CHAPTER!
INTRODUCTION
1:1 Historical Development of Tribal
Education in India- Informal approach. 1:2 Formal approach of Tribal Education 1:3 Beginning of formal Education Among Tribal in India Pre-independence period. 1:4 Christian Missionaries and Educational Development among Tribals. 1:5 Educational Development among Tribals in India - After Independence. 1:6 Tribals 86 Indian Constitution in regard to Education 1:7 Availability of Schools 1:8 Drop-out at primary, Middle 86 Secondary Levels. 1:9 Socio-Economic aspects of Tribal Education 1:10 Specific causes and factors Leading to educational Deprivation of the Tribals. 1:11 Educational Development of Tribals in Maharashtra 1:12 Ashram Schools- The Role of State Govt. 1:13 Tribal Sub-Plan - A Special Strategy. 1:14 Tribal Education in Nashik District 1:15 Tribal Education in Dhule District 1:16 Tribal Education in Satana (Baglan) Kalwan, and Sakri Talukas. / i INTRODUCTION
India has been rightly described as a 'melting pot' of races and tribes, considering the enormity, magnitude and complexity of the problem it is really a very difficult task for the pre-historian and anthropologist to arrange the people and cultures of India in the
chronological sequence of their appearance on this sub-continent.
India has the largest concentration of Tribal population in the world.
The tribals are the autochthonous people of the land who are believed to be the earliest settlers in Indian Peninsula. ^ They are generally called the "adivasis" , implying original inhabitants.2 The ancient and medieval sources of information including the Vedic and the Epic literature mention various tribes like the Bharatas, the
Bhils, the Kollas, the Kiratas, the kinnaras, the Kiris the Matsyas, the Nisadas and the Banars. Prior to the introduction of the caste
system during Brahminic Age, people were divided into various
tribes. A tribe was homogeneous and self-contained unit without
any hierarchical discrimination. Each tribe enjoyed equal status.
Each tribe had its own system of administration. There was de
centralization of authority among the tribes. The traditional tribal
institutions were vested with legislative judicial and executive
powers.
1. Tribal India Today-Nadeem Hasnain-Harnam Publication, Delhi - 193; Page-7 2. Indian Tribes Through the ages -R.C.Verma - Ministry of I 85 B, Govt, of India-1990; page No. 4 a) Demographic Profile: Nearly ^1.1^ million persons were counted
in 1991 census as belonging to scheduled Tribes in different
states/ union territories in India excluding Jammu 85 Kashmir,
constituting 8.08% of the total population. The percentage of
scheduled tribes has marginally increased from 7.83% in 1981 to
7.95% in 1991. The tribal population has increased by 25.67%
during the decade 1981-1991. This growth rate is more than the
growth of the total population of the country (23.79%).
In some of the states and union territories the population was
predominantly scheduled tribe for example, in Mizoram 94.75% of
the total population belongs to scheduled tribes. The other
states/UT with predominantly scheduled tribe population were
Lakshadweep (93.15%), Nagaland (87.70%), Meghalaya (85.53),
Dadra 85 Nagar Haveli (79.99%) 85 Arunachal Pradesh (63.66),
Manipur 86 Tripura also had substantial proportion of population
as scheduled Tribes, the respective proportions being 34.41 and
30.95% .Among the 15 major states Madya Pradesh had the
largest proportion of tribal population (23.27%) followed by Orissa
(22.21%), Gujarat, Assam 86 Rajasthan were the other three major
states in which more than 10% of the population belonged to
scheduled Tribes, the respective percentage being 14.92, 12.82
and 12.44.
Of the total scheduled Tribe population of 67.76 million
counted in different states /UTS in India, 22.73% are in Madhya
Pradesh, 10.80% in Maharashtra and 10.38% in Orissa. Thus,
roughly 44% of the scheduled Tribe population of India live in these three states only. Going a little further, 71% of the scheduled tribe population of India live in a six states, viz.
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar 85
Orissa. In terms of absolute numbers, the scheduled Tribe population vi^as 15.4 million in Madhya Pradesh, 7.3 million in
Maharashtra, 7.0 million in Orissa, 6.6 million in Bihar, 3.8 million in West Bengal, 2.9 million in Assam 1.9 million in
Gujarat, 5.5 million in Rajasthan, 4.2 million in Andhra Pradesh,
1.9 million in Karnataka, 1.5 million in Meghalaya and 1.1 million in Nagaland. All other states and union territories together had a little over 4 million scheduled Tribe population; there being absolutely no tribal population recognized in
Harayana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi 86 Pondicherry.
Rural -Urban distribution of scheduled tribe population:- only
7.39% of the tribal population in India live in urban areas as
compared to 25.73% of the general population. Thus, roughly
93% of the scheduled tribe population are rural based. Of the 15
major states, only 3 states, viz. Karnataka, Maharashtra and
Tamilnadu had more than 10% of their tribal population, living in
urban areas; the respective percentages being 14.94, 12.47 and
12.01. The percentage of tribal population living in urban areas in
other major states are; Andhra Pradesh (7.6%) Orissa (5.1),
Rajasthan (4.6), Uttar pradesh (5.9), and West Bengal (5.2), Children in the age group 0 to 6 & sex ratio :-
The children in the age group 0 -6 constitute 20.18% of the tribal population in India as against 17.94% for the total population. Thus, the scheduled Tribe population had a relatively higher population of children than the general population. The sex ratio (defined as females per 1000 males) for the schedule^Tribe population was 972,
Thus sex ratio among the total population (927).
b) Regional Variations:-
The tribes dispersed all over the country not only speak different languages, They also differ from one another in racial, language, socio-economic and cultural patterns; The dominant racial type among the Indian tribal communities except those living in the sub-
Himalayan belt belong to proto-Australoid racial type is prevalent. A negrito element is also found in some parts of the south Indian tribes. However among the tribals in all the regions of India, there appears a varying degree of Mediterrean admixture. The tribal languages in India belong to all the major language families.
Dravidian is the most predominant language used by the tribes in
south India. Austria and Tibeto-Burmese languages are spoken by tribes in Eastern India 86 North, Eastern regions, respectively. Based on the historical, ethnic and socio-cultural aspects, the Indian tribes living in different regions can be divided into 6 territorial groupings. (i) In southern Indian Region- Tribes like Chenchu, Irula,
Kadar, Kota, Toda & others having Negrito, Caucasoid and
proto-Australoid or mixed physical features live in region
covering the states of Kerala, Tamilandu, Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh.
(ii) Middle Indian Region:- In the older hills and Chota Nagar
plateu along the dividing lines between peninsular India and
the Indo-genetic basin live many tribal communities like the
Gond, Santhal, Bhumji, Ho, Oraon, Munda, Korwa and other
comprising the states of Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, 86
West Bengal mostly belonging to the proto-Australoid racial
stock.
(iii) Western Indian Region- Covering the states like Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa 85 Union territories like the
Daman 8& Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, inhabit a number of
tribal communities the most important of them being the
Bhils, racially belonging to the proto-Australoid group.
(iv) Central & Western Sub Himalayan Region- In the region
comprising the states of Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Harayana and Jammu 85 Kashmir live
Lepcha, Rabha, Tharu and other tribes mostly belonging to
Mongoloid race.
(v) Eastern sub Himalayan Region:- In the mountain valleys and
other areas of North-Eastern India covering the states like
Arunachal Praesh,Assain, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram,
Nagaland and Tripura live tribes like the Abor, Garo, Khasi, Kuku and others who mostly belong the Mongoloid racial
stock,
(vi) Island Regions- In the Andman & Nicobar Islands and
Lakshadweep Islands live a number of small and large tribes
like Great Andamanese, onge, sentineless, Nicobarese,
belonging to Negrito and Mangoloid racial orgin. c) Occupational Profile :-
The work participation rate (total workers as percentage of total population) of the scheduled Tribe population is 49.30% which is much higher than that for the general population (37.46%). This is primarily due to very high participation rates among the scheduled
Tribe women. In case of males, the work participation rate of sechedule tribe population is 54.74% which is somewhat higher than that of the total population (51.55). But the female work participation rate among the scheduled Tribes is 43.71% as against
22.25% for the total population of the country. The female work participation rate is generally quite high in most of the states and union territories. Among the major states, the highest female work participation rate among the scheduled tribes is found in Andhra
Pradesh (50.63%)) and the lowest in West Bengal (27.43%).
The tribal population is largely rural based which has a higher female participation rate than the Urban population. Secondly, the scheduled tribe population may be engaged predominantly in such activities as forestry, Which are female oriented. Thirdly, because of the extremely poor literacy level of tribal women, the school going female population would be much less thereby increasing the participation of younger girls in economic activity.
90.03% of the main workers among the scheduled Tribes are in the primary sector, 3.85% in the secondary sector and 6.12% in the tertiary sector. The corresponding figures of 1981 were 90.71, 4.57 and 4.72. Thus there has been a very marginal decline in the primary sector, but there has been a considerable decline in the secondary sector leading to a substantial increase in the proportion in tertiary sector. There appears to be a clear shift from the secondary sector to the tertiary sector, within the agricultural sector
54.41% of the scheduled tribe main workers have reporated as cultivators while 32.69% have reporated as agricultural labourers. It is estimated that over 60,000 tribal families in 16 states practice shifting cultivation.
Scheduled Tribes' land holding, according to the Agricultural census 1985-86 accounted for 7.9% of the total number of land holdings in the country. Average size of land holdings of scheduled tribes was 2.25 hectare. In the case of marginal land holdings, out of the total irrigated land holdings of the scheduled tribes, 9.49 million
(6.5%) was wholly irrigated, while 1.06 million (14.2%) was partly irrigated. The area under food grains for scheduled tribes holdings was 83.6% of the total gross cropped area. Food crop accounted for
86.4%.
;/•, (d) Social Organization:-
The social life of the tribal involves methods of grouping and grading people for the effective conduct of the various activities for common existence by sharing in common activities under the bonds of relationship. They have their own structure and organization. As the tribals form a small community of their own in a particular territory, their relations are direct and intimate. The structure may be seen in their social design.
In the general scheme of the social structure of the tribes of
India it is observed that the tribes of North-eastern Himalayan region are known by a few generic names. The other groups of the tribes designated by a common name are the Gonds, Bhils and
Gadabas of middle and western India. Tribes are also divided into
sub tribes in these two regions.
Territorial groupings of sections of a tribe is commion in middle
India. Social class is mostly found in north Western and central
Himalayas regions. The elements of social class and hierarchy are
also common in middle and western and central Himalayas regions.
The elements of social class and hierarchy are also common in
middle and western India. Dual organization is found in Indian
Tribes but not as a rule. Clanship is a universal feature for Indian
tribes with a few exceptions like 'Maler' and parahiya in Bihar, the
'Khasa' in central Himalayas, the 'Savarna' in Orissa, the 'Kadar, ,
pandaram, Malassar and AUar in South India. The lineage grouping
is however, more common in middle India. The major matrilineal zones of India are Meghalaya in the
North-eastern Himalayas and the Kerala and Lakshadweep in South
India. The tribal communities are the Khasi and Garo of Megahalya
and the Kedar, Kanikkar, Mannan living in Kerala and the borders of
Tamilnadu, and the original inhabitants of Lakshadweep.
Polyandry is not so much in practice in the tribes of India.
The geographical distribution though thin, of the custom of
polyandry in tribal India can easily be demarcated in the Himalayan
region i.e. from Ladakh in Jammu & Kashmir in the North-West running through 'Lahaut' and spiti, Kangra, Chamba, Kullu, Mandi in Himachal Pradesh, Chakarata in Uttar pradesh and Siang district
in Arunachal Pradesh. This shows a clear continuity of the practice
of polyandry in the whole of the Himalayan region except in the
north-eastern part. The other area of Polyandry is in the south India,
in the Niligiri Hills of Tamilnadu an Upper Part of Kerala. As far as
Polyandrous communities are concerned, mention may be made of
the tribes like the Ladakhi, and Gallong in the Himalayan region and
Toda, Kota, Kurumba, Uralis in the Southern region,
e) Religious Life: -
Broadly speaking, tribals in India are predominantly Hindu.
The tribals have reporated in censuses, altogether 59 religions in
which they believe. A 9/10*^ majority of the tribals are Hindu
(89.39%). l/20th (5.53%) profess Christianity. Less than 1% profess
Buddhism, Islam, Jainism, Sikhism and Zorostrianism, 4.19% of the
tribals claim to have a distinct tribal religion of their own,
numbering 52, and a half of these tribal religions and a (26) are named after the respective tribe.
The religion wise distribution suggests that Hindus are found in all the four regions excepting some parts of south India i.e.
Andaman 85 Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep. Almost ninety-nine per cent of the tribals of Western India, South India and middle
India are Hindu, Christians are found among the scheduled tribes in
Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram in north
eastern India and constitute slightly less than 50% of the tribal population (46.88%) of the region. In South India, Particularly in
Kerala, they are 1/20'^ of the tribal population whereas in
Andaraman and Nicohar Islands 3/4th of the tribals (74.31%) are
Christians and are concentrated in some parts of Assam, Arunachal
Tripura, West Bengal & Himachal Pradesh. Muslim tribes are found
in Lakshadweep, Himachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Maharashtra.
Tribal beliefs subsume 'animism' and 'polytheism, the myths
and legends provide them with sanctions, they wor; .shitp all types of
spirits whether benevolent or malevolent. Their huts, villages and
fields and forests are all full of soO"ed centres. The religious festivals
are eagerly awaited by the tribals. The ancestral spirits claim
worship from their descendents. They mediate between the
tribesmen and the gods. It is also observed that the tribals have
blended their beliefs and rituals with other faiths. They have adopted
Hinduism from their close neighbours, associates and a role model
for centuries.
Observance of different rituals, mainly on the occasion of
10 birth, marriage and death, are part of the tribal life. The parents, elders and friends help him in a acquiring a mate and a marriage rite is performed. The marriage songs and dances inspire him to the new conjugal life. The visits of relations on the occasion bind him in a close kinship relation, when the parents reach old age and die, this, too, is taken as the spirit's wish, and the death rites are performed to satisfy the deceased for the benefit of the living members of the family. The mythology behind the different rites and gods and deities give tribals a psychological sanction to led the life as required by the norms of his community.
f) Cultural Diversities:-
There are apparent cultural differences between the life-styles of the Indian tribes, but historically, there is basic unity in thought and philosophy, among these people, born and brought up in environment of diversity throughout the length and breadth of the country.
(g) Tribal Literacy:-
At the time of 1991 census, the literacy rate among scheduled
Tribes in states and Union Territories, varied between 82.71% in
Mizoram and 17.16% in Andhra Pradesh. The second highest literacy rate among scheduled tribes in 1991 after Mizoram, was recorded by Lakshdweep (80.56%) which increased by 58.31 percentage, Points from 22.27% in 1961. On the other hand the literacy rate in Andhra Pradesh increased by only 12.75% percentage points during 1961-1991 from 4.41% in 1961. Rajasthan
11 recorded a literacy rate, among its scheduled tribes population of
19.44% in 1991 which was 15.47% points higher than the literacy rate of 3.97% obtained in 1961. The literacy rate among the scheduled tribe population recorded during 1961, 1971, 1981 and
1991 censuses was 18.53%, 11.30% , 16.35% and 29.60.% respectively (Excluding population of age group 0-6).
Around 29.60% of the scheduled tribe population in the age group 7 years and above is found to be literate as per 1991 census.
The literacy rate being 40.65 for males and 18.19 for females. These figures are much lower than the corresponding figures for the total population of India 3
3.Encyclopedic profile of Indian Tribes-Edited by Sachidananda and
R.R. Prasad Vol. 1- Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 1996.
12 HISTORIC DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBAL EDUCATION IN INDIA
1.1 INFORMAL APPROACH:
Our constitution gives privileged status to the disadvantaged groups namely, scheduled tribes and scheduled castes. This status has been assigned because of some historical reasons. The content and orientation of tribal education has to be geared up according to the social conditioning in which the tribals live. One of the foremost conditioning of the tribals in the country has been their pattern of habitation. They are a pre-Drawidian, pre-Aryan group of people inhabiting this country since the dawn of civilization. They are the original settlers to this country. The Adiwasis, as first settlers to this country they lived in forests and hills. It is because of this that they are also called hill dwellers and forest dwellers.'
