. A church’s emphasis churches stopped the process of in on something that is hard to achieve culturation when the social situation (the wedding ceremony after payment affecting marriages changed. The of the full bride price) causes people to present situation has become a process repent of sins that they do not feel they of adverse inculturation. The church have committed. Furthermore, there wedding as an exqui site event has been is good reason to accuse the churches absorbed into the wealthy segments of of materialism, since they make an secular African culture.28 expensive enterprise a cornerstone of I claim that a new process of in- spiritual achievement. The conveyance culturation is needed, one that takes of spiritual graces is conditional on material achievements. The different churches, to vary- 28 This situation can be compared with that ing degrees, have accepted the fact in Germany, where the church wedding has be- that their rite or sacrament of mar- come part of secular society in the same way riage has been turned from a means as confirmation and Christmas Eve church attendance. Churches otherwise quite empty are to convey God’s grace at the beginning full on Christmas Eve, not because of a sudden of the marital journey into a reward upsurge of spiritual desires but ‘because it’s for high achievers. Having a church so romantic’. For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa 367

African marriage as seriously today by means of church legislation have as was done a hundred years ago with met with no success. the then-current African marriage pat 4. Therefore, the churches should ac- terns. cept any genuine African marriage Such a process of inculturation as a valid marriage. This would be must consciously make room for social real inculturation. change. Christianity cannot just relate 5. The church wedding is not a con- to African culture at one point in time, stituent part of the Christian faith, but at any point in time. nor was it an integral part of Afri Inculturation of the gospel does not can culture. Therefore, the church mean giving in to African culture (or should abolish the church wedding. any culture) in all things; on the con- If abolishing church weddings com- trary, it may mean conflict for the sake pletely is perceived as too rigid, two of the gospel. things at least should be implemented: I am convinced that, for the sake of no ‘weddings’ after years of marriage, Christian marriage, and for the sake and no connection between having a of millions of Christian Africans who church wedding and admission to the want to live a Christian married life, sacraments or to ordination. something must be done, and quickly. In the process of realistic incultura- I would like to propose the following tion, the church must not shy away steps. from conflict for the sake of the gospel. 1. Since the New Testament says a There will be a loud outcry from a few great amount about Christian mar- elite members of society, but should riage but shows no concern what- the church, with its ‘preferential op- soever for church weddings, I con- tion for the poor’, give prefe rence to clude that a church wedding is not the few wealthy achievers and provide needed to make a Christian mar- them with a semi-secular ceremony to riage.29 crown their achievements, or should 2. The church must take folk theology it be more concerned with the many seriously and must accept that, al- poor people who already had to abolish though in theology talked there is no church weddings for financial reasons? need for a feast to follow the church In keeping the church wedding as the wedding, in practice the feast has standard, the church pleases the few become an integral part of the cer- and burdens the many. emony. Some might argue that abolishing 3. The churches must admit that at- church weddings would have two less tempts to keep the bride price low desirable side effects: the young couple would be given no chance to make their commitment to Christian marriage 29 This is in conformity with general Protes- public, nor would there be any possibil- tant dogmatics. Even for Catholics, for whom ity of publicly asking God to bless the marriage is a sacrament, there is no need for marriage. But even if church weddings a church wedding, since it is not the priest who administers the sacrament of marriage, are abolished, these provisions could but the bride and bridegroom administer it to be made, perhaps along the lines of each other. the ‘marriage prayer’ (malombi ya mar 368 Klaus Fiedler riage) practised in CECA20 (as stated could be chosen for this ceremony. in its constitution) and some other Possibly half of these should be female churches. It is usually applied to cou- elders, so that they would not only act ples who have eloped but who want, af- as prayer leaders but also play a role ter having settled their marriage with similar to that of the marriage guard- the families concerned, to return into ians present in some African societies, the full fellowship of their church.30 such as the Chagga on the slopes of For this marriage prayer, the pastor Mount Kilimanjaro. visits the couple, reads the relevant I am looking forward to that day Scripture passages to them, and prays when no African man will refer to his for them. Then usually some food is wife of more than 20 years as his fian- served. In theological terms, such a cée (mchumba) because they have not blessing of a marriage contains every yet ‘been married’ (in church). thing required, and the cost factor is I am looking forward to the day negligible. But the fact that this mar- when no pastor will be asked to ‘marriage prayer takes place only in the ry’ a couple with their five grown chil- house, not in the church, shows that it dren present. is second-class. And it will remain sec- I am looking forward to the day ond-class as long as ‘real’ marriages when no one will have to spend thou- are celebrated in church, as infrequent sands of Kwachas to become a deacon. ly as that may be. And I am looking forward to the day Actually, there is no need for the when the church does everything in its pastor to come to the house for the power to help married couples to marriage prayer. Two or four elders live Christian marriages, through teaching, seminars, counselling, preaching and 30 Langford, ‘Areas of Pastoral Concern’, 10. other means. ERT (2017) 41:4, 369-384 Books Reviewed Reviewed by Ronald T. Michener Beyond Literate Western Contexts: Jack Mulder Jr. Honor & Shame and Assessment of What Does it Mean to be Catholic? Orality Preference Reviewed by Nicholas G. Piotrowski Reviewed by Jack Barentsen Kevin J. Vanhoozer and Daniel J. Treier Dan P. McAdams Theology and the Mirror of Scripture: A The Art and Science of Personality Mere Evangelical Account Development Reviewed by Heiko Wenzel Reviewed by Boris Paschke Maike Didero Richard B. Hays Islambild und Identität— Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels Subjektivierungen von Deutsch- Reviewed by Linda Lee Smith Bark- Marokkanern zwischen Diskurs und man Disposition Darrell L. Guder Reviewed by Amos Yong Called to Witness: Doing Missional Samuel E. Chiang and Grant Lovejoy, Theology eds. Reviewed by Lyndon Drake Orality and Theological Education— N. T. Wright Beyond Literate Western Models: Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contextualizing Theological Education Contemporary Debates in Oral Contexts Reviewed by David Parker Beyond Literate Western Practices: Jennifer Powell McNutt and David Continuing Conversations in Orality and Lauber, eds. Theological Education The People’s Book: the Reformation and the Bible Book Reviews ERT (2017) 41:3, 369-371 concise, charitable, and thought-provoking introduction to Catholic faith, What Does it Mean to be doctrine and spirituality. Although Catholic? Mulder’s primary intent is not apolo- Jack Mulder Jr. getic, he nevertheless makes a coherent Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2015 and convincing case for the vibrancy of ISBN 978-0-8028-7266-1 Catholicism deeply rooted in both Scrip- Pb, pp238, indices ture and tradition yet extremely relevant for contemporary society. Mulder begins Reviewed by Ronald T. Michener, Evangelische Theologische Faculteit, Leuven, by charting his own journey out of the Belgium. Reformed tradition into full communion with the Catholic Church. While seeking Jack Mulder Jr., associate professor of common ground with other believers, philosophy at Hope College, Holland, he forthrightly acknowledges problem- MI, has provided us with a splendidly atic issues and misconceptions that 370 Book Reviews have divided non-Catholic Christians gift of reason’ while understanding that and Catholics, expressing his goal ‘to the ‘truths of faith’ may ‘surprise us enhance dialogue within the Christian with their mystery and wonder’ (84). community, not to convert anyone’ (3). Mulder also insightfully navigates the The first chapter tackles the subject of controversial issue of the nature of Scripture in relation to tradition. Mulder justification between evangelicals and contrasts the worry of many American Catholics. He insists, as do Protestants, evangelicals over biblical inerrancy with that Catholics believe our redemption a Catholic approach that emphasizes and justification comes via Christ. But the historical, cultural, and theological Protestants tend to see justification as context of Scripture within its various one event of God’s act of forgiveness, genres interpreted with the ‘guidance of whereas Catholics see it both as an the church’ (16). For Mulder, this makes event and a process of ongoing holiness Scripture no less inspired, but actually (which Protestants would reserve for the gets more to the heart of the Holy Spir- term ‘sanctification’). However, Mulder it’s intended revelation. He raises this does not reduce this to a semantic key point: the formation of the canon dispute; he is careful to articulate that occurred within the complex context of this is clearly a theological difference in tradition, an issue often ill-considered in perspective on how we receive justifica- Protestant circles. Mulder observes that tion and the process by which we receive both Protestants and Catholics discern it (100-103). the meaning of Scripture within their Protestants often avoid a Catholic per- respective traditions. The primary differ- spective of Mary. For Mulder, Catholics ences, however, concern the scope and do not worship Mary; they give venera- method of this discernment and whether tion to her, as they also do other saints. or not the interdependency of Scripture And Mary is not exalted due to her own and tradition are acknowledged explic- abilities. As Mulder puts it, ‘Mary is itly or implicitly (28-32). honoured because of her obedience and In successive chapters Mulder enthusi- the holy life that God enables her to astically explains the major contours of live’(124). Mulder capably describes the Catholicism, covering such topics as the difference between worship or adoration origins and role of the papacy, councils, (reserved for God alone) and venera- bishops, God, Christ, veneration of Mary, tion –something that most of us do when sacramentology, heaven, hell, purgatory, we exalt or honour those worthy of our and humanity. highest respect. Mulder addresses some key issues that On most points throughout the book may be particularly helpful to those with Mulder provides a lucid, concise a background in the Reformed tradi- exposition of Catholic doctrine. There tion. For example, he explains that the are two points, however, on which I Catholic Church allows an intellectual believe Mulder is a bit hasty. The first openness to both Calvinism and Armini- pertains to the Catholic priesthood and anism, while maintaining that God is its primary restriction to celibate males, omniscient and works providentially in and accordingly, its refusal to ordain the world (81). Additionally, he affirms women. Mulder argues that the Catholic the compatibility of faith and science, position stems in part from Jesus’ emphasizing the important role of ‘God’s encouragement of celibacy to those who Book Reviews 371 are particularly called to display the does the human soul abide prior to the coming kingdom of heaven. He admits resurrection? Understandably, there are that the apostle Peter was married, and many issues for which we have only ‘it was no doubt the best state of life limited capacities to speak lucidly, much for him’ (italics original, 164). It seems less comprehensively. But this doctrine unclear then why celibacy is manda- is one of the major points of contention tory for the Catholic priesthood if one is between Protestants and Catholics, so called to such an office, and if celibacy it seems warranted to expect Mulder to is not necessarily ‘the best state of life’ provide a more extensive reflection. for the one called (as it was clearly not These final critical remarks in no way for Peter). undermine my enthusiastic recom- In response to the idea that women in mendation of this book. It will prove a the Bible may have served as apostles useful, irenic, and conversational guide (such as Junia), Mulder submits that it is for lay readers, pastors, seminary stu- unclear that Junia would have attained dents, and professors, whether Catholic the same type of apostleship as the or Protestant, for understanding the twelve (165). Additionally, he argues basics of Catholicism—in both heart and that Jesus himself did not ordain women practice. as apostles (166). In this reviewer’s opinion, these are not strong arguments. It is possible that each of the twelve ERT (2017) 41:3, 371-373 disciples themselves would not have been considered for the title of presbyter Theology and the Mirror of or elder in the early church (considering Scripture: A Mere Evangelical the financial misdeeds of Judas Iscariot, Account or for that matter, the impetuosity of Pe- Kevin J. Vanhoozer and Daniel J. ter). We may not have records of Jesus ordaining women as apostles; but Jesus Treier did not ordain anyone, male or female, Downers Grove, USA: IVP Academic, in the sense to which ordination refers 2015 today, especially in the sacramental ISBN 978-0-8308-4076-2 sense of Catholic theology. Pb., pp 298, bibliog., indices The second issue that I believe requires Review by Nicholas G. Piotrowski, further clarity is that of the doctrine of Crossroads Bible College, Indianapolis, USA purgatory. Mulder is careful to dispel several popular misunderstandings of Is the term ‘evangelical’ worth preserv- purgatory that are embedded in popular ing? If so, what does it mean? These culture. It is not a rest stop along the questions are perennial and the answers way to heaven, nor a place at all, but it are legion. In this first instalment of the is a ‘cleansing process’ (173-74) where new Studies in Christian Doctrine and Christ continues his work of burning Scripture series, Vanhoozer and Treier ‘away the dross from our souls’ (178). have answered the first question in the But saying what generally happens affirmative, and provided a sophisticated during purgatory does not provide the definition to answer the second. reader with a clear description of what They insist that evangelicalism needs purgatory actually is. If it is not a place to be defined alongtheological lines or location in any sense, then where (not historical or social) that are both 372 Book Reviews