The historical general backwardness of the tribals coupled with isolation and subsistence economy has kept these groups in backwaters for centuries. What is worse the non-tribals and the rulers missed no opportunity in the exploitation of these groups, it has been the irony of fate that the tribals who helped the Rajputs during medieval period to fight against the Mughals.'^
4. Tribal Education- A quest for integration in the regional
Mainstream. Dr. Hemalata Talesra-1989- Himanshu Publications-
Udaipur; pages 9,10 86 12
13 The Marathas in the later period during the ascendancy of
Rajput rule, oppressed the tribals. They were treated as beasts. The
Rajput rulers hung them upside down the tree, flogged them publicly and gauged out their eyes. Politically, therefore, the tribals remained victims of the high-handedness of the non-tribals, particularly the high caste-Hindus.
The tribal economy has also suffered a continuous downward mobility. In the initial periods of history it depended on forests and forest produce. At a later stage some of them migrated to plains. It was the first historical opportunity for the tribals to witness social stratification.
The tribal educational situation has, therefore, to be analyzed in terms of the social conditioning of the people in the past. It would not be wrong to say that in the long periods of history the non- tribals have created some myths about the people. These have become stereotypes. Tod, writing in 1839 about western India, observes, "the Bhil will feed on vermin of any kind, foxes, jackals, rats ... yet in moral degradation their fellowship is complete." The tribe is said to be dishonest and ungrateful, a few more distorated images of tribals of central and southern India could be enumerated.
The point which requries attention is that if we look at the problem of tribal education within the 'Shadow' of these non-tribal prejudices and stereotypes atitudes our scientific analysis of these people is likely to be obsessed. We would, therefore, only argue that let us look at the tribal educational situation as is found today in the context of the historical social conditioning namely subsistence
14 economy, isolation in hills and forests, feudalism, exploitation and the stereo type atttuide developed by the non-tribals, specially in high castes Hindus.
Prior to schools and formal systems of education, tribal societies had their own informal system of imparting education to their children. In that system, learning from the habitat, family and kin group was dominant. This type of transmission of cultural learning from one generation to another has three components - (1)
Post figurative culture - in which children are essentially educated by their parents; (2) Con-figurative culture- in which children and parents learn from their peers and (3) figurative culture- in which adults also learn from their children. ^
As Herskovits quoted Education is to be thought of as that part of the enculturative experience that , through the learning process, equips an individual to take his place as an adult member of his society^. In tribal communities, this process is carried on till the on set of puberty in girls and slightly later for boys. In other communities, specially at the upper Socio-economic levels, the period is very much longer. In a more restricted sense, education includes only process of teaching and learning carried on at specific
5. functions and organization of Tribal Schools- Bijoy Kumar Panda-1970 -Anamica publication, New Delhi.
6. Non-formal Education in Tribal Areas- Prof. Sachchidananada and Traditional Tribal Institutions and Modern Educational Institutions -Dr. Neeti Mahanti in Tribal Education in India -Edi Bhupender Singh and Neeti Mahati-Inter -India Publication, New Deli -1993:
15 times, in particular places out-side the home , definite periods, by persons specially trained for the task.
Enculturation continues throughout the life of the individual, it includes not only the training he receives at the hands of others, but also the assimilation of such elements in his culture as he requires by observation or imitation. In primitive society there is a relative absence of specialization in education. Where the technology of people is simple, every young persons becomes proficient over the whole range. The urge to learn is pointed towards culturally sanctioned ends, that are much broader in relation to the cultural resources available than in a highly specialized culture.
Indian history reveals that tribal people, even where they co existed with the general masses, had no direct contact with British administrators. The only contact was through tribal chieftains in matters revenue collection, which allowed special titles like Mutha heads in Orissa, Bihar, Madya Pradesh, the Manki Munda system in the Chota Nagpur belt of Bihar etc. There are also similar systems prevalent amongst the primitive groups like the onges and shompens of Andaman and Nichbar Islands. The Bondas and Saoras of Orissa, the Birhors of Bihar, the Cholanayakans of Kerala and so on the so forth. These tribes are so removed from each other in the spheres of culture, language, socio-economic development, exposure and content of traditional education and proficiency therefore; it is almost impossible to plan a systematic way of education for tribal areas and people.
In spite of the differences, isolation, problems and the tribal
IS attitude of apathy towards literacy and education due to their subsistence and continuation of regular tribal training or educational Institutions in the tribal areas. The institutions may be non-formal or existing only at the village level for a particular tribe, but nevertheless every tribe found its own form of imparting essential knowledge to their children and youth. One could think of
"Ghotul" system of Gond tribe in Madya Pradesh and Vidharbha of
Maharashtra; there are training on traditional craft as well as tribal dances, hunting etc. In coastal areas or island areas there are village elders and groups training children and youth in fishing, boating and associated crafts of boat making, maintenance etc.
When we look at all these examples of systems of non-formal teaching handed down from generation to generation through village elders and community institutions, we might think of the following points ;-
1) The main objective of these traditional tribal institutions has
always been to educate or train their children in economic
pursuits or make them skilled in traditional occupations followed
by specific tribes.
2) Since many of the tribal communities have only a dialect and not
always a written language, most of the training and education
were conducted through non-literacy or non-reading methods.
3) The vocation and craft needed information regarding designs and
techniques, which had to be disseminated orally, and memorized
by the trainees or students.
4) In spite of the disadvantages of not having a written medium, this
17 probably was the only way of continuing with a certain socio-
cultural and socio-economic form of education and training in an
interior and isolated community'^.
1.2 FORMAL APPROACH
During the transformation of a traditional society into a modern one the traditional Institutions are gradually replaced by formal Institutions. The centre of authority passes over from the known informal traditional systems, albeit inequition, to distant unknown formal systems which are based on principles of equality and justice. Yet the people may be seriously handicapped because of lack of understanding about their functioning and the class character of the people who may be occupying commanding position in the new system. In this context ignorance about the system is the biggest weakness of the tribal community and, therefore, education assumes a crucial role as a key to the understanding of these institutions and claiming of rights as members of a democratic society 8.
7. Ibid: Tribal Education in India-Ed.by- Bhupender Singh and Neeti
Mahanti-Inter-India Publication, N.Delhi -1993.
8. Tribal Education (Tribal Life in India Series -8) -Devendra Thakur
85 D.N. Thakur -Deep and Deep Publications - New Delhi- 1995. The traditional institutions of education in tribal communities in the past were of different kind. Learning activities in them generally star ted from the childhood through the process of Enculturation, socialization and assimilation of knowledge and skills from the family, kind and peer group. There existed youthdormitories like the
'Ghotul' of Muria, 'Rangbang' of Bhotia, 'Moruang' of Oraon and
'Dhangarbassa' of Bhuiya. They were the institutions of learning in these societies. There dormitories performed various functions but their main function was that of teaching and learning. They initiated adolescents of both sexes in their adult roles by providing them opportunities of learning various skills of hunting, fighting, dancing, decoration etc. However, these institutions gradually disintegrated due to the rapid social changes which followed industrialization and the resultant changes in the mode of production. 9
1.3 BEGINNING OF FORMAL EDUCATION AMONG TRIBALS (Pre-Independence)
The traces of Education among tribals, can be seen in the early efforts of the Christian missionaries. As early as the 18*^
Century, the missionaries came to India and began to spread their religious message. In the begining, they were not supporated by the
East India Company. They starated work with the goal of spreading
9. Functions and organization of Tribal Schools- Bijoy Kumar Panda- Anamica Publication, New Delhi, Page 2 85 3.
19 the message of Christ; but they soon realized that other complementary activities, such as spread of education and helping the people in other small ways, were necessary to reach their main goal. They, therefore, star; fed work for the welfare of poor. In the beginning they star ted working among the untouchables, but latter on they concentrated their efforts for spreading Education also among the aborigines residing in isolated hilly and forest areas. No doubt, their early efforts were scattered and many times only at individual levels. The quality of their work and its impact varied from region to region. Hence there was no uniform awakening or spread of education even at a lower level. However, the credit for doing pioneering work in this field goes to the missionaries.
Prior to 1854, the company did not provide for the education of the backward classes in its official schools. In official inquiries by several bodies also there is no mention of the Pupils of aboriginal or hill tribes. There is also no mention of aboriginal students, prior to
1864 , in Adam's report NuruUah and Naik (151: 427) observe that
"In Bengal and Assam the education of the tribal children has been partly taken up by the direct instrumentality of the state, but chiefly by the missionary societies with help and encouragement from the
Government."
In 1981-82, the number of tribal students in Bengal and Assam was little less than 24,000. But in Bombay province, the department had secured a little success only at the primary level. In Gujarat division, the picture was not at all encouring, only 4 persons per thousand of the aboriginal groups were literate of were at school. The Indian Education commission, therefore, recommended special
20 encouragement to the Institutions of the tribal people and also free schooling for tribal children. i° In-spite of certain facilities such as establishment of Special schools, free schooling, award of scholarships to tribal children etc. The progress in the field of tribal education, till the beginning of the 20^^ century was not impressive. A detailed picture of educational development of tribals in different provinces can be obtained from under cited table No. l:lin the year 1901-02. Table No. 1:1 Educational Development of Tribals in different provinces Sr. Province No. of No. of 1iterat e No. Students persoi is per 10(DO . Male female 1. Madras 4,534 47 02
2. Bombay 7,663 105 02
3. Bengal 30,203 89 04
4. Central Provinces 2,980 40 02
5. Assam 16,094 89 13
6. Berar 296 18 02
(Source -NuruUah 8& Naik 1951)
We find that, in absolute terms, the enrolment of tribal students in Bombay province in 1901-02 was considerably less than that in Bengal and Assam. Although the literacy rate of tribal males was the highest in Bombay province, only two tribal females per
1000 were literate; Thus gap in the literacy rates of tribal males and females was very wide.
10. Development of Education among Tribal women Tara Patel - Mittal Publishing, Delhi -1984.
21 Thus, upto the end of the 19*^ century the spread of education among the tribal people was very significant and that too only at the primary level. Later on the missionaries with the support of the
Govt, continued their efforts. While most native states did not make any significant contribution towards the welfare of the aborigines, some of the advanced native states, such as Baroda, opened a new vista in the area of tribal education and welfare.
The Quinquennial Review of the progress of Education in
India, 1917-22 mentions that only little progress, mostly at the primary level was made in the education of the tribals. The state of
Education varied in different provinces. The review reports that in
Bihar and Orissa 58,300 aboriginals including 8,000 girls, attended schools and further that 36 tribals had reached the University stage.
In Bombay state also, a fair number of Bhills, Kolis and other tribes were found attending schools. However their number at the higher stage was very small. In 1922 out of 12,000 students, not even one hundred tribals were attending secondary schools.
The slow and painful progress of Education among tribals and its comparison with the progress among the total Indian population may be gauged from the figures given in the table No. 1:2 during pre- independence period.
^^,; Table No. 1:2 Tribal Education during Pre-Independence Period
Sr. Year General Literacy Tribal No. Literacy 1. 1901 5.35 - 2. 1911 5.92 - 3. 1921 7.16 - 4. 1931 9.50 0.75 5. 1941 16.10 - 6. 1951 16.67 - (Source - Nurmllah 85 Naik-1951)
In absence of relevant data regarding education among tribals, it is not possible to obtain a comprehensive picture of their education until independence. However it must be noted that due to the efforts of the missionaries, social workers, some of the progressive native rulers and with some support from the Govt, spread of education among tribals was gathering a slow but gradual momentum. None-the less it will be appropriate to state that development of education among tribals was the least among all the sections of the population.
1.4 CHRISTIAN MISSIONARIES AND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG TRIBALS -(PRE-INDEPENDENCE)
At the beginning of 19th century, several west European countries began to take keen interest to prepare firm ground for markets to sell their manufactured goods in Asian and African
Countries. In order to achieve this object, the Govt, of these countries granted huge amount of money to the churches which opened international missions to spread Christianity in educationally backward countries. Similarly in India, also dozens of
Danish, Scottish, Portuguese, French, English, Spanish, American II and German missionaries established their churches, schools, colleges, preaching centers etc. Through these institutions, they tried to reach the tribal communitees. Missionaries thus, founded a
suitable base among ignorant illiterate, poor and rural tribal people.
All these factors invited Missionaries to encourage their missions by
spreading Christianity in the local languages.
The early missionaries, which had opened their school, were
St. Francis Xavier Portuguese missionary in Goa, Denis missionary in Madras presidency and Scottish missionary in Bengal. But ultimately the British established their superiority over other
European missionaries. They founded their strong bases in the tribal dominated areas where they gained the support of the tribal masses. After having a firm hold on the Indian soil, the British
realized the need of modernization of a section of Indian Society, which could hold the support for the British policy. The British
authority later intervened in the working of missionaries and also
overstepped the scope and work of the missionaries. The prime
motive of the English to spread the modern Education in India was
to motivate the native people for the support of legitimacy of the
English Empire. In view of this, they did not consider suitable the
vernacular languages as the medium of instruction rather promoted
English as the medium of upper classes^^
11. Tribal Education and Occupation -Dynamics of Impact and Change - Kailash - Mank Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi -1993.
24 1.5 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AMONG TRIEALS AFTER INDEPENDENCE-
In the early years of independence there was a deep controversy among social workers in tribal areas about the relative importance of education and economic development. Some held that education would solve all problems and once they were educated, they would devise ways and means to improve their style of living.
Others held that it was no use teaching hungry masses and education would take care of itself when the people's standard of living improved. However, this controversy proved to be futile, as the realization downed that both these processes were complementary and could go on side by side.
In the modern societies the whole system of upbringing is sub served within the frame work of family and formal system of education. In tribal communities the functions of up-brining is carried out by family the extended kin and the community. In the tribal societies a child becomes man or woman much earlier than in advanced societies; The child in tribal societies learns the roles and skills in the setting suited to his limited requirements and thus gets socialized in an early episode of life. 12
12. Problems of Tribal Education (Past-Present-future) N.N.G. Mathur- Shiva Publishers-Udaipur -1994.
25 In the modern Industrial societies most occupations require formal training through a regular system of learning. Today with highly advanced technology and means of transport and communication, it has become difficult for the tribals to remain unaffected by the process of industrialization and modernization.
Thus, education is becoming an important condition for obtaining occupational opportunity, such a formal training is of use in tribal traditional occupation as well. It leads vertical mobility in the absence of which, it is horizontal mobility with better know how.
Formal education refers to an organized system of training and developing knowledge, skills, mind, character etc of individuals^^ since independence the central and state Governments have been following a policy of protective discrimination and taking several measures for their uplift and welfare. We have accepted education as one of the key mechanisms for development not only of tribals but also of the society at large. Given the democratic ideology and concern for providing equal opportunities to all citizens, the faith of the planners in India seems to have been based on the functionalist
and human capital theory approaches to education as a means for
development.
13. Ibid, Development of Education among Tribal Women Tata Patel - Mittal Publications, New Delhi -1984.
26 1.6. TRIBALS AND INDIAN CONSTITUTION IN REGARD TO EDUCATION-
The framers of our constitution have given certain special safeties and securities to the tribals. These safeties and securities provide some protective discriminations to the tribals against the non-tribals. The constitution in its article 46, observes:
"The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the scheduled castes, and the scheduled tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation."
Article 29 guarantees educational and cultural rights to all the citizens.
Article 45 of the constitution is more specific regarding obligation of the state. It directs the state: "to strive to provide with a period of 10 years from the commencement of the constitution free and compulsory education upto the age of 14 years."
Article 46 of the constitution directs:
"to promote with special care the education and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the society and in particular
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, i"* Besides the constitution,
the main bases of Educational Policy
14. Introduction to the constitution of India - Durga Das Basu- Prentice- Hall of India Pvt. Ltd. - New Delhi -1993 (355-364) m in India are several commissions and committees' appointed from time to time tosuggest reforms in the educational system so as to meet adequately the new demand of the country.
The education commissions include University Education
Commission (1949), secondary Education Commission(1952-53) and
Kothari Education Commission (1964-1966) latest among the
government documents on education is the National Policy on
Education (1986). There is a strong bearing of the New Education
Policy on the Scheduled Tribes.
According to the New Educational Policy document the state
government would accord priority in the opening of primary schools in tribal areas including the construction of school buildings. In
order to provide identity to the tribal ethnicity, efforts would be
made to develop curricular and devise instrumental materials in
tribal language at the initial stages with arrangements for switching
over to the regional language. Efforts would also be made to prepare
schedule tribe youths to take up teaching jobs in tribal areas.
The new educational policy Document puts a premium on
starting residential schools for tribals including Ashram Schools.
Looking to the need structure of the tribals special efforts would be
made to bring them to accept technical, professional and para-
professional courses as a new deal for their future.
The document also emphasizes the introduction of
Arajifganwadi centres, non-formal and adult education centres on
priority basis in areas predominantly inhabited by the scheduled
tribes. It is planned that curriculum at all stages of education will be
If designed to create an awareness of the rich cultural identity of the tribal people as also of their enormous creative talents.