Trinity-centric and crucicentric, reflected who can provide the needed interpre- in the Scriptures (the apostolic, and thus tive stability to prevent the vessel (the the magisterial, authority) and learned church) from becoming unhinged from through/within the communion of saints the anchor and drifting off into disparate (the universal church’s, and thus the doctrinal waters? Vanhoozer and Treier ministerial, authority). This makes evan- argue for a wise reading of the Bible gelicalism ‘an anchored set’ of doctrines that is done along the lines of the canon’s with a fixed point around which a range literary contours, as ‘the ministry of of mobility is allowable—even encour- the church…serves and embodies sola aged—for the church. To Vanhoozer and Scriptura rightly understood’ (110): Treier this is a ‘mere’ evangelicalism, that is, not a solo Scriptura. Such an ‘the greatest common denominator, that articulation allows the church to develop which ought to unify the denominations’ and value diversity while still staying (12), ‘what it believes with the whole ‘merely’ evangelical. The aim here is a church about the gospel of God and the ‘plurality’ without ‘pluralism’ where the God of the gospel’ (116). church can stay moored to the ocean Vanhoozer and Treier begin with two floor at the fixed point of Trinitarian and ‘presenting problems’. First, Evan- gospel truth, having a line long enough gelicalism seems to have no doctrinal to glide within charitable limits on the backbone. What ultimately holds evan- surface of doctrinal variety. ‘Tradition gelical distinctives together (if anything) plays the role of moon to the Scripture’s and gives them their shape? To say ‘the sun: what light (and authority) tradition gospel’ is not enough, for the gospel bears is derivative, ministerial, a true if is a reflection of something more: the dim reflection of the light of Christ that life of the Trinity. The economic Trinity shines forth from the canon that cradles ultimately gives the gospel its logic and him’ (117). Thus, a critical biblicism and is itself reflected in the gospel. God’s be- an authentic sola Scriptura provide the ing is, then, that anchor. ‘The substance formal (epistemological) principles of of mere evangelical theology is the God ‘mere evangelicalism’. presupposed and implied in the gospel… Vanhoozer and Treier then turn to [and] depends on God’s self-communication explore how the above ‘agenda would in Christ and Scriptures’ (57). The Father reshape “evangelical” theology’s current is faithful to his promises in sending the forms’ (131). First, the distance between Son. The Son is crucified and raised for theory and practice must be closed, as sinners. The Spirit inspires the Scrip- theology is viewed as wisdom resulting in tures through which these truths are thorough integration into every fabric of known. ‘The gospel is thus grounded in, life (instead of an immediate felt-needs/ and an expression of, God’s triune being… piecemeal approach to application). Sec- The good news of what God has done in ond, recouping ‘theological interpreta- history thus has a counterpart in the way tion of Scripture’ provides the path from God has always been disposed toward exegesis to theological judgments, where humanity’ (57–58). This is a strong attention to canon, creed and culture Trinitarianism and strong crucicentrism shape theology’s coherence. (An expla- that provide the material (ontological) nation of ‘theological interpretation of principles of ‘mere evangelicalism’. Scripture’ is beyond the abilities of this But then interpretive anarchy threatens review. I point the reader, therefore, to to nullify biblical authority. What or Treier’s Introducing Theological Interpreta- Book Reviews 373 tion of Scripture: Recovering a Christian current tendencies and provide wisdom Practice, Baker Academic, 2008.) Third, for future paths. In many ways they churches, parachurches and academies envision a fifth approach to evangelical need agreement around the gospel, yet identity and fellowship in addition to all the while a healthy amount of division those in Four Views on the Spectrum of that multiplies ministries. Here, ‘[t]he Evangelicalism (Naselli and Hansen eds., apostolic concern of biblical fidelity Zondervan, 2011). Equally, however, intersects with the catholic concern of they do not propose a separate approach ecclesial fraternity’ (197) with a view to (eagerly intent on evangelical unity), the varied contexts in which the church but a recognition of evangelicalism as finds itself today. Fourth, space should an ‘intellectual tradition’, distinctive be made for scholarly contributions that from other philosophical schools with a are: spiritually constructive in accord fruitful diversity. And secondly, this book with the literary diversity in the Scrip- simply defies summary. All the terms tures; systematic/coherent with wise ap- used above are laden with incisively nu- peal to tradition, reason and experience; anced meanings with which Vanhoozer and creative within biblical theology’s and Treier make very specific points. purview. Finally, a word should be said Seasoned theologians will benefit from on Vanhoozer and Treier’s constant in- the wisdom—and call to wisdom—in sistence that evangelical theology as the this book. Theological educators will pursuit of scriptural wisdom influences particularly want to put it in the hands the church’s unity, piety and witness. of their students. ‘The church is as essential to evangelical theology as evangelical theology is to the church. Evangelical theology ERT (2017) 41:3, 373-375 without the church is disembodied, a mere abstraction; the church without evangelical Islambild und Identität— theology is absent-minded, an impression- Subjektivierungen von Deutsch- able busybody…subject to sociological Marokkanern zwischen Diskurs critique and the prevailing winds of und Disposition cultural doctrine—sola cultura’ (259). Maike Didero The definitive aspiration of evangelical Bielefeld: transcript verlag, 2014 theology remains mirroring Scripture, (Dissertation RWTH Aachen) restated here ‘in biblically faithful, ISBN 978-3-8376-2623-0 theologically fruitful and intellectually Pdf (e-book), pp413, bibliog., illus. and pastorally winsome ways. By God’s Reviewed by Heiko Wenzel, Freie grace evangelical theology might realize Theologische Hochschule Giessen, Germany this aspiration more fully, even enhanc- ing its appeal for those outside the Islambild und Identität opens a window conservative Protestant subculture(s)’ into an interesting world for reflecting (252). on migration and for understanding the If you have persevered so long through lives of immigrants in Germany. Didero’s this review, then I recommend this book focus on Moroccans (the second largest for two reasons. First, you surely care Muslim population in Germany besides about evangelical theology’s nature and the Turkish immigrants) with a popula- expression in the world. Vanhoozer and tion of approximately 170,000 people, Treier make insightful observations of is well taken and presents different 374 Book Reviews aspects of and perspectives on the immi- topics like the individual positioning in grant population from Muslim-majority light of multiple locations or the place countries in Germany. She explicitly of residence and respective networks seeks to offer a ‘more detailed perspec- or language competence and the use of tive’ (12) on ‘Arab countries and Turkey’ media or the various ways of practising which is (frequently) presented as religion ( 217-347). homogenous ‘space’ in German media. Didero’s introduction exhibits a note- This RWTH Aachen (Rheinisch-West- worthy awareness of her own perspec- fälische Technische Hochschule Aachen) tive when approaching this study. Her dissertation addresses very important introductory reflections shed some light questions. One important contribution on the stimulating aspects for start- of Didero’s dissertation lies in tracing ing this study and for reflecting on the the way these immigrants construct and relationship between personal experi- describe their identity in light of the ences and academic research in general; perspectives on Islam with which they in particular, when questions of identity are confronted in their daily lives. This and perceptions on and of immigrants particular focus sheds significant light are the topic. on the dynamics between these perspec- In addition to the self-evident critical tives and the construction/description of self-awareness and the comprehensible identity which is frequently neglected. connection of biography and academic After the introduction (11-17), the study, this introduction invites the second chapter discusses and describes reader to enter into a dialogue with the theoretical framework for approach- Didero and her experience. Moreover, it ing the crucial ideas and concepts of is an invitation to walk in the shoes of ‘identity’ and ‘subjects’ (19-74). The immigrants (for a while) and to reflect author specifies ‘identity’ by distin- on the impact of views from the outside. guishing identification from oneself and This is not the only reason that makes from others, self-understanding and this study a worth-while reading; but it belonging. Didero seeks to describe is a significant one. the concept ‘subject’ along the lines of It may not be limited to describing iden- discourses and a theoretical reflection tity in immigrant situations. Perhaps on the praxis. it can be tied to Mikhail Bakhtin’s idea The third chapter focuses on the impact that every word is a response and an- of the geographical space for con- ticipates a response. Bakhtin’s dialogi- structing identity (75-101). The author cal orientation of the word may add to describes the perception of the media many important aspects that Didero’s and the population of Islam in Germany. approach covers with her focus on the The context for the empirical part and construction of identity in light of the the rationale for choosing the interview view from the outside (‘Anrufung’). partners are presented in the fourth This study illustrates well how signifi- chapter (103-133). The empirical part cant the views from the outside are and unfolds with two complementary per- how individuals in their network and spectives. The fifth chapter focuses on a in their connections to other individu- detailed presentation of the interviews als contribute to the construction of with the three immigrants (135-216) identity. It is a response. But in light and the sixth chapter profiles important of Bakhtin’s statement this is only one Book Reviews 375 aspect, though an important one. It Regardless of this impression, Didero’s also anticipates a response (and in a dissertation is a stimulating and well- sense calls for one). This side of the presented study of an important topic. coin is addressed indirectly and briefly in Didero’s study. However, the author is hardly responsible for this limitation ERT (2017) 41:3, 375-377 as every study has its purpose and its limitations. Moreover, every study calls Orality and Theological Education for additional and follow-up studies, or, Beyond Literate Western Models: as Bakhtin would say, for a continuation Contextualizing Theological of the dialogue. Education in Oral Contexts It is my hope that Didero’s work and Samuel E. Chiang and Grant similar ones along these lines may help Lovejoy, eds. to stimulate dialogue on these important topics. They may facilitate an increased Hong Kong: International Orality understanding of immigrants, their posi- Network, 2013 tion in German society, their impact on ISBN: 978-962-7673-25-0 Pb., pp. 229, index. German society and the need to discuss the process and the dynamics of how our Beyond Literate Western society is changed thereby. The ongoing Practices: Continuing change is not a question, but a fact; the Conversations in Orality and question seems only to be whether this Theological Education