The Kothari commission observes in terms of scheduled castes and tribes:
"In regard to tribal education, provision of facilities at the primary stage should be improved and Ashram schools should be established in spreadly populated areas. The medium of instruction for the first two years of the school should be the tribal language and during this period the children should be given oral instruction in the regional language and by the third year the regional language should become the medium of Instruction".
Despite the breakthrough made by modern transport facilities, a large number of tribal areas remain unapproachable during rainy days. The non-tribals normally avoid such a situation the Kothari commission recommended:
"Teachers should be provided better pay scales and adequate housing facilities to take up the task of teaching in tribal areas, teachers working in tribal areas should know the tribal language and culture, is
15. Tribal Education - Hemalata Talesra-Himanshu Publications, Udaipur-1989. A large number of policy decisions made in the national policy on Education (1986); Programme of Action include recommendations of National Policy Resolution 1968. Article 4 of the National Policy on Education Suggests:
More strenuous efforts be made to equalize educational opportunities, to promote social cohesion and national integration common school system as recommended by the education commissions be adopted. Efforts should be made to improve the standard of education in general schools. All special schools like public schools be required to admit students on the basis of merit and also to provide a prescribed proportion of free-studentship to prevent segregation of social classes.
Table NO. 1:3
Literacy rate among tribals in India after independence in last four decades is as follows:
S.No. Census Tribal General 1. 1961 18.53% 24.00% 2. 1971 11.30% 29.45% 3. 1981 16.35% 36.23% 4. 1991 29.60% 52.21% Excluding population of age group (0-6) (NurmuUah 86 Naik)
It is observed from table No. 1:3 that tribal literacy percentage
in 1961 census was quite high than the succeeding censuses of
1971 and 1981.
The fact that article 46 of constitution mentions education first
and economic interest next, unambiguously demonstrates the
primacy of education and awareness in -the schemes for tribal
development. Education is the fountain of awakening which m enables the tribals to appreciate the need to develop economically. Education transforms a community from an interest and rusty society into a dynamic and vibrant one which can join in the march of national prosperity and claim its rightful share in it. Therefore, all commissions, committees and study groups which have reporated on tribals, have declared education as the key to their development. 16
It is in this context and constitutional safeguards, more and more educational schemes are being implemented by the state and central Government for the educational development of the tribals; but unfortunately position of tribal education and literacy is still poor in India. National scenario of tribal literacy during, 1991 census as compared to general in different states is as follows-
16. Report on- Literacy amongst Tribals in Maharashtra State- Tribal Research & Training Institute Pune -1981.
31 Table No. 1:4
Literacy Rate Among Scheduled Tribes During 1991 Census.
Sr. Name of States/UTS General Tribal NO. 1. Andhra Pradesh 44.09 17.16 2. Arunachal Pradesh 41.59 24.45 3. Assam 52.89 49.16 4. Bihar 38.48 26.78 5. Goa 75.51 42.91 6. Gujarat 61.29 36.45 7. Haryana 55.85 - 8. Himachal Pradesh 63.86 47.09 9. Karnataka 56.04 36.01 10. Kerala 89.81 57.22 11. Madya Pradesh 44.20 21.54 12. Maharashtra 64.87 36.79 13. Manipur 59.89 53.63 • 14. Mizoram (Included in Assam) 49.10 46.71 15. Nagaland 82.87 60.59 16. Orissa 61.65 22.31 17. Puniab 49.09 - 18. Rajasthan 58.51 19.44 19. Sikkim 38.58 59.01 20. Tamilnadu 56.94 27.89 21. Tripura 62.66 40.37 22. Uttarpradesh 60.44 35.70 23. West Bengal 57.70 35.70 UNION TERRITORIES 1. A 86 N Island 73.02 56.62 2. Dadra Nagar Haveli 40.71 28.21 3. Lakshadweep 81.78 80.58 4. Daman 86 Diu 71.20 52.91 All India 52.21 29.60
Excluding population of age group 0-6
Source - Census of India 1991.
32 Table No. 1:5
Sexwise and statewise enrolment ratio of tribal students in primary classes.
1991-92
Sr. Name of States/UTS Girls Boys Total NO
1. Andhra Pradesh 160.52 102.60 131.93 2. Arunachal Pradesh 133.04 94.71 113.82 3. Assam 175.43 154.68 165.33 4. Bihar 90.65 52.1 71.69 5. Goa 19.42 11.7 15.55 6. Gujarat 160.83 112.7 137.23 7. Haryana - - - 8. Himachal Pradesh 125.15 95.96 110.58 9. Karnataka 121.00 98.22 109.87 10. Kerala 133.15 126.45 129.86 11. Madya Pradesh 94.40 60.11 77.87 12. Maharashtra 137.27 111.44 124.62 13. Manipur 151.26 133.18 142.49 14. Mizoram (Included in Assam) 73.04 68.58 70.81 15. Nagaland 141.78 149.11 145.54 16. Orissa 107.32 97.73 102.69 17. Punjab 128.27 63.78 96.85 18. Rajasthan 108.42 39.01 74.69 19. Sikkim 116.18 104.29 110.31 20. Taimilnadu 124.01 98.60 111.6 21. Tripura 175.59 131.41 153.79 22. Uttarpradesh 94.45 58.42 77.36 23. West Bengal 147.95 65.28 J 107.34 24. Andaman 86 Nicobar Islands 68.9 59.59 64.10 25. Dadra 85 Nagar Haveli 124.38 89.39 107.71 26. Lakshdweep 170.84 146.44 158.64
Source: Second Historical surrey of women's Education in
India- S.P. Agarwal & J.C. Agrawal- Concept Publishing Co. New
Delhi. Enrolment figures, particularly at the primary stage and in
13 respect to tribal community, do not always reflect the actual situation. The ministry of education and the NCERT also furnish enrolment ratio on the basis of the number of the children. The children enrolled in the primary classes and the number of the children in the age-group 6 to 11. Since the former number also includes children in a lower or higher age-group than 6 to 11 years, the enrolment ratio is sometimes very high. As above table shows that the enrolment ratio of tribal children in the primary classes is reporated to have reached 104.70% during 1991-92. On the face of it this figure is commendable. But the variation in the enrolment amongst different states is very high for example, the enrolment in
Goa is only 15.55% and in Assam, Tripura and Lakshdweep island it is 165.53, 153.79 and 158.64 respectively. The enrolment in
Maharashtra is 124.62%.
It may be observed that the method of reporting enrolment in terms of enrolment ratio does not give a clear picture to the layman.
It will be better if in the educational survey statistics are so collected that the number of children below the eligible age group (6-11 and over) that age group are separately reporated so that it is possible to know the precise beverage of children in the 6-11 age group at the primary stage.
1.7 AVAILABILITY OF SCHOOLS: - According to the 4^ All India
Educational Survey only 83% of the tribal population was covered by primary schools within the habits or within 1 Km of the same. Thus about 17% of the tribal population depended on elementary schools
M which were more than 1km away from their habits, out of these
13.96% did not have a school within 1.5 kms and 8.37% did not have a school within 2 kms. This contrasts with the general
situation in which 92.82% of the population is covered by schools within the habitat or within 1 km therefore, more than 25,000 tribal habitats had no schooling facility. The coverage at the secondary
level becomes still more unfavourable. While 82.18% of the
population had a secondary school within 8 kms; only 51.89% of the
scheduled tribe population could claim this facility. At the higher
secondary level 41.08% of the general population was covered by a
school within 8 kms; only 18.8% of the scheduled tribe population
had that facility.
The above comparison in absolute terms does not present
the real picture. The same distance in the plains and those areas
with developed communication is not a serious hurdle but in the
tribal areas with hills and forests and flowing streams even 1 km
may be a long distance and the facility of school may not be really
available. Even such a detailed survey like the All India Educational
Survey has not taken into account these features and has gone by
just physical distance. Consequently, it is difficult to say whether
the access to education as indicated by the survey is real. The only
certainty about accessibility to elementary school facility is the
existence of a school within the habitation. Consequently, the
percentage of population covered effectively is much smaller at all
levels.
3S The only measure so far taken to increase the coverage has been the establishment of residential schools. It is hardly realized that universal coverage for a community particularly an agricultural community cannot be through residential institutions. One cannot even think of a village in which all the children in the age group 6-11 may be living away from the society, just pursuing their studies in a residential institution, the lack of appreciation of the social reality led some states to rely exclusively on residential institutions for elementary education in the sparsely populated areas and closing down the ordinary primary schools which made the position worse.
Effective coverage at the primary school level requires a completely unconventional approach in which all measures may have to be adopted with a clear objective that every child has to be given facility of education, i^
1.8 DROP-OUT AT PRIMARY, MIDDLE AND SECONDARY LEVELS: -
The enrolment in classes 1 & II is not the real indicator of the achievements on the educational front. What is important is how many children are reaching the middle and secondary school level and passing out. The following table shows the sex-wise and statewise drop-out rates of tribal children upto class X .
17. Ibid; Tribal Education- Devendra Thakur, D.N. Thakur, Deep 86 Deep Publication, New Delhi, 1995.
36 Table No. 1:6
Sex-wise & state-wise Drop-out rates of Tribal Students upto class X (1988-89)
Sr. State/Union Territory Girls Boys Total NO. 1. Andhra Pradesh 92.77 88.83 90.34 2. Arunachal Pradesh 89.30 80.49 83.37 3. Assam 77.21 56.15 68.18 4. Bihar 93.64 90.3 91.2 5. Gujarat 90.10 85.68 87.5 6. H^'v^'^c-K.i^ p-!r
Source: Second Historical survey of women's Education in India
(1988-1994) S. P. Agarwal & J.C. Agarwal.
Above table gave a very clear picture about drop-out rates
of tribal students in different states of India. Uttar Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Tamilnadu and Bihar are having the highest ration of
37 drop-outs viz 92.47%, 91.81% and 91.42% respectively. The drop out rates among the tribal girls were found highest in Rajasthan
(94.37%) Tripura (93.44%) Bihar (93.64%) and Madya Pradesh
(92.15%). It is interesting to note that West Bengal is highest rate of
drop outs amongst tribal girls and boys 92.74 and 92.35 respectively. Though it is one of the progressive state in India but whereas total dropout rate among tribal students is very low (52.47)
in the West Bengal.
On the other hand Maharashtra is also one of the progressive
state but is having the 86.18% drop out rate among tribal students
between I to IXth standard classes which is somewhat highest by
considering socio-economic background of the state.
It is argued that in tribal areas people do not send their
children to school and there are heavy drop outs as they cannot be
spared from their domestic and agricultural work. This is not true wholly. It is also due to apathy to education, lack of interest in and
awareness of the importance of education. Among Christian tribals
this awareness is so keen that children are forced to go to school
often at some inconvenience to the family.
In many tribal areas where economic programmes have
succeeded, there has been steady flow of additional income to
families but this is not reflected in their standard of living as they
have been cheated of their money by crooks or middlemen, money
lenders, petty Govt, employees and contractors exploit them as
before.
38 Uptill the 6* five year plan, Education in the country was taken to be the social service rather than an input in the development process. With the beginning of the 6* plan there has been a change in the emphasis, and education has been considered as ' pivotal' in the social and economic development of the country through the development of human resources. Priority has been accorded to the universalization of elementary education and eradication of illiteracy. The national policy of Education (1986)" also envisages universalization of primary education and adult literacy by 1990. Thus, education is pre-requisite for the progress and development of the societyi^.
18. Ibid. Report of Tribal Research 85 Training Institute, Pune -1981
if 1.9 SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF TRIBAL EDUCATION
In modern society the major link of education to social structure is through economy and this is a linkage of both stimulus and response. The economy of a community guides to a large extent the quality of education it should have. Had there been no Industrial revolution in the West Universal compulsory education could never have been possible there. The amount of money to be spent on education depends upon the economic resources of the country. The expanse and the quality of education of the mass of the people would determine the total production of goods and services in the society. Education seeks to increase human efficiency, which in turn leads to maximization of production. An educated productive force would also see to it that maximum satisfaction is derived by the judicious allocation of scarce resources in purposeful channels.
The close link between education and economy can also be seen in the traditional pattern of tribal education. Among some tribes, notably among the Oraon we have the institution of the youth dormitory which according to S.C. Roy was 'an effective economic organization for purpose of good quest, a useful seminary for the training of young men in their other social and other duties and an institution for magico-religious observances calculated to secure success in hunting and to augment the procreative power of young men so as to increase the number of hunters in the tribe'. Among the most important functions of the Oraon y outh dormitory was the pacha service, a device by which the services of the dhumkuria
40 could be requisitioned by any villager who wanted labour for thatching his house or working on the agricultural field for a small todekn payment to the institutions. Thus the economic role of this traditonial medium of education was geared to the well-being of tribal society as a whole. It also trained people in healthy living under the aegis of a common organization. Living and working together for a common end fostered feelings of goodwill and co operation between boys who later on became heads of households in their own right. The instituion of the bhayari or inter-village fraternization of village youth must have gone a long way in promoting peace and cordiality between villages in a neighbourhood.
Thus the cementing of social ties not only between people of one village but among a number of villages was one of the primary functions of this only tribal educational instituion. The practice of song and dance by the members of the yough dormitory every evening together with the reciation of folkore made it a repository of the social legacy of tribal society which was passed from one generation to the next by word of mouth.
After Independence the urgent for bettering the conditions of life of the tribes was realized by our leaders, Constitution makers and palnners. As the socio-economic condition of the tribes was backward as compared to that of the bulk of the population in the country, it was considered desirable to allocate large sums of money for development in tribal areas. At that time the question of priorities cropped up. For some time a controversy raged between social workers regarding the relative importance of education and economic development. It was urged by some that to improve the conditon of the tribes the only way was to educate them. Once they became educated they would themselves devise ways nd means to improve their lot with such government assistance as was available to other communities. Those who K^ld the contrary opinion believed that it was no use educating hungry masses and education would take sure of itself when people's standard of living improved.
Fortunately this controversy did not grip the planners and adequate funds were made available for both educational and economic development. In fact both these programmes had to be pushed through vigorously by workers to achieve the maximum results in the shoratest possible time.
It is well known that in most tribal areas the struggle for life is very hard and people lead a hand to mouth existence. Even the tribes practicing agriculture do not produce enough to have two square meals a day. The entire family is busy with the food quest.
Among the non-agricultural tribes, all the members of the family go every day to the forest to dig for roots, to collect fruits and to hunt game. Even in families of settled agriculturist like Munda, Oraon and Santal, children, both male and female, make substantial contribution to the economic activities of the household. Boys graze cattle and help with agricultural operations while girls collect firewood, edible leaves and look after younger siblings. Thus each child is an economic asset. It is argued that if the child is taken away to school, the family is deprived of the little income he brings
42 and the parents have to feed him out of their meager income which puts severe strain to the family economy.
This difficulty explains the apathy of the tribal people towards education. It is also attributed as a cause for absenteeism and stagnation at schools. But this point seems to have been overdone.
The number of tribes who are hunters and food gatherers in India is very small. We have to make a special study of their educational problems. But with the majority of the agricultural, artisan or indutrial tribes, the lack of interest in education may be traced to other causes. Tribal parents have not yet been made conscious of the need for education and the change it will bring to them for their material well being. Wherever this has been done, there is enthusiasm for education and demand for more schools. This can easily be illustrated by reference to Christian tribesmen. In Bihar
Christian and non-Christian tribesmen live side by side in villages.
Sometimes one brother is a Christian and the other is not. They may have the same resources to fall back upon. Their economy is at par but one brother sends his children to school and the other does not.
This is because Christian brother realizes the value of education and is prepared to make some sacrifices to see that his children, both male and female get some education. The non-Christian brother has no such consciousness and is satisfied with his traditional way of life. Had the urge been created by our social workers among the latter, one child at least from each family could have been spred for
the school.
This hurdle can also be overcome by adjusting the school
43 hours for the primary school to the time needed for dominant occupation. If necessary, the school hours may be reduced to three only every day. A large percentage of tribal children would drop off after the primary stage and thus without affecting the food quest they can receive elementary educaton. At the middle and the secondary school, the school hours need not be changed as there only such students will come whose parents have realized the necessity of education and are prepared to make some incovenience.
But in all schools due consideration should be made in the matter of holidays for local festivals, sowing or harvesting and for the weekly market. In short, educational authorities should be prepared to make such adjustment so that the pursit of education may not interfere seriously with the economic pursuit of the household. To attract children to primary school breakfast or meals may be provided them.
Educaitonal programmes cannot wiat till economic development has been completed. Economic development is a never- ending process. Both educational and economic development should go hand in hand. There can, however, be no two opinions on the fact that it is easier to push through educational efforts in a society with affuent economy. In all triabl as well as in other areas in the country numerous programmes for economic development have been taken up under the Community Development programme. It is also well known that in tribal areas the programmes are not making much headway due to a number of factors. Even to take advantage of the various development schemes, a certain degree of progress is
m necessary. Numerous examples can be given of schemes which came to grief simply because the beneficiaries did not know how to use them to their best possible advantage. An illiterate tribal secretary of a co-operative society had to part with his ancestral land to pay back the advance received from the Central Bank. The proceeds from a bumper crop of paddy, produced by the Japanese method of paddy cultivation were wasted away on drinks and trifles.
The extra income was not used as revolving capital for the next season. At the next season the cultivators were as indigent as ever.
In another area rainy season potato cultivation was introduced. The crop came up very well but the cultivators were cheated of the fruits of their labour by the crooks or middlemen. In most areas tribal people do not come forward to take up schemes, as they are afraid of and have no faith in government agencies. This apathy is born out of ignorance. Recent investigations have shown that the bulk of the schemes in mixed tribal areas go to the non-tribal people. Thus due to lack of education, the tribal people are deprived of their legitimate share in the development. Even if economic development has put more money in their hands, their standard of living has not shown considerable improvement.
To make the different schemes successful there should be vigorous programme of social development. This would come through a rational system of social education for the tribal people. It would be more than a mere literacy movement. It would include the entire canvas of tribal life in an area. It would create in the tribal mind a consciousness of their own surroundings, problems and
45 needs together with a new sense of national sentiment. Until now efforts in the field of social education have been stereotyped and lifeless. It should be reoriented to help economic development in the different fields.
Education to-day is not solving our economic problem.
Formerly every youth used to participate in economic pursuits. Now only a part of them get good employment. The rest are unemployed or under-employed. To engage in agriculture is out of question for they have long ceased to be agriculturists mentally as their education had no such bias.
People tend to respond more easily to stimuli, which has some continuity or analogy with their traditional values and forms of organization. Continuity of cultural patterns is the main reason for the relative case of culture transfer. The system of education in tribal areas should have a tribal bias and the departure from their traditional values and attitudes should be minimum. Education makes a person fit to face the problems of life with courage. Tribal education, therefore, to be accepted by the people without much misgiving should have direct relevance to their basic needs and aspirations. The personality of the educator an that of the first few acceptors of the idea is the educator and that of the first few acceptor of the idea is important. A beginning should be made with
the families of village headmen who are natural leaders of the public
opinion on their area. There is no doubt that education has a
prestige value as educated persons soon begin to make their
influence felt in village affairs as purveyors of government policies
46 and measures of development. Education has become as important as possession of wealth in the matter of elections to the statutory panchayats and other non-official bodies.
To make education more attractive, it should hold a promise for conferment of economic benefit. It is urged that most of the tribal people would be reluctant to sacrifice the mere income which they derive from utilizing the services of their children for the uncertain future when the children will bring additional income to the family by getting employed outside. The value of education is now being realized, even through slowly, by the tribal people and it is not merely a question of economic gain that will prevent parents from sending children to school. Still if we can make education remunerative from the very beginning it will be a help to parents and an encouragement to children. This can be done by giving eduction a craft bias. The income the students may get from sale of their handicrafts or the produce from the school plot of land may meet the cost of their maintenance at school. Thus the student would not be a burden on his family and would at the same time get skilled in one or more trade. But there care should be taken that the craft which he learns is not tabooed in his own society. Among some tribes there is an existing tradition for some crafts, e.g., rope making among the
Birhor, bamboo craft among the Birjia, basketry among the Mahi etc. this existing knowledge can be fruitfully employed by school authorities.
The influence of tradition on education is marked in all societies. This tradition is derived from some economic cause which
41 operated in the past may not operate in the present. Therefore the patern and content of education in a society vairies from age to age.
Among the Oraon for instance, the yough dormitory, their traditional seminary for education aimed at augmenting hunting and agricultural resources by magical and other devices. Hunting is not longer a major occupation of the tribe and developed method of agriculture are being now introduced in Oraon areas. The bias in those schools has to be agricultural as most of the students have go tto fall back upon their traditional occupation. Of late, in many tribal areas many industriazl undertakings have started work. It is highly desirable that they should employ large number of tribal youths. Unformtuantely this is not the case as tribal youths with requisite aqualifications are not available. It would, therefore, be worthwhile to open science classes in all the high schools in the nearby tribal areas. Round about the industrial undertakings indusgtrial training industries and engineering schools should be opened to give training to the tribal youths. After the primary level arrangement must to give vociatonal guidance to student.
School in tribal areas can directly become instruments for promoting economic development. In this connection the role of the teacher is significant. It is common experience that instruction at school has a deeper impress on the minds of children than those received at home. Learning process is far more effective within the four walls of the school. The school field can be used for demonstration of better methods of agriculture, compost making, poultry farming, bee keeping, horticulture, growing vegetables and fruit trees etc. Children have more receptive mind than their parents do and if they are convinced that a particular thing is good they will have their way at home. Thus the work of the extension officer can be done to some extent by the school teacher who would thus become a friend, philosopher and guide not only of the children but also of their parents. Close touch with parents would also help in reducing absenteeism at school.
Education is a crucial type of investment for the exploitation of modern technology. This fact underlies recent educational development in all the major industrial societies. Despite idiosyncrasies of national history, political structure and social tradition, in every case the development of education bears the
stamp of a dominant pattern imposed by the new and often conflicting pressures of technological and economic change.. In tribal areas in the country this technological and economic change is
occurring at great speed. The sleepy hamlets in deep forests are now
humming with activity. Educational development has to keep pace
with this change. There is need for more faster growth of schools.
The democratic process assumes equal educational
opportunities for all sections of the population. Unequal life chances
are both cause and effect of unequal educational opportunities. In
some sections of the tribal population the growth of education has
been rapid. The Christian tribesmen are forging ahead with great
speed and the level of education among them is far above that of
49 their non-tribal neighbours not only in their own area but in other parts of India. The non-Christian tribal people have, therefore, to be carefully brought within the pale of education. This will need concerated effort for long years. Among the tribes too there are some who are more backward than others. Naturally they have greater claim to the attention of educators.
As the educated class among the tribes is very small, it forms a privileged section. This is an elite group from which officers and leaders are drawn. Most of them try to identify themselves with the non-tribal middle class than with their own poorer brethren. In some cases they also look down upon the latter and tend to behave with them with arrogance. They would not hesitate to fleece the latter or to exploit them. This can only cease when large number of them receive education.
Education would further tend to increase social mobility from one class to another. In fact, class would depend upon the educational level and the income of the family concerned. Education would also reduce social distance between tribal and non-tribal people and there by further the cause of emotional integration between the two sections of the population.
Thus education, economy and society are closely linked. A change in any one is apt to affect the other two. The educational problems of the tribes are therefore to be viewed against the
50 background of their economy and society. Only then can our educational efforts bear the maximum fruit in the minimum possible time. Of all the items in the development programme for the tribes, education is the most important as it is both the means and the end of real progress, i^
19. Tribal Education in India- Report of the national Seminar on Tribal Education in India- Tribal Education Unit, Deptt. Of Adult Education, National Council of Educational Research & Training - New Delhi-1967.
51 1.10 SPECIFIC CAUSES AND FACTORS LEADING TO EDUCATIONAL DEPRIVATION OF THE TRIBALS.
Like all other sectors of Socio-economic life, educationally the tribal people are at different levels of development but on the whole, formal education has made very little impact on tribal groups. In the light of the past efforts it is not shocking because prior to 1950, the
Govt, of India had no direct programme for the education of the tribals with the adoption of the constitution, the promotion of education of S.T.s has become a special responsibility of the central as well as of the state Govt.
The growth of formal education among the tribal populations of the country may be gauged from the facts yielded by the census data, the census figures of 1931 disclosed that only 0.7% of the total people were literate. This percentage rose to about 11% in 1981 against 36% for the entire country. The literacy rate among the tribal women is obviously much lower. So , the total picture of spread of education among the tribals is not very encouraging, beirring a few tribes of north-eastern region like the Khasi, the Garo etc. who tremendously benefited from the vast network of Christian missionary institutions.
Since education is probably the most effective instrument for ensuring equality of opportunity, the tribal people are lagging far behind their more fortunate fellow countrymen due to lack of education. Let us analyse the reason for this state of affairs, ^o
20 Ibid- Tribal India Today- Nadeem Hasnain- (1983)- Harnam Publications - New Delhi.
52 1.10.1 Social Factors;- More allocation of funds and opening of schools do not go far in providing education to the tribal people.
Social factors play very important role in this respect. Formal education has not been necessary for the members of tribal societies to discharge their social obligations. Hence they should be made prepared to accept education and it should be presented to them in such a way as to cut the barriers of superstitions and prejudice.
Barring the tribal communities of northeastern region, it is still a wide spread feeling among the tribals that education makes their boys defiant and isolent and alienates them from the rest of their society, while the girls turn modern or go astray. Since some of their educated boys felt alienated and cut of their links with their families
and villages after getting education and good employment, some of the tribal groups vehemently appose the spread of education in their midst.
1.10.2 Economic Factors:
Since most of tribal people are living in object poverty under
subsistence economy, it is not easy for most of them to send their
children to schools thus losing two healthy hands in their struggle
for survival. Verrier Elwin (1963) very appropriately sums up the
situation in the following way.
"For a tribal family, to send its grown up girl or boy to school,
is essentially matter of economics, and entails dislocation in the
traditional pattern of division of labour. Many parents cannot just
afford to send their children to school."
53 L.R.N. Srivastava (1968), on the basis of his survey of educational situation among the tribals, also supports this view by
saying that poor economic condition of the tribal societies is a great hindrance to successful education. Almost all the tribes -whether food gatherers, hunters, fishermen, shifting cultivators or settled agriculturist- lack enough food to maintain the family for the whole year. Education, therefore, is a luxury to them which they can hardly afford. Each school- going child in a tribal family is an economic unit and contributes to the fcimily income. If the child is taken away from his normal economic work to attend school, the family is deprived of the little income, which he brings, instead, the parents have to feed the child out of their earnings which further reduces the economic stability of the family. According to the present system of education any economic benefit a tribal child can bring to his family will be only after 10 or 15 years of schooling. The parents have neither the patience nor the foresight to wait for such a long period. They can, however, be convinced easily it the education for them can be made productive right from the very beginning.
1.10.3; Lack of Interest in Formal Education:
Sharma (1976) has rightly pointed out that the "Urban middle
class-oriented educational system has got superimposed on the
entire nation both in terms of its structure and content" . In many
states tribal children are taught the same books which form the
curriculum of non-tribal children of the urban and rural areas of the
rest of the state. Obviously, the content of such books rarely appeals
54 the tribal children who come from different cultural backgrounds.
Stores of scientific and technological progress, founder of modern
India, history and geography of the country, etc. of course form
necessary part of any curriculum but the situation demands that
their education should start with the teaching of demography,
history and ecology of their own region, their neighbourhood and the
state. National consciousness should not be imposed from above or
outside, but they should be made aware of it in a systematic
manner. L R.N. Srivastav (1968) puts the problem in a more lucid way by saying that "the tribal child who lives in an isolated and far
off place untouched with the currents of modern civilization can
hardly assimilate any information about geography of the country, about the industrial & technical development uninteresting and
outdated stories and about the important personalities unknown
and unheard of the tribal areas. He has to be given the complete
information to begin with about his own tribes and village. Then he
can pass on to the information about his neighbouring communities,
his village life, social organizations, beliefs and practices and then
pass on to the national scene where we can introduce him to India
which is his country.
This is well known fact that education in India has spread in a
haphazard way without taking care of future needs. Tribal education
also could not escape this anomaly and became instant failure due
to apathy, in difference and lack of interest of the tribal people in
formal education.
m 1.10;4 Lack of Suitable Teachers;-
Lack of suitable teachers is one of the major reasons for the slow growth of education in tribal areas. Most of the teachers employed for imparting education to the tribal children show little appreciation of the tribal way of life and value systems. They approach the tribal people with a sense of superiority and treat them as "savage" 86 uncivilized and hence fail to establish proper rapport with their students. The scheduled areas and scheduled tribes commissions report has analyzed this situation in the proper prospectively. It says that a teacher in the tribal areas must have a thorough knowledge of tribal life and culture. He must speak the tribal language. Only so can he be in a position to act as a friend, philosopher and guide to the tribal people.
1.10;5; Lack of Facilities; - One of the major problems in tribal education is that of language. Most of the tribal languages and dialects are in the most rudimentary stage and there is hardly any written literature. Hence, the problem of medium of instruction has been a great irritant. Most of the states impart education to tribal and non-tribal children alike through the medium of the regional language, thus making education uninteresting to many of the tribal people.
Nature of habitat of the tribals is also responsible for slow growth of education. Most of the tribal villages are scattered. This entails long travels to attend schools. Unless the school is situated very close to their villages and its site approved by the local people the result shall not be encouraging school building, in some cases,
56 also plays an important role in the growth of education among the tribal folk. Due to mismanagement, bungling and sometimes financial constraints the building is seldom suitable to run an education institution. N.R. Rath (1981) has given a very graphic description of the situation by sa.yiv\^ that dil apidated, often roffless structures standing as lone sentinels in the midst of a featureless spot away from the village are often pointed out as schools.