change simply ‘happens’ or whether our Samuel E. Chiang and Grant society and many individuals creatively Lovejoy, eds. and dialogically arrange and mould this change. Hong Kong: International Orality Network, 2014 This possible stimulation does not ISBN: 978-962-7673-28-6 depend on an unqualified consent Pb., pp. 172, index. to Didero’s theoretical or practical discussions on identity or subject. Her Beyond Literate Western emphasis on the construction of identity Contexts: Honor & Shame and provides an illuminating framework for Assessment of Orality Preference many important dynamics, processes Samuel E. Chiang and Grant and differences of which immigrants are Lovejoy, eds. a part. Hong Kong: International Orality In light of this well reflected and nu- Network, 2015 anced treatment of these important ISBN: 978-962-7673-30-9 aspects, it is surprising that the other Pb. Pp. 220, index. important topic ‘the perception and/or Reviewed by Amos Yong, Fuller Theological presentation of Islam in Germany’ falls Seminary, Pasadena, California, USA. short of this level of balanced treatment. Conclusions are less nuanced and The International Orality Network conclusions are drawn more quickly. (https://orality.net/) was an outgrowth This might reflect the situation and the in 2005 of the initiative to understand experience of the immigrants; but this better the missiological dynamics of can only partially explain this difference. working in majority world cultures 376 Book Reviews that converged and culminated at the the orality studies of Walter Ong and Lausanne Committee for World Evange- others was registered in the theological lization meeting in Pattaya, Thailand, in academy more than a generation ago, it 2004. The Network’s initial efforts led would seem that little has changed in in 2010 to Orality Breakouts: Using Heart Anglo-American seminaries in relation- Language to Transform Hearts (edited by ship to the predominantly oral character Samuel Chiang and Avery T. Willis, and of human learning. published by the Lausanne Committee). Hence the initial volume addresses both From there, meetings in the summers of formal and informal contexts (parts I 2012-2014—at the Billy Graham Centre and II) within which oral preference at Wheaton College, Illinois; at Hong learners engage in theological educa- Kong Baptist Theological Seminary; and tion as well as unpacking the andragogy at Houston Baptist University—pro- (adult-related, in contrast to pedagogy, duced the three volumes under review. child-related) of oral learning styles and Each is structured similarly: various the form of oral leadership prevalent parts (see below) include papers pre- around the world (parts III and IV). sented at the consultations, with each The middle volume then includes eleven part (except part I of the 2014 book) case studies (in two parts) of andrag- concluding with helpful reflections on ogical innovations (in Kenya, Uganda, the preceding chapters, and the books North India, the Philippines, across themselves ending with the participants’ Latin America, and vis-à-vis the Deaf), biographies. The initial instalment also and orality strategic implementations (in includes at the end a glossary and an the areas of leadership training, Bible annotated bibliography on the topics reading, creative arts, academic scholar- covered. Co-editors Chiang and Lovejoy ship, and worldview studies). bookend all three books, with the former in his role as executive director of the The most recent book then applies the International Orality Network (ION) orality perspective by switching toward providing the prologues and the latter as honour-shame modes of comprehending a biblical scholar and advisory council majority world sensibilities and commit- member of ION writing the epilogues. ments (part I includes chapters on these themes as worked out in Central Asia, If Orality Breakouts was primarily missio- logically focused, then the triad of books Ethiopia, Latin America, purity notions considered here foreground the role of in ancient Israel, and as found in the theological education in the mission- New Testament), before turning to the ary task. To be sure, those approaching important questions related to assess- these books from a missiological per- ment of theological education (part II). spective will not be disappointed: each The ten chapters in this arena take up volume includes multiple case studies the difficult tasks of discerning appropri- of theological education and mission in ate modalities of assessment at their majority world contexts explicated from various levels, both for theological edu- an out of an orality frame of reference. cation purposes and also in relationship Yet theological educators of all contexts, to the missiological outcomes which even and perhaps especially in the such educational endeavours attempt western world, would be well advised to cultivate. My one quibble with the to be attentive to what is charted in organization here has to do with the fact these works. The truth is that, although that the first three chapters are focused Book Reviews 377 on scriptural dynamics and perhaps ERT (2017) 41:3, 377-379 ought to have been separated off as its own collection of chapters devoted to The Art and Science of Personality the hermeneutics of oral cultures. Development That the development and maturation of Dan P. McAdams children unfolds within a predominantly New York, NY: Guilford Press, 2015 oral—i.e., relational-social—environ- ISBN 9781462519958 ment is obvious. Hence the task of theo- Hb, pp368, bibliography, index logical education can never be separated from the orality of human communica- Reviewed by Jack Barentsen, Evangelische tion, but the reality is that this has been Theologische Faculteit, Leuven, Belgium marginalized by literacy in the western academy that continues to export its In the postmodern world, we have a forms worldwide. ION and the editors vast range of possible life trajectories and contributors to this volume have to choose from. The self-evident nature to be congratulated on challenging this of our moral systems has evaporated, literacy bias that is pervasive especially leaving us free to make our own moral in Anglo-American evangelical circles. choices—which can be seen as a gain, But the turn to orality is not without loss or mixed blessing depending on its challenges for Christians committed your perspective. to the written Bible as the primary if In this context, McAdams, a prominent not sole deposit of the gospel of Jesus scholar and author in psychology and Christ since now context, embodiment, human development at Northwestern imagination, and experience are found University (USA) whose book The to be at the heart of the educational and Person: An Introduction to the Science of missiological enterprise. Personality Psychology went through five In that case, affectivity is on a par with editions between 1994 and 2008, offers cognitivity, narrative equal to discursiv- significant insight into how Christian ity, and testimony as important if not spiritual trajectories might develop over more so than systematicity. In each the course of a lifetime and how pastoral case, traditional evangelical doctrinal leaders can provide the necessary guid- and theological commitments are inter- ance and discernment. rogated by if not subordinated to oral Personality psychology and develop- genres and forms of engagement. Hence mental psychology are different worlds. if the globalization of world Christianity The former discipline researches how is pressing questions about theological certain personality traits are con- questions in western Evangelicalism, tinuous throughout life, whereas the then the missiological concern of inter- latter investigates how disposition and cultural Christianity is similarly prompt- temperament change throughout life. ing pedagogical and related queries in the evangelical theological academy. But McAdams seeks to integrate the two thankfully, for those who do not think with his theory of human personality recoiling from such realities is a viable development. or plausible option, we have these three McAdams posits the idea that human books to enable forging paths forward life is inevitably social life. The first with both theological and missiological layer of development is the human as promise. social actor, which originates at birth and 378 Book Reviews deals with the establishment of basic layered structure for building character temperamental and dispositional traits. (as social actor), values and goals (as Social action is essentially the perform- motivated agent), and vocation as one’s ance of emotions, influenced by genetics, life trajectory (autobiographical author). nurture and culture. Children develop McAdams also offers a credible scheme the rudiments of personality as they supporting pastoral care and leadership learn to perform and regulate emotion. at all stages of life. His attention to the Around middle childhood (age 5–7), the challenges of narrative identity con- second layer of motivated agent emerges, struction beginning in adolescence and which charts the development of what to generativity as a key life task provide a person values and wants, of goals a framework for intergenerational learn- and motivation. As children acquire ing. When churches offer only snippets autonomy, the desire to be an agent, or of theology, principle and significance to act in a way that matters, becomes but no storied patterns of life, differ- inherent in being human. ences between the generations flatten The third layer of human development, out, reducing the potential for intergen- becoming an autobiographical author, erational learning. emerges in adolescence as people piece A robust Christian identity involves not together their memories and circum- simply knowing the right things about stances into a life story or narrative Christ, the Bible and faith and partici- identity that they use to cope with past pating in a Christian community, but events, explain who they are today and also the development of a personal nar- reflect on where they might be tomor- rative embedded in culturally relevant row. Later on, generativity or the desire communities of faith. Without a sense of to leave a positive legacy for the next narrative spirituality, it becomes difficult generation becomes a dominant concern. to construct a recognizably Christian From adolescence onwards, we develop identity. Similarly, narrative Christian a sense of life’s most significant values: discipleship entails not just the develop- ‘What is good?’ (morality), ‘What is ment of faith and morality but the art God?’ (religion), and ‘How should of integrating one’s life story with other society work?’ (politics). Our answers Christian stories such that the character, to these questions form an ideology goals and mission of Christ become vis- that direct our motivations and goals ible in one’s life. throughout life and shape our identity. McAdams indicates (140, 213–4) that Life stories generally follow a stand- he was raised in an evangelical environ- ard or ‘canonical’ pattern, such as the ment and attends a Lutheran church shape of redemption (i.e. succeeding but is not sure that he would describe despite hardship) or contamination (how himself as a Christian. The mini–case success suddenly turns sour). Finally, studies he uses to illustrate his theory McAdams discusses life endings, when cover the ideological gamut: Luther, autobiographical memory decreases or is Mother Teresa, Gandhi, Darwin, Barack even erased, the author fades, personal- Obama. Surprisingly, he draws on specu- ity regresses and the self is diminished. lative aspects of evolutionary biology McAdams’ perspective offers meaningful at times, but most of his argumentation insights relevant to the narrative turn in relies on a broad base of sound psycho- theology. His theory provides a multi- logical research. Book Reviews 379

McAdams’ significant theoretical work lent terms he uses are ‘retrospective’ can guide us in the important task of reading (3), ‘reading backwards’ (5), strengthening our existing understand- ‘rereading’ (7) and ‘intertextual close ing and practice of spiritual development reading’ (7)—works in each of the four throughout the life cycle. I recommend it gospels. In doing so, he always answers to all who are regularly engaged in lead- the following three research questions: ing other believers in paths of Christian ‘How does the Evangelist invoke/evoke discipleship. Scripture to (1) re-narrate Israel’s story; (2) narrate the identity of Jesus; and (3) narrate the church’s role in relation to ERT (2017) 41:3, 379-380 the world?’ (9). With regard to his concept of ‘Scripture’, Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels Hays explains: ‘In the present book, I Richard B. Hays have … referred with some frequency to Waco, TX: Baylor University Press, the Greek, rather than the Hebrew, text 2016 of the Old Testament’ (12). What Hays ISBN 9781481304917 does not expressly mention—but what Hb, pp xx + 504, bibliog., index, illus. becomes obvious as one reads through Reviewed by Boris Paschke, Evangelische the book—is that for him, ‘Scripture’ Theologische Faculteit, Leuven, Belgium. also includes those books of the Septu- agint that are not part of the canon of The monograph at hand is a thorough, the Hebrew Old Testament (cf., e.g., the careful and convincing carrying out references to Sirach on pages 153-158). of and plea for the so-called ‘figural In terms of methodology, Hays further interpretation’ (2) of the four canonical states, ‘We can roughly categorize the Gospels of the New Testament. Richard scriptural intertextual references in the B. Hays (Duke Divinity School) express- Gospels by employing the terms “quota- ly agrees with Martin Luther’s Preface tion”, “allusion”, and “echo”. These to the Old Testament (1523) from which terms are approximate markers on the he quotes on the first page of his book. spectrum of intertextual linkage, moving Hays then states: ‘[F]igural reading— from the most to the least explicit forms proclaiming that the events of Jesus’ of reference’ (10). Strictly speaking, life, death, and resurrection took place the title of Hays’ monograph is, thus, “according to the Scriptures”—stands at misleading because it refers only to the heart of the New Testament’s mes- ‘echoes.’ Further, Hays is not always sage. All four canonical Gospels declare consistent in the application of his three that the Torah and the Prophets and the categories since the reference to Ezekiel Psalms mysteriously prefigure Jesus. 34:2b-6 in Markk 6:34 is labelled both The author of the Fourth Gospel puts an ‘echo’ (49) and an ‘allusion’ (50). the claim succinctly: in the same pas- It is only toward the end of his book that sage in John 5 to which Luther pointed, Hays gives his readers an idea of how Jesus declares, “If you believed Moses, many references to the Old Testament you would believe me, for he wrote (here, echoes are apparently not in- about me” (John 5:46)’ (3). cluded) the four Gospels exactly contain: Hays’ goal is to demonstrate that and ‘John contains relatively few citations of how ‘figural interpretation’—equiva- the Old Testament. If we tabulate John’s 380 Book Reviews