Another factor related with the problem is the number of teachers, most primary schools in tribal areas are single teacher, managed whose presence in the school is more an exception than a duty. Overburding may be one of the possible factors for this stat It will be unjust to except a teacher to fllow a non-stop six hourly schedule of teaching as a matter of daily routine. The enthusiasm of tribal people in the education of their children also depends considerably on the timing of school hours in different seasons. The school timing should not clash with their important socio economic activities and events. people running schools for the tribals have often killed their interest in education by their unimaginative planning. Local conditions and requirements of the people should get top priority in any scheme for running these schools and balance has to be maintained between the needs of the family and the needs of education. 1.10.6 Stagnation & Wastage - The problem of absenteeism is a serious one in tribal areas. One sees a large number of students on 57 rolls but the actual attendance is really low, and the number of students passing out at the final exams is even lower. The real problem is to create such socio-economic conditions as could be conducive to the students developing sufficient interest in their studies. 1.10: 7: Inadequate Infrastructure;- The fifth All India Educational Survey has given a graphic account of the various infrastructural bottlenecks which contribute tot he educational deprivation of the scheduled tribes in India. This is not very much different from the findings of the fourth All India Educational Survey according to which only 83% of the tribal people were covered by primaiy schools within 1km of the tribal habitat. Out of the remaining 17% 13.9% did not have a school within 1.5km and 8.3% did not have a school within 2 kms. The position has deteriorated in the fifth All India Educational Survey as would be evident from the following. Table No. 1:7 Habitations predominantly inhabited by scheduled tribes and served by primary schools. (Average of population ranging between 100 to 5000+ ) Sr. NO. Distance Percentage 1. Within habitation 45.43% 2. Upto 0.5 Km 57.71% 3. Upto 1.5 km 74.46% 4. Upto 1.5 km 79.33% 5. Upto 2.0 km. 87.60% Source: Fifth All India Education Survey, 1988-92 58 It is not as if the entire population within the habitation is served by primary school as would be evident from the following: Table No. l:7:a Percentage of population in habitations predominantly inhabited by scheduled tribes served by primary schools. Sr. Distance Percentage No. 1 Within habitation 72.19% 2 Upto 0.5 Km 79.14% 3 Upto 1.5 km 88.35% 4 Upto 1.5 km 90.85% 5 Upto 2.0 km. 95.00% Source fifth Al [ India Edu. Survey, 1988-92 Table No. l:7:b There is a sizable percentage of habitation predominantly populated by scheduled tribes which continue to be unserved by primary schools as would be evident from the following. Sr. Distance Percentage No. 1 Upto 1.0 km 25.54% 2 Upto 1.5 Km 20.67% 3 Upto 2.0 km 12.50% Source fifth All India Edu. Survey, 1988-92 Percentage indicated in the table are based on the total population residing in the areas at distance varying from 0.5km to 2 km. However, it must be noted that the total population of the distant area goes on de erasing as the distance increases. m^ Table No.l:7:c The percentage of rural population in habitations predominantly populated by scheduled tribes which continue to be unserved. Sr. Distance Percentage No. 1 Upto 1.0 km 11.65% 2 Upto 1.5 Km 9.40% 3 Upto 2.0 km 5.00% Source fifth All India Edu. Survey, 1988-92 The scenario is not uniform and varies from state to state, district to district and even within the district. Table No. 1.8 The percentage of uncovered population by schooling facilities within 1 8& 2 kms is being given below. Sr. State Unserved Unserved Unserved No. within within 1.0 within 2.0 Habitation km km 1 Andhra Pradesh 36.37 22.20 11.30 2 Arunachal Pradesh 35.65 29.12 53.03 3 Assam 35.18 11.14 1.28 4 Bihar 41.13 12.51 3.10 5 Himachal Pradesh 41.69 10.16 7.75 6 Maharashtra 44.82 8.77 4.09 7 Manipur 6.02 4.32 3.54 8 Meghalaya 20.10 4.21 - 9 Orissa 33.65 16.42 8.12 10 Rajasthan 25.00 12.93 5.06 11 Sikkim 35.69 18.43 - 12 Tripura 59.27 24.58 11.14 13 Uttar Pradesh 29.57 12.61 3.80 14 West Bengal 3.80 25.00 5.28 15 Andaman and 39.92 17.57 - Nicobar Islands Source -Fifth All India Educational Survey 1988-92 60 The above description does not present complete picture of educational deprivation. The same distance in the plains and areas with developed communication is not a serious hurdle but in the tribal areas with hills and forests and with flowing streams, even 1km, may be a long distance and absence of schools within the habitation may be a double dis-advantage. Access to education would not only depend on the location of the schools within easy reach but also the nature of the terrain, the willingness of the teachers to come from the plain areas to stay in the tribeil areas and to hold on to their interest in teaching. Willingness of parents to send their children over long distances to the school, the hiatus in matters of food, dress, architecture and the overall school and hostel environment and home which may be responsible for pull out or push out of children from the school, (which is different from the dropout phenomenon) 21 21. Ibid, Tribal Education in India - Singh Bhupendar and Mahanti, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi-1993. 61 1.11 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF TRIBALS IN MAHARASHTRA The state of Maharashtra is situated between 16.40 degrees to 22.1 degrees north in East Latitude. The state ranks third in population as well as area in the country. Its geographical area is 3.0777 lakh sq. kms. It constitutes about 9.66% of all India area of 32.83 lakh sq.kms. As per 1991 census, the population of Maharashtra is 789.37 lakhs and this is 9.33% of all India population of 8463.03 lakhs. The total tribal population in the state of Maharashtra as per 1991 census is 73.18 lakhs which account to 9.27% to the total population of the state. In all there are 47 scheduled tribes in Maharashtra and of which 3 tribal communities viz. Katkaris, kolams and Madia Gonds have been considered as primitive tribes in the state. 22. The specified area of the state as declared by 1950 notification by the Govt, of India is now coterminous with the tribal sub plan area. It can also be seen that the tribal population in the scheduled area is about 37.67 lakhs which is about 52% of the total tribal population of the State, which means that about 48% of the tribal population live outside the scheduled area. 22. An overview of Tribal Research Studies- Edited by Dr. Navinchandra Jain and Dr. Robin Tribhuvan -Tribal Research 85 Training Institute, Pune. 1995 62 This is the result of the large-scale migration that may have taken place during the last 25-30 years to urban and industrial centres in search of livelihood and employment. It may also be the result of enrollment of non-tribal population as tribals in the census record and most of these non-tribal are living outside the scheduled area. The migration may have also taken place due to depletion of forest cover and the increase in tribal population unable to subsist on forest and agriculture produce had no alternative but to migrate to nearby urban and industrial centres.23 Prior to 1882-83 we hardly fmd any effort being made to educate the tribals by establishing schools in tribal villages. Also we do not fmd any record of Maharashtra (Former Bombay state) tribals having any institutions, like youth dormitories to give indigenous education to the tribal children. Neither British rule nor princely states had made any systematic effort to establish schools in tribal villages. However, some isolated efforts made by the department of public instruction of the then Government of Bombay in this direction. The report of the Director of public instruction (1856-57) states, "School for wild tribes such as the Bhils, of which there are several not under this department, founded chiefly by the public authorities. There are three of these schools under the officiating Bhil agent in Khandesh, which have been visited by the Deputy 23. Mirage of Health and Development - DR. Navin Chandra Jain & Dr. Robin Tribhuvan-Vidya-Nidhi Publication, Pune-1996. m Inspector and repor ted on. The same general description may be given to them all. No fee is levied and not much is learnt. " on the whole, these early schools do not appear to have succeeded because it was reporated in the same year that the attempt "to educate the Bhils must be pronounced as hitherto a failure". Actually, modern Educational development may be said to have commenced in this part of the country (Maharashtra) after the year 1818 when the peshwa regime suffered its final defeat and the British rule was established in major parts of the Bombay presidency. This does not mean, however, that there were no schools and no system of education in these areas before the advent of the British regime. Further paragraph cleanly showing the absence of tribal schooling during the period. It is believed that there was a fairly well-functioning system of indigenous schools mainly at two levels 24 schools of learning for the teaching of traditional religious texts for the profession of priesthood, and elementary schools or imparting common education that is reading, writing including letter writing and simple arithmetic including accounts, all this education was based on traditional knowledge and culture and naturally enough did not reflect the scientific, industrial and social developments that had taken place in the west, classes of the second type of 24. Progress of Education in Rural Maharashtra (Post-independence Period) A.R.Kamat Gokhale Institute of Politics 86 Economics, Pune -1968 schools were held in temples or other public places such as Chavadi or houses of benevolent well-to-do persons of the village, and the teachers were supporated by the village as a whole and also through per capita contribution or fees from parents of pupils. Printed books were rare and there were no regular text books. This school education was confined only to boys. Scheduled caste boys (untouchables) were not admitted to these schools. Perhaps there were no other caste restrictions, but most of the students were either Brahmins or from other advanced castes. This school system was fairly widespread. Three different estimates made between the year 1823 and 1842 placed the number of such elementary schools in that period between 1,400 ,1,600 and the number of pupils studying in them between thirty and thirty five thousand, which was estimated as approximately 1.4% of the total male population. Historians of education believe, however, that education believe, however, that education was much more widespread than what these low figures would indicate. A new period of development of general Education began after wood's Education Dispatch of 1854, following its recommendations the Government of India themselves assumed responsibility for education. In 1855 the Board of Education in Bombay was replaced by the Department of Education headed by the Director of Public Instruction for the Bombay province. Thus the provincial or state department of education has existed for more than a century although the head is now renamed Director of education from 1951. For the next 15 years from 1855 the Bombay Department of AS Education worked under the direct control of Govt, of India. In spite of the delay in taking decisions and in their implementation which this kind of central control always implies the newly established Department of Education in Bombay was able to start a number of new primary schools during this period. The department secured additional funds for its use by persuading the provincial Govt, in 1863-64 to levy a local fund cease for education at the rate of one anna on every rupee of land revenue, and exercised strict economy of expenditure. By 1871 there were 2,788 primary schools with an enrolment of 1,49,298 pupils, almost a tenfold increase in a period of 15 years. Special efforts were made to enroll girls in schools. Separate schools were star ted for this purpose, and , by 1871 there were 159 special Govt, schools for girls with 6,066 pupils. Special primary schools were also star ited for the untouchables; there were 16 such schools in 1881-82. 25 Thus, whatever little information is available about the tribal education prior to 1882 indicates that though the state had accepted education as one of its functions and opened Government schools among the non-tribals; similar efforts were not extended to tribal areas so far. Whatever little efforts were made by the non-tribals to impart and by the tribals to receive education, were only individual efforts. They were not the result of state policy and practice. 25i Ibid- Progress of Education in Rural Maharashtra - A.R. Kamat In 1856 an untouchable pupil who wanted to join a government school at Dharwar was denied admission. This gave rise to a controversy in government circles as a result of which all Govt, schools were thrown open to untouchables in 1858. In practice, however untouchables continued to suffer in many places. Separate schools were starated to mitigate this iniquity to some extent. 66 1.1 l.a PHASE- 1- (1882-1920) 1.11.1 State's Interest In Forest Areas- British Raj was interested in the rich forest Wealth of India, because it needed wood badly, for shipbuilding, creating railways net work and for several such uses. The early years of ship building and railway expansion saw un precendented assault on the more accessible forests; "great chunks of forests were destroyed to meet the demand for railway sleepers". The magnificent forest of India were being cut by the private enterprise in a reckless and wasteful manner. This alarmed the administration. The crisis was more acute since only three varieties- Teak, Sal and Deodar - were strong enough for use in railway and shipbuilding. It was in order to bring woodcutting to order, stop wastage and systematically exploit the forest resources that the forest department was starated in 1864. It was not possible to accomplish this task without establishing state's monopoly right over forests. The first attempt towards this was the Indian forest act of 1865, which was replaced, by a more comprehensive act in 1878. This sort of monopoly 'right ' of the state over forest was in opposition to the customary rights of the forest dwellers. It was interpreted to mean that the customary use of forest by the villagers was not based on 'right' but on 'privilege' and this 'privilege' was exercised only at the mercy of the local rulers. Since Britishers were now the rulers, they become owners of forest. 1.11.2 Two Responses: Rebellion And Reform: - The dimunition of customary rights, forest officials entering the forests and getting hold over natural resources which were freely enjoyed by the tribals uptil now, evoked a sharp reaction from the tribals. There were several revolts by tribeds centered around the question of rights. A sort of combined feeling of frustration and aggression remained among them even though it might not have turned into revolt in some places. This was a 'Law and order' problem for the rulers. Hence the district officers, in charge of law and order, were made to act as arbiters between the forest department and the people. One of the technique to maintain law and order was to grant some concessions and give minor benefits to local population. Schemes were introduced whereby some tribals could be accommodated in the administration, especially as beat guards in the forest department. This required minimum literacy on part of the tribals. Hence, in the initial period schools were starated by the forest department. Around 1882 a small section of the tribals had already starated coming in contact with the newly emerging forces. Some reacted sharply by resorting to revolt, while some took the course of reform. Govt, was naturally interested in reform and the tribals who believed in reform were bound to accept education as a value. 1.11:3 Education In this phase three different agencies starated schools in tribal areas. They were (1) The British Government (2) The Princely states and (3) Religious organizations. The British Government has appointed 'The Indian Education Commission (1882); which naturally recommended that special effort must be made to educate the tribals. It was during this period m (1882 -1920) that the tribal education made first major advent with the help of the step. 'The total enrolment of tribal students (in Bombay province) increased from 2,734 in 1881-82 to 12,131 in 1921- 22; of these schools, 22 in training institutions and 18 in special schools". The Indian Education Commission (1882) had recommended that efforts should be made to train teachers from the tribals themselves. It was with this end in view that central primary schools were organized and boarding houses were attached to them. The main objective of these schools was to train tribal pupils for the P.S.C. (Vernacular final) examination and then to send them to a training college. During this period the Govt, starated providing various facilities to the tribal students. It provided free books and slates to all primary students. It also gave some scholarships. l.ll:lt> PHASE -II - (1920-1947) After the recommendations of the Education Commission (1882) the British government as well as princely states made initial efforts to educate the tribals. "But the people were ignorant, timid and superstitions. Moreover they believed that one who takes education dies early". (I.I.Desai 1971). It was in the second phase that the Govt, took an important political decision. The year 1921 is a landmark in the history of elementary education, as the control of elementary education was transferred to Indian Ministers who were responsible to a legislature with the large majority. 69 Three types of educational institutions are found working for educating tribals in this phase. They are (1) Day schools, run, earlier by the Department of public Instruction and later by local boards (2) Boarding schools run by local boards, and (3) Ashram Pattern of education run by Gandhian organizations. In the tribal areas of the whole of Bombay state, it was reporated that the enrolment of pupils from the scheduled tribes increased from 12,131 in 1921-22 to 29,105 in 1936-37. Of these 28,658 (were) in primary schools. The number of special primary schools (day schools) starated for these tribes also increased from 117 in 1921-22 to 206 in 1936-37 and their enrolment from 3,360 to 8,856. Besides, the central school also increased and stood at 15 in 1936-37. They continued to do their useful work of pre-primary the pupils of the scheduled tribes for appointment as teachers in primary schools. 1 .11:C- PHASE III- (1947-1964) The constitution of India recognizes the importance of education and accepts the ideals of free and compulsory primary education. Primary education is accepted as a responsibility of the state. But at the same time there is a dilemma where the basic education pattern should be accepted as a national policy of education. The Government in principle accepted the basic education as an instrument of making basic changes in the primary education. In 1955 the Govt, appointed Assessment committee on 70 Basic education. The committee recommend that all schools may be oriented to basic education. It also said that as a first step towards changing all schools to basic education some elements of basic education may be introduced in all the primary schools. The Government of Bombay recognized the role the Ashram schools played in educating tribals in the pre-independence period. Those Ashrams which were apposing Govt, prior to 1947, were not getting grant. Now such Ashrams were facing financial problems. The Govt, had to make a special Ashram school scheme 1953. As Ashram Schools were not entitled to receive grants according to the rules governing grants to the general schools. The primary concern of the Govt, was to establish a school in every village. Tribal village had lesser ratio of schools per village. The new 'Day schools' established in tribal areas were oriented to basic education, ' or schools of basic education. 