Old Testament references in comparison short conclusion (347-366), extensive to those of the Synoptics, including allu- endnotes (367-441), a bibliography (443- sions, the totals are striking: Matthew, 469; unfortunately, many of the German 124; Mark, 70; Luke, 109; and John, 27’ titles contain typos), and two indices, (284). i.e., one of Scripture and ancient sources It is self-explanatory that Hays could (471-495) and one of names (497-504). not deal with every single one of these With Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels, references. With regard to the Gospel of Richard B. Hays has written a precious Matthew, for instance, he states (note, book that presents a learned proposal however, the tension to the just cited for the figural interpretation of the tabulation): ‘There are at least sixty ex- Synoptics and John. Five hundred years plicit Old Testament quotations … [a]nd after Martin Luther initiated the Prot- … hundreds of more indirect Old Testa- estant Reformation, Hays has provided ment allusions … It is of course impos- us with a fresh and up-to-date argument sible to survey all this material, but we from the Gospels that underlines the shall examine a few key passages that hermeneutical statement Luther made in shed light on Matthew’s strategies for 1523 with regard to the Old Testament: reading Scripture’ (109). ‘Here you will find the swaddling cloths The bulk of Hays’ book is devoted to and the manger in which Christ lies … the study of the four Gospels so that, Simple and lowly are these swaddling roughly speaking, all receive an equal cloths, but dear is the treasure, Christ, share of the pages: Mark (15-103), Mat- who lies in them’ (1). thew (105-190), Luke (191-280), and John (281-345). Unfortunately, in the limited framework of the present review, ERT (2017) 41:3, 380-381 it is impossible to summarize, let alone comment on, all findings and insights of Called to Witness: Doing Hays’ fine and instructive investigation Missional Theology of the four Gospels with regard to their Darrell L. Guder quotations of, allusions to, and echoes of Grand Rapids, MI: William B. the Old Testament scriptures. Eerdmans 2015 It should be noted, however, that Hays ISBN 978-0-8028-7222-7 succeeds in shedding new light on Pb., pp 203 passages that have ‘baffled’ (37, 71) in- Reviewed by Linda Lee Smith Barkman, terpreters. Particularly illuminating are PhD Student, Fuller Theological Seminary, Hays’ explanations regarding the ‘tanta- Pasadena, California, USA lizing’ (223) verse, Lk 24:27, where it is narrated that Jesus teaches the Emmaus Darrell L. Guder, a member of the team disciples what is written about him and who made the term ‘missional’ com- his death in the Old Testament. On the monplace by writing the landmark book basis of his investigation, Hays comes titled Missional Church: A Theological Vi- to the following conclusion: ‘Luke finds sion for the Sending of the Church in North scriptural prefiguration of Jesus’ suffer- America, now takes the next logical ing both in the Isaian Servant and in the step by examining where this vision is figure of David’ (237). going. This new work, Called to Witness: The monograph is wrapped up by a Doing Missional Theology, is a collection Book Reviews 381 of independent essays tied together by Another concept addressed at length by the common thread of what it means to Guder is that of ‘walking worthily.’ In an be missional in post-Christendom North early chapter, one iteration of Guder’s America. argument for walking worthily is based Guder is a skilled educator who, with on Paul’s epistle to the Philippians. perspicuity, makes his ideas accessible Later, he devotes two essay-chapters to students of theology and missiology to the topic, which he defines first by what walking worthily is not; not works while still challenging the scholar to righteousness, not perfected community, examine questions in missiology from and not institutional success. Instead, fresh perspectives. Given that this is he suggests that walking worthily a collection of essays written over a means that the missional church, under ten-year time span, the book maintains missional leadership, is to serve as a comfortable flow and progression. parabolic witness of the gospel. Here, The first chapter introduces missional as elsewhere, Guder relies heavily on theology from its historical genesis as Barthian perspectives. (This is not an academic discipline. The last chapter surprising from someone who has co- focuses on the trajectory of missional authored two books on Barth.) Guder ecumenism. Those in the middle explore thereby provides a solid theological from various angles the theology and basis from which to refute the western praxis of what it means to be a missional penchant for reductionist ecclesiologies, church. Presented originally at various the temptation to separate the Lordship academic settings, these are thought- and Saviour-hood of Jesus. ful articulations from a North American There are other themes that perme- evangelical perspective and serve to ate this work. Guder reminds us that call readers to participate in the larger mission was omitted from systematic conversation regarding the missional theological studies prior to the twen- church. tieth century and of the importance of Rather than brand new and innovative missional theology. He remarks more thoughts, what Guder offers here are than once on the irony that the increas- his deeper reflections, ruminations, ing consensus regarding the missional and nuanced understandings of what nature of the church is occurring simul- missional means to the Christian church taneously with the decline in western in North America. One example of this Christian tradition. He uses missional is Guder’s interesting and provoking hermeneutic interpretation of scripture perspective as a result of reexamining both as a source of grounding and as a basic ecclesiology through the Nicene way to push forward the conversation. Creed. He suggests that the Nicene Unfortunately, because the nature of this Creed marks be re-read in the follow- book is that of disparate parts joined ing order: ‘I believe [in] the apostolic, into a whole, tracing themes is made and therefore the catholic, holy and one more difficult than necessary due to the Church’, where apostolicity refers to the lack of an index of names and/or topics. ‘sending out’ missionary authority of the Nevertheless, while Guder has done church, catholic to the global and cross- an admirable job of turning a decade’s cultural missionary commission, holy to worth of academic presentations into a the ‘how’ of witness, and oneness to the cohesive work, what is truly impressive ecumenical unity of mission. is the mind that produced these essays. 382 Book Reviews