26 In the scheduled areas of state, schools are star ted even in comparatively smaller habitations and grants are given for construction of school buildings and hostels. Teachers willing to work in such areas are granted several concessions. In 1959-60, 1,89,516 children (of whom 44,-099 were girls) of the scheduled tribes were under instruction. A useful study of scholarships awarded to tribal students for post-matric studies in 1962-63 was undertaken by the state govt, the main findings were as follows- 26- Tribal Education in Gujarat - S.P. Punalekar - Ajanta Publication, New Delhi-1985 n 1) 297 tribal students were awarded scholarships. Percentage of students belonging to the scheduled tribes comes to 0.012 to their total population in the state. 2) Progress of post-matric education amongst certain categories of the scheduled tribes is very low even though their population is quite large. For example while 17.7% of the scholarships awarded to the scheduled tribes in the states went to the students belonging to the Gond Tribe which forms 11.37% of the total tribal population of the state, not a single scholarship was awarded to any student belonging to the 'Varli tribe' which form 10.17% of the tribal population of the state. 3) Nearly 75% of the scheduled tribe students took arts, science and commerce courses. The percentage of students taking up professional or technical courses was comparatively very low. 2? 1.11; d- PHASE IV (1965 onwards) It is well known that Maharashtra is industrially and commercially a very advanced state in India. Large numbers of industries are being set-ups in the backward regions in private and public sectors due to package scheme of incentives offered by government. The industrialization and urbanization in Maharashtra is taking place very speedily with its effect on the rural population in all spares of life. The percentage of urban population to total 27 Ibid, Tribal Education in India -Report of the National Seminar on Tribal Education in India -NCERT, New Delhi. 72 population was 38.69 in the year 1991. It may be around 45 in the year 1995. There has been a large-sccde migration from rural to urban areas for employment and in this whirlpool, the tribal population has been caught unaware. Their efforts to stick to their deep rooted traditional value system, their customs, their religious practices have pulled them further down leaving an ever-increasing gap between the tribals and non-tribals. In the initial stages of economic development (say upto Vth plan), the tribal community has not joined the mainstream of society in real sense and were, therefore, left behind in the process of development. 28 . This is also true in respect of educational status. It can be seen from the table No 1:9 that overall literacy percentage in the state is about 64.87% while it is only 36.77% among the scheduled tribes as per 1991 census. It is also pertinent to note that literacy rate among the males for the general population is 76.56% and that of females is 52.32% whereas it is only 24.08% for female and 49.08% for males in the scheduled tribe communities. Thus, There is very wide gap so far as the literacy percentage among the tribals and non-tribals is concerned.Even though it is true that the literacy rate among tribals have gone up yet the decimal rate of growth. If literacy is very slow as compared to the literacy rate of genersil population. At national level the literacy rate has increased by 6.78% in the decade 1971-81 and 16% during 1981-91 for the general population, but in the case of scheduled tribes, the literacy rates have risen by 5.05% and 13.25% only during the period 1971-81 and 1981-91 respectively. 28. Ibid- NCERT Report, Tribal Educatino in India, Govt, of India -1967 73 The gap between literacy rate of general population and scheduled tribes has increased from 20% in 1981 to 23% in 1991. Thus efforts must be made to reduce the ever widening gap between the literacy rate of general population and scheduled tribes. Table NO. 1:9 Districtwise Tribal Literacy Rates of Maharashtra During last three decades Sr. State/District Literacy rates among No. tribals 1971 1981 1991 1) Greater Bombay 32.72 49.07 68.24 2) Thane 9.22 14.40 25.84 3) Raigad 5.59 16.45 25.74 4) Ratnagiri 1.35 10.26 32.21 5) Sindhudurg _ _ 62.45 6) Nashik 12.05 16.43 29.84 7) Dhule 10.63 15.25 23.59 8) Jalgaon 16.39 19.94 34.70 9) Ahmednagar 15.61 16.86 30.05 10) Pune 17.39 27.80 44.27 11) Satara 12.27 29.66 52.38 12) Sangli 25.22 40.19 54.05 13) Solapur 15.85 31.64 47.69 14) Kolhapur 23.84 34.36 61.06 15) Aurangabad 8.24 16.87 32.86 16) Jalna - - 32.08 17) Parbhani 14.12 16.78 33.78 18) Beed 5.58 17.69 38.38 19) Nanded 10.92 30.50 36.09 20) Osmanabad 5.33 23.21 39.45 21) Latur - - 43.09 22) Buldhana - 27.15 41.40 23) Akola - 33.57 51.03 24) Amaravati 9.69 25.69 44.57 25) Yeotmal 16.96 24.35 41.43 26) Wardha - 34.77 55.43 27) Nagpur - 42.63 62.21 28) Bhandara - 33.13 51.93 29) Gadchiroli - - 30.00 30) Chandrapur 9.57 22.27 47.30 Maharashtra State 11.74 22.29 36.77 Source: Census of India 1971, 1981, 1991 74 Table No. 10 General 86 Tribal Literacy rates in Maharashtra State during four decades. I.e. from 1961 to 1991. Sr. Year General Tribal No. Male Female Total Male Female Total 1. 1961 42.04 16.76 29.82 12.55 1.75 7.21 2. 1971 51.04 26.43 39.13 19.06 4.21 11.74 3. 1981 58.65 34.63 47.02 32.38 11.94 22.29 4. 1991 76.56 52.30 64.87 49.08 24.08 36.77 Source - India Census: Maharashtra State -1961, 1971, 1981, 1991. The Government of Maharashtra has taken a special interest in tribal education and during the last 20 years or so large number of Ashram Schools have been starated in the tribal areas. Many Ashram schools have been located in the remotest part of the tribal area to facilitate the spread of education among the tribal children. At present, there are 409 Ashram Schools star ted by the Government of Maharashtra while more than 200 Ashram schools have been starated by the voluntary organizations with the grant-in- aid from Government. Thus there are at present more than 600 Ashram Schools star .ted all over the state, most of them are located in the remotest corners of the state. There are about 1.72 lakh tribal students taking education in these Ashram schools. These are residential schools where lodging and boarding, stationery, uniforms, books etc are provided by the Govt, other facilities such as sports, medicines etc are also provided to the tribal children keeping the formal structure of curriculum intact, these schools provide additional facilities to students. Considering the long distances and difficult terrain the students have to cross before reaching the nearest school and extra economic burden to feed the child, the w parents do welcome such schools as the best alternative. Thus there is an ever increasing demand for more and more Ashram Schools in the tribal areas. The tribal children are given education upto the 10^ std and presently Government is thinking to start junior colleges on experimental basis in central tribal areas of the state. Besides starting so many Ashram schools, the Government has also starr ted large number of hostels for tribal boys and girls in many urban centres like Bombay, Nagpur, Pune, Aurangabad, Amravati etc. so that the tribal children aspiring for higher education in the good universities can be given hostel accommodation free of charge and there are about 5260 number of tribal children accommodated in such hostels located in different centres in Maharashtra state. Although Ashram Schools have proved to be giving better quality education and other basic amenities to the tribal children, there is still the problem of drop-outs both in Zilla Parishad schools and Ashram schools in tribal areas. It has been observed that following factors are responsible for dropouts from the schools in Maharashtra. 1) Early age at marriage of girls and boys. Most of the boys and girls do not like to attend schools after their marriage. Girls marry between the age-group of 12 to 16 and boys between 15 o 20. 2) The tribal boys are called upon the share the economic responsibilities in the family at an early age. 3) The school is located at a far away place from the village and the parents do not like their small children to send to the Ashram n schools where the children will staying away from the parents and families. 4) Non availability of higher classes in the Ashram schools and Zilla parishad schools. 5) Temporary drop-outs during the cultivation and harvesting seasons and during festivals also. 6) Girls are required to help in the house-hold matters and sometimes required to earn by getting some minor employment in the village. 7) Economic inability of the parents to meet the educational needs of the children. 8) Low level of education of the parents also directly or indirectly affect the drop out rate. 9) Medium of instruction is Marathi. It is therefore, necessary to impart training in the tribal dialect at least upto II std. If this is done then small children would be able to understand the instructions properly and they will feel homely in the school. It is also observed that the drop-out rate among the day scholars is much higher as compared to the inmates of the Ashram schools. In spite of the number of difficulties and odds it is seen that between 1981 to 1991, the literacy percentage among the tribals have gone up from 22.29% to 36.77% which can be said to be a good achievements. 77 1.12: ASHRAM SCHOOLS - THE ROLE OF STATE GOVERNMENT: Since the tribals did not have a conducive atmosphere for education of children at home, dedicated social workers like Thakkar Bappa devised a system of Ashram schools which provided functional and liberal education to tribals along with free boarding and lodging facilities. The entire concept was based on the ancient tradition of Gurukula in which there was a close interaction between the teacher and the student. The first such school was star .ted in 1922 at the Mirakhedi village in the Panchamahal district in Gujrat for the Bhils. During the British rule such schools were confined only to Gujarat. After independence, such schools were established in Maharashtra, M.P. Orissa and A.P. from 189 in 1960 -61, the number of Ashram schools swelled to 1609 in 1980-81. 29 The tribal growth of educational programmes in tribal areas has been an embarking problem for educationist, administrators, planners, social workers and others. Many attempts have been made to take an integrated view of education programmes of scheduled tribes, several committee (1960) and Dhebar commission (1962) have gone into the question of improving the pattern of education in scheduled areas and suggested Ashram Schools as on improvement over the existing pattern of education. 29- Ashram schools in Andhra Pradesh A Case Study of Census of Nallamalai Hills, G Ananda Common wealth Publishers, New Delhi-1994. fi The educational philosophy of the word 'Ashram' as based on spiritualism, discipline and yoga. The traditional Indian Gurkulas (According to Hindu mythology) and the Gandhian Philosophy of basic education are the features in which the teachers and the students live together and have close interaction (teacher is the second parent of his students). This type of closeness helps the students personality and all round development. Ashram schools are in general residential and the inmates are provided with facilities of boarding and lodging moreover, they function within highly structured and systematic framework. The national policy on Education (1986) has strongly advocated that the new policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of disparities and equalize educational opportunity by attending to the specific needs of those who have denied so far. Therefore, residential schools, including Ashram schools would be established on large scale. 1.12:1: Origin of Ashram Schools: Gandhian workers fairly succeeded in their efforts to spread education among the tribals. The tenacity of the Gandhian workers during the nationalist movement was exemplary. Thakkar Bapa and Indual Yagnik came for the relief work in the famine-strikes areas of Dohad and Zalod talukas (Panchamahals) under the Instructions of Gandhi. Thakkar Bapa was moved by the pitiable conditions of the tribals. Dohad became the centre of his reform and educational activities. The tribal of that are accepted him. He and other Gandhian workers star; ted Ashram 79 schools in some parts of Gujarat and Maharashtra. First Ashram school was star .ted in Mirakhedi, a tribal village in Panchmahal district. Bhil seva mandal, a voluntary organization was set up in Panchamahalas to coordinate the constructive activities including education to the tribals. Such Ashram were also centres of freedom movement. Their main role was to prepare freedom fighters and social workers. The Ashram school teachers of Surat District participated in 'no-tax- campaign', 'Dandi-march' & 'Salt Satyagraha'. They faced stiff resistance from the British authorities. Because of their political activities, Ashram properties were confiscated. The Ashram-cum- workers -cum teachers were arrested. Thus the tribal education work of the Gandhian workers was a part of their broad ideological framework of national liberation. Ashram school was an extension of that logical. After independence, the Ashram schools retained their existence. However, they had lost their earlier ideological ethos or moral fervour, which was linked with their struggle against the foreign rule. All the same, the influence of the Ashram schools and their roll can not be understated. As one scholar has noted, " it (Ashram School) did a great service to tribal education in the sense that most of such Ashrams, in this phase (1920-1947) were located in such remote areas where there were no day schools. The efforts of voluntary organizations and teachers were commendable in the sense they moved in remote tribal villages, collected students and developed attitudes for education among the tribals. Tribal students 80 of the Ashram schools later became teachers in the same or other schools. They carried out basic education work with a sense of responsibility. Some became Gandhian workers and participated in the freedom struggle. In pre-independence period, planned attempts to educate the tribal population were negligible and whatever efforts made were only either by the Christian missionaries or by individual philanthropists, perhaps exception of Thakkar Bapa, lacked a clear perspective and thereby systematic work and, therefore. Ashram schools did not register sufficient progress. Thus, Ashram schools wherever they came into existence, introduced for the first time in that tribal region, a school with residential facility, motivated tribal children for education and created an urge among them to improved their social and moral status. This was no mean achievement. Such activities were, however, limited to a few tribal pockets. Their generalized impact was not much consequential. Soon after India got Independence, as a part of the development work, various voluntary organizations in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat and Orissa took immense interest in educating tribals by establishing Ashram schools. During the first five year plan there was an attempt by the Govt, of India to open such schools. However, the momentum in opening Ashram schools starated increasing from the third five year plan onwards. In Maharashtra, the state govt, has itself taken over the tasks of setting up Ashram Schools in the remote and inaccessible areas. They are 81 called "Shashkiya Ashtram Shalas! Ashram schools are residential schools providing free board and lodging facilities to the tribal students. They are to of ancient and traditional type described in ancient literature, ^o Main objectives of Ashram schools as envisaged by the various committees and commissions are- a) To impart general formal education. b) To encourage tribal traditions like folk songs and dances so that the schools are not only more learning place but also centres of cultural activities. c) To reduce the drop-out rate and to improve the retention capacity of the school, d) To wean the children away from an atmosphere which is generally not conducive for the devpt. Of their personality and out-look. e) To impart socially useful crafts along with general education and f) To provide close interaction between the teacher and the taught through the increased individual attention. The concept of Ashram schools combine both functional and literacy aspects based education relieving the tribal parent off the burden of feeding ^the clothing^ his school going -children besides providing a congenial school environment. It is expected to inculcate in the pupil a sense of service to society and link the school learning with household and community activities. Consequently, Ashram 30. Tribal Research & Training Institute, Pune. Report No.28; Govt, of Maharashtra. « Schools are expected to reduce the incidence of absenteeism, wastage and stagnation and improve the standard of education at primary level. Further it is also intended to reduce the burden on tribal parents by saving them from incurring expenditure on their children's education as these Ashram schools provide free board and lodging facilities apart from supplying books, stationary, clothes (uniforms) warm clothing etc to the inmates. All these facilities have been provided to favourably motivate the tribal children and their parents towards education. Table No. 1:11 Growth and enrollment of tribal children in Ashram Schools in Maharasthra. Sr. Years No.of Ashram Total Enrollment. No. School 1. 1960-61 24 2481 2. 1970-71 89 8521 3. 1980-81 300 - 4. 1990-91 405 - 5. 1995-96 *1,19,300 *ln Residential schools. Source: 1) Educational Statistics for SC 86 St -1984 Ministry of Education, Govt, of India. 2) Annual Report of Upper Commissionarate, Tribal Development, Nashik, Govt, of Maharashtra. m^ Table No. 1:12 Sex wise and Division wise distribution of tribal pupils in Ashram Schools in Maharashtra. Sr. Division Residential Non-Residential No Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1 Nashik 29,799 18,117 47,916 4,065 3,087 71,52 2 Thane 19,449 9,359 28,808 2,370 1,438 3,808 3 Amravati 14,082 7,268 21,350 1,495 1,116 2,611 4 Nagpur 13,203 8,023 21,226 1,190 1,084 2,274 Maharashtra 76,533 42,767 1,19,300 9,120 6,725 15,845 Source: Annual Report (195-96) - Commissionarate Tribal Development, Nashik, Govt, of Maharashtra. It is seen from table No. 1:11 that growing number of Ashram schools in Maharashtra during 1970-80 decade is high. In 1970 -71 there were only 89 Ashram schools run by the state Govt, but the number is increased by 300 in 1980-81; since then there is continuous growth of Govt. Ashram schools in the state. Likewise enrolled population of children in different decades is also growing in 1995-96 total number of residential Ashram School children were 1,19,300 which was very less number in 1960-61 i.e. 2,481 only. Table No. 1:12 is also gave a clear picture of residential and non-residential enrolled children in Ashram schools in the academic year 1995-96. The report of tribal development commissioner, govt, of Maharashtra revealed that there is highest number of tribal boys 86 girls enrolled their names in Ashram schools in Nashik division. Nagpur division shows, the lowest performance in the enrollment of children in Ashram Schools. Nashik division consisting six tribal i* development projects viz. Nashik, Kalwan, Nandurbar, Taloda, Rajur and Yawal which is the adjoining area of west and north. Maharashtra which is said to be known as developed region in the state. Therefore the condition of tribal living in west and North Maharashtra is somehow better from the tribal of other parts of the state. 