ERT (2017) 41:3, 382-383 book is of general value. It is organised in three major parts: Paul and His Recent Interpreters: 1. Paul Among Jews & Gentiles? summa- Some Contemporary Debates rising the History of Religions approach, N. T. Wright and the eventual birth of the ‘New London, SPCK, 2016 Perspectives’. ISBN 9780281067589 2. Re-Enter Apocalyptic on Käsemann Pb, pp379, bibliog, indices) through to Douglas Campbell. Reviewed by Lyndon Drake, Oxford 3. Paul in His World — And Ours? with more recent social-scientific and philo- I was reminded of the scale of Wright’s sophical approaches. effort in the two-volume Paul and the Readers of this journal may have the Faithfulness of God, by a comment early most to gain from the discussion of in Climax of the Covenant (1991), a book justification. Wright is—in the eyes of which Wright described as some extra some—at odds with the Reformers’ material for his ‘as yet incomplete’ clarity about justification by faith alone. Pauline theology. It would take over John Piper is perhaps the most high-pro- twenty more years before Paul and the Faithfulness of God was published, and file popular critic The( Future of Justifica- despite its monumental size it still tion: A Response to N. T. Wright [Whea- included many comments about material ton, IL: Crossay, 2007], for example). which had to be omitted in the interests But as Wright notes, ‘“conservative” of space. readers of Paul have often ranged them- The present volume is the second sup- selves against Bultmann, but they have plementary volume, containing some often been closer to him than they might of that omitted material (the first was have cared to acknowledge.’ In other Pauline Perspectives: Essays on Paul, words, evangelicals dislike Bultmann’s 1978–2013 [London, SPCK: 2013]). methods, but have (unwittingly) adopted While ploughing through two extra Bultmann’s conclusions. And while books is an additional challenge for Baur’s picture has ‘now been discredited those wishing to understand Wright’s on historical grounds, … like a not- reading of Paul, it is a challenge that quite-exorcised ghost it still haunts the should be approached with thankful- libraries and lecture-halls of New Testa- ness: not only because Paul and the ment scholarship.’ Faithfulness of God was shorter as a In this regard, Wright argues, most result, but because these two books 20th-century Pauline scholarship contain a great deal of vividly presented, descends from Luther, in contrast to helpful content. Calvin. ‘The football match many have In the present volume, Wright presents come to watch is thus played between something of a literature review of two teams, two variations within the modern Pauline studies. As Simon essentially Reformational heritage…’ Gathercole has noted, this is not merely Wright sees himself in Calvin’s team, a summary of others’ opinions, but while the 20th-century Germans are Wright’s critical engagement with each playing for Luther; this is not new in scholar and topic. Simply to gain clarity Wright’s self-presentation, but this book on Wright’s own opinions, therefore, the provides the most careful explanation to Book Reviews 383 date of why Wright sees himself within on other issues kinship is central (and the Reformed tradition. hence tolerance dominates). One helpful aspect of Wright’s analysis This book’s value is in its illumina- is his desire for readers to appreciate tion and clarification of why Wright the complexity of Paul’s thinking, espe- holds views he has expressed at length cially on the relationship between law elsewhere. It does not introduce novel and grace. If one over-simplifies Paul, Wright-ian theology. Those readers who he says, ‘You might as well try to play desire critique of its ideas may find that Wagner on a tin whistle’. the Journal for the Study of Paul and His Letters 4.1 (2014) which was devoted to Briefly touching on other aspects of the articles about Paul and the Faithfulness of book, Wright highlights Edwin Judge’s God is a useful starting point for explor- insistence that ‘without knowledge of ing the ongoing debate. Readers might [the] social situation, one cannot be sure also find considerable benefit in reading what is meant’ by Paul’s word. He also John Barclay’s recent Paul and the Gift helpfully engages with Wayne Meeks’ (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2015), as work on ancient monotheisms and the he also engages critically with Wright. distinctiveness of Jewish monotheism— Whatever one makes of Wright’s project, which was then adopted and became a there is no doubt that he stands as one hallmark of Christian belief. of the giants in modern Pauline studies. This reviewer particularly appreciated Evangelicals can appreciate his warm the careful discussion of David Horrell’s approach to Scripture, which stands in work in the context of social ethics such stark contrast to so much biblical within Pauline Christian communities. studies scholarship. While Paul and His Modern churches often struggle with the Recent Interpreters will be of most value tension between tolerance and purity. to those who have already read Paul Wright’s discussion helps to show where and the Faithfulness of God, any person the competing ideas come from, and interested in the history of Pauline stud- offers a framework (compelling, in my ies will find this book an entertaining view) for understanding why Paul makes and insightful guide to the breadth and certain issues matters of purity (and (sometimes murky) depths of modern hence potentially of exclusion), while Pauline scholarship.