1.13: TRIBAL SUB-PLAN - A SPECIAL STRATEGY In the background of the past situation it was decided to chalk out a sub-plan for tribal development in 1974, so that this developmental effort could be put through with sufficient vigour and speed to ensure reasonable success in the development of tribals in the state. The tribal area in the state is mostly concentrated in two distinct belts viz. 1) Sahyadri belt and 2) Gondwana belt with the satpuda hills forming part of both the belts. According to the population concentration these two belts can be further categorized on the basis of- a) Talukas where the overall population of the advasis exceeds 50% (category-I) b) Talukas where the overall population does not exceed 50% but the total number of villages in such an administrative unit having population of adivasis in excess of 50% is predominant (Category -II) c) Tribal areas not covered under categories I & II above but where tribal development blocks have been starated (Category -III) 85 d) Tribal areas not covered under categories, I, II 86 III but where it has been proposed to start Tribal Development Blocks (Category IV). The tribal areas falling under these four categories were selected as sub-plan areas of the state. The sub plan area covers all the scheduled area in the state excepting 31 villages in Jalgaon district. The number of villages falling under the selected sub-plan area adds upto 6816. ^i Along with the other developmental schedules certain educational schemes were also included in sub-plan strategy viz. 1) Supply of free books to tribal pupils studying in Standards Ito V. 2) Supply of uniforms without cost to adivasi girls studying in stands I to V. 3) Strengthening of inspection staff for efficient supervision of schools in the tribal sub-plan area. 4) Leadership training to local tribals. 5) Preparation of textbooks in Adivasi dialects. 6) Technical Education - technical 8& vocational Institute at growth centres. 31. Tribal Administration and Development (with Ethnographic profiles of selected Tribes). S.G. Deogaonkar -Concept Pubfishing Co. New Delhi-1994. 86 1.13:1 Eighth-Five Year Plan (1992-97) An outlay of Rs. 1291.55 crores has been proposed (6.41%) for the tribal sub-plan area out of the total state plan of Rs. 2,02,94.43 crores for the eight five-year plan. Emphasis was proposed to be laid on the completion of incomplete works, development of roads in the inaccessible areas, provision of basic minimum facility regarding drinking water, health, nutrition. Ashram Schools and irrigation, depending upon the local conditions. 1.14: TRIBAL EDUCATION IN NASHIK DISTRICT Nashik district laying between 19° 35' and 20° 52' North Latitude and 73° 16' and 74° 56 east longitude, with an area of 15,582 km (6,015 sq.miles) has a population of 38,51,352 with 17 towns and 1814 inhabited villages and 4 uninhabited villages. ^2 Nashik is bounded on the North-West by the Dangs and Surat Districts of Gujarat state, on the North by the Dhule district, on the east by the Jalgaon and Aurangabad districts on the South by the Ahmednagar district and towards the South West by the Thane district. 33 The district derives its name from that of its headquaraters town of Nashik, for the origin of which two interpretations are given. The town is sited on the nine peaks or 'navashikhara' and hence its name. The other relates to the incident in the Ramayana, where at this place Lakshamana is said to have cut off the nose (nasika) of Shurpankha. 32. Nashik district Census Hand book, 1961, Govt, of Maharshtra. 33. Nashik Distict social and economical rewview report 1993-94 deptt. Of Finance and stastics. Govt, of Maharashtra. 87 The territory now included in Nashik district was formerly partly in Khandesh district and partly in Ahmednagar district. Yelola was then know as Patoda taluka. In 1837-38 parts of Ahmednagar district consisting of Sinner, Chandwad, Dindori, Nashik including Igatpuri and the peth state were made into a sub-CoUectorate under Ahmednagar. The sub-collectorate of Nashik was however, abolished in 1856 and its taluka as incorporated in Ahmednagar district. In 1861, Nimar Peta under Sinnar and Vani peth under Dindori were abolished and a new sub-division was formed with headquaraters at Niphad. Head quar> .ters of Karnai taluka included in Trimbak peta was transferred to 1 gat puri town in the year 1861-62 and the name of the taluka was changed from Karnai to Igatpuri taluka. In 1869, Nashik was made a full-fledged district with eight sub -divisions of Ahmednagar (viz- Nasik, Sinnar, Igatpuri, Dindori, Chandor, Niphad, Yeola and Akola ) and three sub divisions of Khandesh district (Viz. Nandgaon, Malegaon and Balgan) together with peth state. Shortly afterwards, Akola Taluka was returned to Ahmednagar. In 1875, Baglan was divided into two talukas, Balga- n or Satana and Kalwan. After the death of Begum, Peth State became British territory and was made into a sub-division in 1878. There were no major changes in the district or taluka boundaries between 1901 and 1948. Consequent upon the merger of the Indian States a new Mahal known as Surgana Mahal consisting of the former princely state of surgana, was created in 1949. In 1950, 11 enclave villages which formed part of Nandgaon taluka were transferred to Aurangabad 88 district. Two villages (Salher and Vaghamba) from Surat district were added to this district. Four villages were transferred to west khandesh or present Dhule district. ^'^ With the reorganization of states in 1956 the district was included in Bombay state. Since 1960, it formed a part of Maharashtra. As per 1991 census, 64.45% district population was lived in rural areas and the percentage of scheduled tribe population was 24.18% which ranking fourth in the state. The literacy percentage in the district was 62.33% ranking 25* in the state. A large number (one third) of tribal population in the Nashik district is significant feature of the district, Nearly 20 tribes are reporated to the district in 1981 census. Among which Bhil, Kokana or Kokani, Koli Mahadeo, Thakur and Varli were found major tribal groups in the district. 34. Maharashtra State Gazetteers-Nashik district published in 1883 and revised in 1975 -Depts. of Gazetteers, Govt, of Maharashtra, Bombay. The distribution of these 20 tribes with their level of literacy is given in table No. 1:13. Table No. 1:13 Tribewise population and level of literacy in Nashik district -1981. Sr. Name of Tribe Total Illiteracy in Literacy in No. Population Percentage Percentage 1. And IN 29 83.00 17.00 2. Bhil, Garasia, Dholi Bhil 78,646 90.00 10.00 3. Dhanka, Tadvi, Tetaria 15 47.00 53.00 4. Dhanwar 31 97.00 03.00 5. Gamit.Gavit, Maychi 361 94.00 06.00 6. Gond, Rajgond.Arakh 302 68.00 32.00 7. Halba, Halbi 36 28.00 72.00 8. Kathodi, Katkari 4,350 96.00 4.00 9. Kokana, Kokani 2,16,761 80.00 20.00 10. Kolam, Manner Varlu 22 18.00 82.00 11. Koli Dhor, Tokre Kill 701 89.00 11.00 12. Koli Mahadevo, Dongrar Koli 2,05,408 82.00 18.00 13. Koli Malhar 973 86.00 14.00 14. Korku, Bopchi, Mousasi 5 60.00 40.00 15. Nikada, Nayaka 201 89.00 11.00 16. Oraon Dhangad 143 86.00 14.00 17. Pardhan, Pathari, Saroti 76 67.00 33.00 18. Pardhi, Advichincher 1,788 73.00 27.00 19. Thakur, Thakar 38,026 91.00 09.00 20. Varli 30,840 92,.00 08.00 Source - Report of Tribal Research 86 Training Institute, Govt, of Maharashtra Pune - Literacy amongst tribals in Maharashtra State - 1981 Of these Kokana or Kokani with 2,16,761 persons forms the largest scheduled tribe in the district. Next to it is Mahadeo Kolis with 2,05,408. Bhils, Thakurs and Varlis are other important scheduled tribes. Though the Kokana is largest tribal community in the district level of literacy is found only 20.00% likewise Mahadeo koli is also having only 18% literacy whereas rate of literacy among the tribal 90 v"/' communities in the district is growing since last two decades. The literacy rate is highest among the kolams, Halbas and Dhankas i.e. 82.00%, 72.00% and 53.00% respectively, whereas these tribes are not original dwellers of this district. Which found in very smaller in their number. In fact Kokana and Mahadeo Kolis are the very oldest tribes living since last 400 to 450 years, whereas they are found very low literate. It is because of the large population of scheduled tribe, literacy rates for a the district are a little lower than the state averages. Most of these tribes are living in rural areas, Talukawise, distribution of tribal population in the Nashik district is given in Table No. 1:14. Blockwise distribution of total and tribal population with literacy percentage in Nashik district -1991. Sr. Development Total Tribal Tribal Percentage No. Blocks Population Population Literate ofT.L. 1. Nashik 1,73,715 66,607 12,193 18.30 2. Path 1,28,019 1,21,552 27,280 22.44 3. Dindori 2,08,229 1,08,140 29,507 27.28 4. Surgana 1,09,332 1,04,708 23,112 20.07 5. Kalwan 1,98,843 1,03,181 21,625 20.98 6. Baglan (Satana) 2,68,518 90,517 16^1 18.39 7. Malegaon 3,29,833 49,896 8,165 16.36 8. Chandwad 1,65,015 25,968 5,574 21.46 9. Nandgaon 1,21,329 19,074 3,096 16.23 10. Yeola 1,53,252 13,893 2,273 16.36 11. Niphad 3,57,270 57,626 15,00^ 26.04 12. Sinnar 2,02,097 24,556 5,811 23.66 13. If^atpuri 1,79,394 80,279 18,176 22.64 14. Nashik District 25,94,846 8,65,197 1,88,472 21.78 Tribal Population is taken from community Development blocks only and not from Municipal and other urban places. Sources: 1) Census of India- Series -14- Maharashtra- Part-11-B (II); 2) Census of India -1991 - Series -1 Paper -1 of 1992, Vol. II m As described earlier one of the significant feature of the Nashik district is largest number of tribal population in the district. Development block wise distribution of the total population and tribal population with its literacy percentage is shown in the table No. 1:14. The largest tribal populated Development Blocks were peth, Dindori, Surgana, Kalwan, Baglan and Igatpuri. Of them Kalwan and Baglan were selected for the data collection as a sample. Baglan and Kalwan talukas said to have a historical importance for the Vegetation and other agricultural production. But apart, educational developments have also began to start with few of the Institutions Since long back in the 20* century. But the tribal belt known as Sahyadri region starts from Igatpuri taluka and ends with Mangi- Tungi a holy place of jains in the Balgan taluka was somewhat neglected by the Govt and voluntary organizations in the district only after the independence Government and freeis fighter like Dadasaheb Bidkar and Bhausaheb Hire have initiated their efforts to spread the education in tribal belt. The result of which we are achieving positive percentage of tribal literacy. The lowest percentage of tribal literacy is found in the Nandgaon and Yelola talukas i.e. 16.23 and 16.36 respectively; which are having the less inhabitation of tribal community. Kalwan and Baglan talukas having the largest Kokana predominated population have also sizable percentage of tribal literacy i.e. 20.98% and 18.39%. Dindori taluka is having a highest (27.28%) percentage of tribal literacy, wherein Mahadev Koli is predominated tribe along 92 with the Kokana and Dindori taluka is more nearer to the Nashik city with easily accessible by road transports; Nashik-Baroda state road is also across through Dindori taluka. And social interactions, with non-tribals in this taluka is frequently made due to the mixed geographical inhabitation of the tribal community. Peth is one of the largest Kokana predominated taluka where the tribal literacy is appeared 22.44% Peth and Surgana talukas said to have economically socially more backward tribal blocks in the district. Therefore, tribal youths in recent days are found to be miotivated towards education. Table No. 1:15 Available Educational Infrastructure with total tribal students in Nashik district -1992-93 Sr. Type of Educational Number of Total Tribal No. Institutions Institutes Teachers Students 1. Pre-primary schools 11 47 1,657 2. Primary Schools 3,087 13,538 1,33,877 3. Secondary Schools 391 5,987 14,349 4. Higher Secondary 91 3,383 2,275 Schools 5. Degree Colleges 27 1,529 1,245 6. Colleges of Education 05 117 60 7. Law Colleges 02 11 44 8. Ayurvedic Colleges 01 22 11 9. I.T.I. 14 202 840 10. D.Ed. 11 96 166 Source: Directorate of Education, Maharashtra State, Pune. Though the present educational infrastructure in the Nashik district is not adequate, it is definitely grown in last two decades. Because of the scattered inhabitation of the tribal population in the 93 district tribal children and parents find difficulty in reaching to school is amongst others is major cause to deprive tribal children from education. Table No. 1:15 shows that only 1,33,877 tribal children were enrolled their names in primary schools in the district for the year 1992-93. Tribal students are not much aware about the professional education also; only 44 tribals students were registered and 11 students were taking the education of Ayurvedic medicine in one college in the district. Medical college was starated in the Nashik in very recent year 1995-96. Nearly 300 Adult Education centres were available for the year 1993-94 in which nearly 9,000 adults were taking the benefit of adult literacy programme in the district. As far as vocational training is concerned nearly 43 educational institutions were engaged in imparting the vocational training at higher secondary level in which 2433 students from all the sections of society were taking the vocational training. It is also noticed from table No. 1:15 that the number of availability of pre-primary schools are inadequate; only 11 pre- primary schools were functioning by the year 1992-93 which is also very shocking figure in this regard in which only 1,926 children were served. Table No. 1:16_ Following table shows the available Govt. Ashram schools and students beneficiaries for the year 1995-96 working under the operational area of Nashik and Kalwan tribal development projects in the Nashik district. 94 Table No. 1:16 Available Government Ashram Schools and Number of Students for the year 1995-96 (Nashik 85 Kalwan T.D. Projects) Tribal Total Residential Students Non-Residential Total s Develo r Ashr Students pment ams N Project 0 Scho Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total ols 1 Nashik 32 5242 3323 8565 917 538 14555 6159 3861 10020 2 Kalwan 32 5080 4825 9305 886 655 1531 5966 4880 10846 Total 64 10322 8148 17870 1803 1193 2986 12125 8741 20866 Source: Upper Divisional Commissioner, Tribal Development Deptt. Nashik Table No. 1:16 clearly shows that there were 20,886 tribal children taking the primary, secondary education in 32 government Ashram schools under two tribal Development projects in Nashik district situated in 25 villages under tribal sub-plan area and in 7 villages other than tribal sub-plan area. Of these nearly 17,870 were covered with residential facilities and 02,986 were day scholars. It is noticeable that nearly 40.00% were the girl students in the available Govt. Ashram schools by the end of the academic year 1995.96. these Government Ashram schools were located at different villages in the Nashik district among which large number of Govt. Ashram schools were working in peth (13), and Kalwan talukas (11) of the district, then surgana and Balgam follows 10 and 9 respectively. It is surprising to note that average accommodated students in each Ashram school is near about 550 which was amount to lead the heavy crowd and insufficient accommodation and educational facilities and services. It is also observed from the available records that there is no facility of higher education in these Ashram schools. Nearly half of the Ashram schools did not have even secondary education facility. m Apart from these Ashram school facility there were 17 hostels 11 for boys and 6 for girls run by the State Government in the Nashik District of which 6 were in Kalwan projects operational area and 11 were under Nashik Tribal develop project area; where near about 1400 students were taking the education of them 470 were girls students. Nashik project is having the large number of hostels under which most tribal populated talukas are covered; i.e. Peth, Igatpuri, 85 Dindori other less tribal populated talukas i.e. Nashik and Sinnar were also included in the project. Kalwan Tribal Development project cover the Kalwan, Baglan (Satana), Surgana, Chandwad and Malegaon. Latter two were less tribal populated talukas. 1:15 TRIBAL EDUCATION IN DHULE DISTRICT The district of Dhule, formerly known as West Khadesh and known after the district headquaraters since 1960, lies between 20°38' and 20o3' north latitude and 73°47' and 75° 11' east of longitude. It covers an area of 13,143 square kilometers and has as per the 1991 census a population of 25,35,715 with 8 towns and 1603 villages of which 17 are uninhabited. The entire area now comprising the two districts of Dhule and Jalgaon and three talukas of Malegaon, Nandgaon and Balgan of Nashik distract was previously administered as a one distract of Khandesh with headquaraters at Dhule . In 1869 the three talukas above referred to were transferred to the newly formed district of Nashik. In the year 1906 the district was broken into two districts known as west khandesh and east khandesh; the west khandesh retaining Dhule, Nandurbar, Navapur Peta, Pimpalner, Shahada, Shirpur, Sindkheda and Taloda talukas of the old khandesh district. The head quaraters of Pimpalner taluka was transferred to sakri in 1887 and the name was also changed to sakri taluka in 1908. The new taluka of Akkalkuva was created in 1950. ^s During the pre-independence period, the spread of education was confined only to a few towns. Though quite a good number of schools were located at Dhule, other towns and villages hardly had any school. However, there did exist primary schools which were few and far between. In 1951, immediately after the independence, the total number of persons engaged in the filed of education was only 3,143 of which 352 were females. ^6 The introduction of planning, after 1951, for the country's all round development, proved a boom in the field of education. The expansion of education was given top priority in the five year plans. Accordingly, a number of schools and colleges were opened almost at each and every town of the district. Primary schools were starated in distant and interior villages. A number of educational facilities were available to the common people. As a result, there had been a remarkable increase in the number of persons engaged in this profession. This district is one of the educationally backward district in Maharashtra State. However the gradually increase in the number of literates from 2,06,084 in 1951 to 5,83,917 in 1991 is sufficient testimony to the fact that in the recent past conscious efforts were made by the State Government and some 35. Maharashtra State Gazetteers, Dhule district Pub. 1883, & revised in 1975 Deptt. Of Gazetteers, Govt. Of Maharashtra 36. Dhule District census handbook, 1961, Govt, of Maharashtra. m' voluntary organizations for the spread of literacy and education. The percentage of literates to the total population came to 51.20% in 1991 as compared to 18.00 in 1951. However, as compared to some other districts of the state, Dhule district had a comparatively less number of educational institutions in the district within the district schooling facility is better in Sakri tahsil with 175 villages out of 182 as per 1981 census, (98.35%) covered by it. It is followed by Sindhkheda tahsil 140 villages out of 143 villages or 97.50% with this facility. On the contrary, Akkalkuwa and Akarani tahsils with only 60.00% and 59.38% of villages having educational facility and serving 79.07% and 76.43 percent of the population at the grass root 37. Dhule accounts for the highest percentage of schedule tribes population in the state. Schedule tribes accounting 10, 36,491 persons out of total population of 25,35,715 form 40.88% of the total. The talukas of Navapur, Akkalkuwa and Akrani are predominantly tribal areas. There is a considerably large tribal population in Nandurbar, Taloda, Sakri, Shahada and Sirpur talukas as well. The principal scheduled tribes in the district are Bhils, Dhanka, Gamit, Kokana (Kokani), Naikda 8& Pardhi. They are concentrated in the Satpuda ranges in the north and the areas flanked by the ranges of the Sahyadri in the south and south west. 37. Ibid, Mirage of Health 86 Development -Dr. Navinchandra Jain & Dr. Robin Tribhuvan -Vidya Nidhi Publication -1996, Pune. 98 Kokana /Konkni is the third largest group with 85,482 persons as per 1981 census and are found in the talukas of Sakri, Navapur, Nandurbar and Sirpur. ^s. General statistics in relation to education in the district shows the insufficiency; such as number of educational institutions per 1,00,000 population are 103. Number of students enrollment per 1,00,000 population is 21,368. Number of primary and secondary schools students enrollment p^ er 1000 populatoin is 201. Percentage of trained teachers in primary, pre-primary 86 secondary school to total number of teachers account to 96.4% 39. This facts will be presented in succeeding tables. 