ERT (2017) 41:3, 383-384

The People’s Book: the Reformation and the Bible, edited by Jennifer Powell McNutt and David Lauber (Downers Grove, Illinois: IVP Academic, 2017) Pb, pp245, indices, ISBN 978-0-8308-5163-8 Reviewed by David Parker This is a valuable if slightly unusual collection of papers from the 2016 Wheaton Theology Conference commemorating the 500th anniversary of the Reformation. The collection is divided into four parts—(i) Access and Readership, the pick being Bruce Gordon’s presentation of the importance of Latin Bibles in the 16th century despite the plethora of vernacular versions and most interesting, D D Morgan on Welsh translations; (ii) Transmission and Worship—the best is Co-editor McNutt on 384 Book Reviews

‘Word and Sacrament: The Gordian Knot of Reformation Worship’; (iii) Protestant Catholic Dialogue—read Michael Horton, ‘John Calvin’s Commentary on the Council of Trent’; (iv) The People’s Book Yesterday and Today—a fitting end with both entries being outstanding, Paul Lim on the history of ‘Sola Scriptura’ and especially Mark Labberton on ‘Perspicuity and the People’s Book’. This is an intrinsically useful book because of the range of topics covered and also stimulating because it will provoke all kinds of thoughts about related topics as well as the meaning and consequences of those upon which it focuses. A good example is Randall Zachman’s discussion of how and why Erasmus, Luther and Calvin encouraged people to read the Bible for themselves—not only does it present a vivid word picture of these three key persons but also raises vital questions about Bible reading today, as the title itself suggests.