38. Dhule district social and economic Review Report 1993-94 - Deptt. Of Finance 85 Statistics Govt, of Maharashtra. 39. Statistical booklet - Selected Indicators for Districts in Maharashtra State & in India. - Directorate of Economics 81, Statistics. Govt, of Maharashtra -1991-92. W Table No. 1:17 Tribewise population and level of literacy in Dhule district-1981. Sr. Name of Tribe Total Illiteracy Literacy in No Population in Percentage Percen tage 1. Andh 9 67.00 33.00 2. Bhil, Bhil Garasia, Dholi Bhhil 5,14,795 89.00 11.00 3. Dhanka, Tadvi, Tetaria 42,904 83.00 17.00 4. Dhanwar 2 50.00 50.00 5. Gamit, Gamta, Gavit Mavchi 1,02,2906 85.00 15.00 6. Gond, Rajgond, Arakh 885 69.00 31.00 7. Halba, Halbi 3 67.00 33.00 8. Kathodi, Katkari 356 96.00 04.00 9. Kokana, Kokani 85,482 77.00 23.00 10. Kolam, Mannervarlu 8 32.00 62.00 11. Koli Dhor, Tokre Koli 32,714 67.00 33.00 12. Koli Mahadeo, Dongar Koli 2,118 67.00 33.00 13. Koli Malhar 381 68.00 32.00 14. Korku, Bopchi, Mouasi 21 76.00 34.00 15. Naikada, Nayaka 4813 78.00 22.00 16. Oraon Dhangad 637 67.00 33.00 17. Pardhan, Pathari, Saroti 134 68.00 32.0 18. Pardhi, Advichincher 5,767 70.00 30.00 19. Thakur, Thakar 2,759 50.00 20.00 20. Varli 10 80.00 20.00 Source: Literacy amongst Tribals in Maharashtra State (1981) Tribal Research 8& Training Institute, Pune. (Report) Bhil is the largest tribe in the Dhule district with 5,14,795 persons as per 1981 census: and Kokana, Kokani is ranking third with 85,482 male and female persons. Gamit Govit, Marchi is the 100 second largest tribal group in the district which is having 15.00% literacy. It is interesting to compare these three largest tribal groups on the level of literacy i.e. Bhil, Gavit-Gamit-Mavehi and Kokana- Kokani in the district that Kokana Kokani si indicated the high percentage (23.00) of literacy in the district Gavit-Gamit-Marchi 8G Bhils followed by 15.00% and 11.00 respectively. Dhanka, Tadvi has also sizable number of population i.e. 42,904 in the district higher (17.00%) than the Bhils. Dhanwar, Halba, Kolam, Korku, Varli 8G Pardhans are the very minor tribes inhabiting in the district, numbering 2,3,8, 21, 10 85 134 respectively. It is also important to note that Bhills, Gavit-Mavchis and Kokanas are the oldest settlers of this district whereas they are having the very lower status of literacy and education in the district. Tries of Dhule district have certain historical connections with Britishers, princely states and freedom struggle in recent years. But as far as education is concerned, facilities were not available in the region which adversely affected on the education of tribal community in the Dhule district. 101 Table No. 1:18 Block wise distribution of total and tribal population of Dhule district -1991. Sr. Community Total Tribal Tribal Tribal No Development Population Population Literacy Literacy Block Percentage 1. Dhule 3,25,158 54,651 9,393 17.18 2. Sakri 3,32,526 1,60,972 31,150 19.35 3. Navapur 1,72,592 1,60,473 34,646 21.58 4. Nandurbar 1,69,985 89,884 19,582 21.78 5. Taloda 76,231 61,067 13,470 22.05 6. Akkalkuwa 1,33,880 1,08,735 17,180 15.79 7. Akrani 96,912 83,473 7,893 9.45 8. Shahada 2,57,019 1,34,788 21,510 15.95 9. Shripur 2,30,412 1,01,326 13,739 13.55 10. Shindkheda 2,28,870 40,766 9,563 23.45 20,23,585 9,96,135 1,78,126 17.88 Source: 1) Census of India 1991, Series -1, 2) Census of India 1991- Series -14, Part-ll-B(ii), Maharashtra, SC 86 ST, Primary Census Abstract. Dhule has a largest tribal population in the State showing a poor literacy performance. Akarni and Akkalkuwas both are geographically more isolated talukas, geographical isolation leads the social, cultural and educational deprivation also. After independence there were few efforts made by the government to bring tribal into the process of development. Few missionaries have also starated their work for the tribal people in the district particularly in Navapur and Nandurbar talukas whereas Akrani and 101 Akkallkuwas remains more backwards in education and in other fields of social economic developments. Akarani taluka has only 9.45% of tribal literacy which is the lowest percentage of tribal literacy in the district and state also further followed by Akkalkuwa with 15.79%. Though the Shindkheda taluka has less tribad population the percentage of literacy among tribals is highest i.e. 23.45%. followed by Taloda and Nandurbar talukas with 20.05 and 21.78% respectively. Total percentage of tribal literacy in Dhule District is 17.88 which lowest in the state. Table No. 1:19 Avgdlable EducationeJ Infrastructure with totEil tribed students in Dhule District -1992-93. Sr Type of Educational Institutions Number of Total Tribal No Institutions Teachers Students 1. Pre-primary schools 48 70 2710 2. Prlm.arv schools 2,107 7924 1,06287 3. Secondary schools 276 3456 17017 4. Higher secondary school 95 3385 7138 5. DeRree Colleges 19 1071 2630 6. Colleges of Education 14 125 101 7. Law Colleges 01 11 12 8. Ayurvedic Colleges 03 38 10 9. Medical Colleges 02 46 11 10. Engineering Colleges 04 106 07 11. Other-Polytechnic, l.T.l. D.Ed. 27 334 881 Pharmacy Total 2596 16,566 1,36,804 Source: - Directorate of Education, Maharashtra State, Pune. Dhule district has one of the largest tribal populations in the state, which may be caused to lead the total backwardness of the 103 district. Educational infrastructure which is the prime requirement to satisfy the constitutional purpose of providing compulsory primary education to all the children between the age of 7 to 14 years of age. But Dhule district like other backward districts in the country is having inadequate educational infrastructure which adversely affected on the educational attainment of the district. Table No. 1:19 shows that the number of tribal students for professional education likes Medical, Engineering, Law is very less. Only 7 tribal students were taking education of Engineering and only 11 85 12 were medical and law students respectively for the year 1992-93. As far as educational infrastructure is concerned Dhule district is very poor. It has only one law college two medical colleges and four engineering colleges in the field of professional education. The need of primary education is accepted officially before 50 years ago and always entrusted to achieve the literacy largely but the required infrastructure for satisfying the expected objective and target is not sufficient. In the district only 2,107 primary schools were working in the year 1992-93 in which 1 ,06,287 tribal children were enrolled their names for the primary education, likewise only 276 secondary schools were working by benefiting 17,017 tribal students. It is seen from the available statistics that rate of drop out among tribal children at primary level is very high. Because only 17,017 were secondary school pupils whereas 1,06,287 tribal children were taking education at primary level. M4 Table NO. 1:20 shows the available Govt. Ashram schools and students beneficiaries for the year 1995-96 working under the operational area of Nandurbar and Taloda Tribal Development projects in Dhule District. Table No. 1:20 Govt. Ashram schools 86 studens in Nandurbar 8& Taloda project area 1995-96 s Tribal Total Residential Students Non-Residential Total r. Developme Ashrams Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total N nt project Schools 0 1 Nandurbar 31 6073 3523 9596 729 710 1439 6802 4233 11035 2 Taloda 39 7443 3824 11267 765 550 1315 8208 4374 12582 Total 70 13516 7347 20863 1494 1260 2754 15010 8607 23617 Source: project office, Tribal Development, Nandurbar The Indian constitution envisaged special provision in the post-independence period for the promotion of education of tribals and this was special responsibility of central and state government. Accordingly a number of programmes have been initiated for education of tribals both at school and college level. Special provisions in education consists of fee concession, stipends, provision of ancillary services, hostel and lodging facilities in schools, parametric and post -metric scholarship schemes, reservation of seats, relaxation in eligibility criteria for admission etc. The establishment of Ashram school was envisaged as a direct intervention to tackle the socio-economic and geographic inequalities of the tribal population, particularly sparsely populated areas by tm providing educational opportunities. The concept of Ashram school stemmed from the objectives of providing an atmosphere in which the inmates are offered full opportunities to develop their personality and outlook marked with a high sense of responsibility towards their own community. In order to satisfy the objective Govt, of Maharashtra, Depts. Of Tribal Devpt. Launched two project offices at Nandurbar and Taloda in Dhule district under which 70 Ashram schools were working in the year 1995-96 and total 23,617 tribal students were taking the benefit of Ashram school facility. There were two types of inmates in the Ashram schools one is residential, those who are received the free lodging and boarding facilities with other educational requirement are called residential students and others, who are attending the schools by staying with their parents at home are called non-residential students. The number of non-residential students was 2,754 which were less compared to the residential students. Whose number were 20,863 . among them 7,347 were residential girl students. 1* 1.16: TRIBAL EDUCATION IN BAGLAN (SATANA), KALWAN AND SAKRI TALUKAS- 1.16:1 BAGLAN TALUKA- Baglan was described as forest country in Ramayana, which was rich in fruits. The early rulers of Baglan had their seats at Anjaneri and Salher. In the medieval period it has been described as a rich and strong tract in the north of Nashik through which passed the Chief lines of traffic between Gujarat and the Deccan. King Nandev captured the forts of Salher and Mulher (1340 AD) and established his capital at Jaitapur, the modern Jaitapur. During the Bahamani period, Baglan was not much in news. The most famous ruler of Baglan was no doubt, Pratap Shah who ruled from 1580 to 1620 AD. An inscription on the wall of the Ganapati temple on Mulher fort records that the 'Mandap' was built by Pratap Shah, "^o During the British period in early 19*^ century, the history of Baglan was really the history of settlement of the Bhills. According to Briggs, the main reason for the large scale Bhil depredation was due to the fact that . . their just rights were not recognized by the Peshwa or Holkar. In a social scale, too, the Bhil was given a very low and inferior position and was always discriminated from others. 40. A short history of Baglan -Dr. M.S. Naravane, Palomi Publications, Pune -1997. 10? By the mid century, Baglan had been specified and it went back to its old, backward state. The East India Company made no efforts to establish any industry or otherwise raise the standard of living of the people. One reason may have been the forests of Baglan which gave them so much timber and other forest produce that they did not have to look any further. In the 20th century, the famous 'Van Satyagraha' starated in Baglan which was sometimes called 'the little Bardoli' on 17* August, 1930 over 25,000 satyagrahis assembled in Sakri taluka, just north of the present Baglan boundary. Post Independent Baglan- The period after 1947 is notable for the many steps taken by the government to improve the conditon of Adivasis as a whole. However attempts at Tribal Development in Baglan have always been feeble. Progress has no doubt come. Roads have been built, most of the villages have got electricity, and schools have been set up. But these would have come in any case during the course of time. But backwardness of the people has remained as it was. Literacy has not increased to the desired extent, health and hygiene are still far from adequate and the standard of living continues to be very poor. In fact, the common man has lost all faith in the Government and its schemes and he has to tolerate what passes as development because he has no choice. When things go wrong, or there is confusion or inefficiency in any matter, whether at home or in public affairs, the chaos is called Sarkari Karbhar, i.e. the matter is being handled as the government does. 108 Organized schooling in the modern sense was unheard of in Baglan during the medieval period. During the British period, there was a slow but steady growth in formal schooling. Schools were established in Nashik district from about 1848. By 1881, there were 252 Government and aided schools in the Nashik CoUectorate. Today, the number of schools has kept pace with demands of the increasing population. The quality of education is poor. It is a neglected area all over India and Baglan is no exception. Some data in the fields of education is given in succeeding tables and paragraphs. In Balgan taluka, the Government runs 249 primary schools, 45 middle schools, 9 higher middle schools and 2 colleges. Govt. Ashram schools avt 9 in number. A great deal of work in the field of education was done by the Dang Seva Mandal. At the moment, it runs 7 Ashram Schools 5 Secondary schools, 3 Higher Secondary schools and one Junior college. There are 89 hostels for boys and 4 for girls. In spite of all the government propaganda and announcements of grandiose schemes, especially before elections, adult literacy in Baglan remains very low. The figures are alarming. The literacy percentages are 12.85 for Bhils, 12.72 for Kokana and 12.79 for all tribes. It seems that only concepts are mooted about. Adult education, life long education, education for all, etc; but at the gross- root level nothing concrete seems to have been done. l» Satana, the headquaraters of Baglan taluka, is a municipal town of commercial importance, settled at the confluence of the Aram and sukhed rivulets. It lies about 35km west of Malegaon, with which it is connected by S.T. bus service ^i. 1.16:2 KALWAN TALUKA Kalwan, the taluka head quaraters lying 56.37 km west of Malegaon is an important centre of Nagli, Paddy and timer trade. The 'Shetkari Sangh" recently established here has gone a long way in helping the agriculturists with seeds, manure, insecticides and even oil-engines to lift water for irrigation, branches of the district central co-operative bank and the land development bank have also substantially helped the agriculturists financially. In times to come Kalwan is bound to attain in commercial importance as it has good made roads connecting it with the major district centres, which in turn are connected with the outside commercial centres. There are post and telegraph facilities also, till it was made the taluka headquaraters Kalwan was an insignificant village infested with malaria- carrying mosquitoes. Now it has not only mamlatdar's office but also those of the panchayat samiti, agricultural supervisor, civil judge, range forest officer, sub-registrar and many other minor ones. There is also a police station. In 1960 was established the cottage hospital with a capacity of 40 beds. Its O.P.D. caters to the needs of 41. The role of weekly markets in the tribal, rural and urban setting - Dr. Irawati Karve and Dr. Hemlata Acharya - Deccan College Post Graduate & Research Institute Pune -1970. no the patients coming even from Baglan and Malegaon talukas. The efforts of the Public Health deptt. have largely succeeded in eradicating the malaria fever. The town has also veterinary dispensary. At Abhona, only 16 km away is a primary health centre. Kalwan has a high school and college. The wooded scenery west of Kalwan is very beautiful and Abhona is one of the most picturesque portion of the collectorate. 42. 1.16:3 SAKRI TALUKA Sakri, the headquaraters of the taluka of the same name had 3,32,526 inhabitants in 1991. The land, though of medium variety grows groundnut and sugarcane well. Being the headquaraters of a taluka it has the offices of the mamlatdar and panchayat Samiti, revenue, civil and criminal courts. It has also a police station, rest house, post and telegraph office civil and veterinary dispensaries and besides 225 primary schools, high schools. The weekly bazar is held on Sundays. The only temples of any note at Sakri proper are those of Ram and Hanuman. A little over four kilometers from the town of Sakri, at a place called Nagzari, is an old temple dedicated to Nagai goddess. The temple standing on a high bank of the Panjhara and commanding in the turn a beautiful view of the river as well as the country around is said to have been built during the period of the Gavali Rajas and hence can be considered to be of considerable antiquity. 43. As per 1991 census the percentage of literacy in Sakri Taluka was 48.40% 42. Ibid. Gazetteer of India, M.S. Nashik District. 43. Ibid- Gazetteer of India, Maharashtra State- Dhule district (Revised Edition) 1974. Ill Table No. 1.21 Available educational amenities in Baglan, Kalwan and Sakri Talukas including Ashram schools, falls in the study area. Sr. Name of CD. Primary Schools Middle Schools No. Block Villages Institutes Villages Institutes 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Kalwan 170 217 41 42 2. Satana 163 173 64 66 3. Sakri 209 308 43 61 4. Total Nashik Dist. 1789 2180 609 628 5. Total Dhule Dist. 1486 1684 277 299 Matriculation Higher Secondary Colleges (Graduate 86 /PUC/Junior above) Colleges Villages Institutes Villages Institutes Villages Instittutes 7 8 9 10 11 12 30 31 3 3 3 159 46 46 1 1 1 1 28 39 10 14 3 4 295 302 11 119 9 9 139 154 20 24 8 9 Audit Literacy Others Villages with no Class/Centres (13) (14) educational facilities. Villages Institutes Villages Institutes (15) 13 14 15 16 17 159 159 1 2 3 1 - - - 2 12 15 2 4 3 379 381 5 6 25 24 29 9 11 100 Source- Census of India 1991 Series -14, Maharashtra, Part XII A & B Nashik and Dhule Dist. 112 CHAPTER -II KOKANA (KOKANI) TRIBE 2.1 Origin of Tribe. 2.2 Habits and Customs of Kokanas a) Birth b) Marriage c) Legitimacy of Children d) Sexual permissiveness e) Superstition f) Death g) Religion h) Dongarideo Festival i) Bhagat j) Kansari Mata k) Administrative organization 1) House Shrines of Kokanas m) Kokana folk-lore n) Kokana Family o) Kokana housing p) Kokana Life 85 food Habits q) Kokana Kinship r) Kokana dress 86 Ornaments s) Kokana Occupations t) Kokana Education 2:3: NGOs in Kokana Education a) Case studies -(I) - Institutions b) Case Studies -(II)- Individuals