Spirit and Gospel Roland J. Lowther Spirit and Gospel enables the reader to see that the Holy Spirit offers not just a fresh vision of salvation, but also the wisdom to understand it, the courage to embrace it, and the power to live it. Spirit and Gospel offers clarity on the vital subject of Christian salvation. In revisiting Paul’s gospel presentation in Romans, this book reveals how Paul uses a sequence of highly-relevant metaphors to frame his holistic message of salvation. Whilst affirming Jesus Christ as the heart of Paul’s soteriology, this book advocates that the relationship of the Spirit to the Gospel engenders in Paul’s presentation a certain coherency and potency that many Christians fail to capture. For discerning Christians seeking encouragement from a clear presentation of this timeless truth, this book is an indispensable read. Rowland Lowther’s Spirit and Gospel provides a helpful extension of a Reformed reading of Romans. This book’s call to focus on the significance of the Holy Spirit in Paul’s explanation of the gospel constructively challenges past theological descriptions and invigorates believers to fulfill the living sacrifice for which Paul’s letter calls. Mark Reasoner, Marian University Roland J. Lowther is the pastor of Eternity Presbyterian Church, Queensland, Australia. He holds a PhD from the University of Queensland on the subject, ‘Living by the Spirit’. ISBN 9781842278864 (e.9781842278802) / 136pp / 216mm x 140mm / £17.99

Available from: 01908 268500 or [email protected] Evangelical Review of Theology A Global Forum

GENERAL EDITOR: THOMAS SCHIRRMACHER

Volume 41

2017

Published by

WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE

Theological Commission

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission Articles Bickell, Colonel Craig, CSM Christianity and the Profession of Arms ...... 222 Blasu, Ebenezer Yaw Our Earth, Our Responsibility ...... 254 Borowski, Michael ‘Moving beyond’ Scripture to theology—Towards a mere evangelical account ...... 308 Borowski, Michael Of Mirrors and Men – Surveying a Trajectory for ‘Moving Beyond’ from Scripture to Theology ...... 119 Davis, John Jefferson Economic Growth vs The Environment: The Need for New Paradigms in Economics, Business Ethics, and Evangelical Theology ...... 57 Fiedler, Klaus For the Sake of Christian Marriage, Abolish Church Weddings in Africa . 355 Fringer, Rob A. Dying to Be the Church: 1 Corinthians 15 and Paul’s Shocking Revelation about Death and Resurrection ...... 174 George, Timothy Toward an Evangelical Ecclesiology ...... 100 Habets, Myk and Peter McGhee TGIF! A Theology of Workers and Their Work ...... 32 Hibbert, Richard, G. Geoffrey Harper and Evelyn Hibbert The Role of Divine Healing in Cross-Cultural Ministry ...... 339 Hille, Rolf The Evangelical Missionary Movement: the pure gospel, or can there be a bit of progress, enlightenment and colonialism? ...... 196 Johnson, Thomas K. Addressing the Scars on the Face of Christendom: World Mission and Global Persecution in an Age of Changing Intra-Church Relations . . . 166 Lewis, Gordon R. General Revelation Makes Cross-Cultural Communication Possible . . 292 Lim, Kar Yong Paul the Economist? Economic Principles in Pauline Literature with the Jerusalem Collection as a Test Case ...... 19 Index 387

Lim, Timothy T. N. Laudato Si: An Evangelical Response ...... 321 MacBean, Myles The Homiletic Window: A model for reflective preaching praxis ...... 209 Moe, David Thang A Trinitarian Theology of Religions: Themes and Issues in Evangelical Approaches ...... 234 Nihinlola, Emiola The Church as Civil Society: an African Ecclesiology ...... 48 Provan, Iain Creation and Holistic Ministry: A Study of Genesis 1:1 to 2:3 . . . . . 269 Reese, Naomi Noguchi Colin E. Gunton and Public Theologians: Toward a Trinitarian Public Theology ...... 150 Robinson, Andrea L. The Ecosapiential Theology of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job ...... 134 Volf, Miroslav Work, Spirit, and New Creation ...... 67 Wright, Chris Theology of Jubilee: Biblical, Social and Ethical Perspectives ...... 6 Books Reviewed

Anizor, Uche and Hank Vos Representing Christ: A vision for the priesthood of all believers ...... 282 Beach, Lee The Church in Exile: Living in Hope After Christendom . . . . . 286 Bielefeldt, Heiner, Freedom of Religion or Belief: Thematic Reports of the UN Special Rapporteur, 2010-2013 ...... 280 Bloesch, Donald G., The Paradox of Holiness/Faith in Search of Obedience . . 185 Brooks, David, The Road to Character ...... 91 Chiang, Samuel E. and Grant Lovejoy, eds., Orality and Theological Education— Beyond Literate Western Models: Contextualizing Theological Education in Oral Contexts Beyond Literate Western Practices: Continuing Conversations in Orality and Theological Education Beyond Literate Western Contexts: Honor & Shame and Assessment of Orality Preference ...... 375 388 Index

Davis, Stephen T., Rational Faith: a philosopher’s defense of Christianity . . . . . 288 Didero, Maike, Islambild und Identität—Subjektivierungen von Deutsch- Marokkanern zwischen Diskurs und Disposition ...... 373 Erisman, Albert M., The Accidental Executive: Lessons on Business, Faith and Calling from the Life of Joseph ...... 89 Gregg, Samuel, Economic Thinking for the Theologically Minded ...... 95 Griffiths, Brian, Robert A. Sirico, Norman Barry, and Frank Field,Capitalism, Morality and Markets ...... 95 Guder, Darrell L., Called to Witness: Doing Missional Theology ...... 380 Hays, Richard B., Echoes of Scripture in the Gospels ...... 379 Horsley, Richard A., Covenant Economics: A Biblical Vision of Justice for All . . . 96 Johnson, Keith L., Theology as Discipleship ...... 190 Johnson, Luke Timothy, The Revelatory Body: Theology as Inductive Art . . 187 McAdams, Dan P., The Art and Science of Personality Development ...... 377 McNutt, Jennifer Powell and David Lauber, eds., The People’s Book: the Reformation and the Bible ...... 383 Michener, Ronald T., Postliberal Theology: A Guide for the Perplexed . . . . 287 Mills, Paul and Michael Schluter, After Capitalism: Rethinking Economic Relationships ...... 96 Mulder, Jack Jr., What Does it Mean to be Catholic? ...... 369 Newell, Marvin J., Crossing Cultures in Scripture: Biblical Principles for Mission Practice ...... 284 O’Donovan, Oliver, Finding and Seeking: Ethics as Theology, vol. 2 . . . . 191 Putman, Rhyne R., In Defense of Doctrine: Evangelicalism, Theology, and Scripture ...... 283 Schirrmacher, Thomas, Leadership and Ethical Responsibility: The Three Aspects of Every Decision ...... 90 Tseng, Shao Kai, Karl Barth’s Infralapsarian Theology: Origins and Development 1920-1953 [New Explorations in Theology Series] ...... 188 Vanhoozer, Kevin J. and Daniel J. Treier, Theology and the Mirror of Scripture: A Mere Evangelical Account ...... 371 Wong, Kenman L. and Scott B. Rae, Business for the Common Good: A Christian Vision for the Marketplace ...... 93 Wright, N. T., Paul and His Recent Interpreters: Some Contemporary Debates . . 382