JONATHAN GARDNER.

ST05002563.

SPORTS COACHING (Bsc).

UNIVERSITY OF WALES INSTITUTE

CARDIFF.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF KICKING STRATEGIES IN

ELITE RUGBY UNION AND .

CONTENTS

Page

Acknowledgements i

Abstract ii

CHAPTER ONE:

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rugby League and Rugby Union 1

1.2 Evolution of Rugby 3

1.3 The Need for Analysis 3

1.4 Notational Analysis 4

1.5 Performance Analysis in Rugby 4

1.6 The Problem 5

1.7 Aims of the Investigation 5

1.8 Limitations and Delimitations 6

1.9 Hypotheses 6

CHAPTER TWO:

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 A Brief History of Rugby 7

2.2 Convergence of the two Codes 8

2.3 Feedback and the Need for Analysis 10

2.4 Computerised Notation 11

2.5 Notational Analysis in Rugby Union and Rugby League 12

2.6 Normative Profiling 14 2.7 Rugby – Amateurism to Professionalism 14

2.8 Importance of Kicking in Rugby Union and Rugby League 15

2.9 Relevance of Investigation 19

CHAPTER THREE:

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Equipment Used 20

3.2 Data Sample 21

3.3 Data Collection Procedure 23

3.4 Operational Definitions 25

3.5 Pilot Study 28

3.6 Statistical Analysis 28

3.7 Reliability 29

3.8 Reliability Results 30

CHAPTER FOUR:

RESULTS

4.1 Numerical Summary of Attacking and Defensive Kicks 31

4.2 Analysis of Types of Attacking and Defensive Kicks 36

4.3 SPSS Statistical Comparison 41

CHAPTER FIVE:

DISCUSSION

5.1 Reliability Discussion 44

5.2 Justification of Methodology 44 5.3 Discussion of Findings 45

5.3.1 Overview of Attacking and Defensive Kicks 45

5.3.2 Attacking Kicks 47

5.3.3 Defensive Kicks 47

5.3.4 Comparison of Attacking and Defensive Kicks in both Codes 48

5.3.5 Types of Attacking Kicks 49

5.3.6 Types of Defensive Kicks 50

5.3.7 Tries Scored from Kicks 51

CHAPTER SIX:

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

6.1 General Conclusions 53

6.2 Statement of Results 54

6.3 Recommendations for Future Research 55

REFERENCES: 57

List of Tables.

Table Title Page No.

Review of Literature

2.1 Examples of coaching personnel with expertise in specialist 9

Rugby skills associated with both codes

2.2 Fly Half possession options during the 1992-1994 17

Five Nations Championships

Methodology

3.1 Chronological collection of Rugby League games analysed 22

3.2 Chronological collection of Rugby Union games analysed 22

3.3 Definitions of different attacking kicks 25

3.4 Definitions of ‘positive’ attacking kicks 25

3.5 Definitions of ‘negative’ attacking kicks 26

3.6 Definitions of different ‘defensive’ kicks 26

3.7 Definitions of ‘positive’ defensive kicks 27

3.8 Definitions of ‘negative’ defensive kicks 27

Results

4.1 Comparison of total attacking and defensive kicks in both codes 31

4.2 Summary of specific attacking and defensive in both codes 36

4.3 Total frequency and percentage success rate of specific attacking 39

kicks in union and league 4.4 Total frequency and percentage success rate of specific defensive 40

kicks in union and league

4.5 Significant differences between the frequency of attacking and 41

defensive kicks in union and league

4.6 Analysis of positive kicks between the codes 42

4.7 Analysis of negative kicks between the codes 43

List of Figures

Figure Title Page No.

Review of Literature

2.1 Functions of computerised notation 11

Methodology

3.1 Finalised hand notation template 24

Results

4.1 Percentage summary of attacking and defensive kicks 33

4.2 Percentage success rates of attacking kicks 34

4.3 Percentage success rates of defensive kicks 35

4.4 Full time match averages for attacking kicks 37

4.5 Full time match averages for defensive kicks 38

LIST OF APPENDICIES.

APPENDIX TITLE

A Definitions of Rugby Union and Rugby League Competitions

B Summary of raw data collected from both codes of Rugby

C Reliability results and Shapiro-Wilk test for normality

Acknowledgements

I would like to take this opportunity express my greatest appreciation to my tutor Darrell

Cobner for his advice, support and patience throughout this whole process. Without his encouragement and guidance this investigation would not have been possible.

My deepest thanks go to my family, particularly Mum and Dad for their, love and support over the last three years, especially throughout the more stressful periods of time where their patience and understanding have been greatly appreciated.

And finally to all my friends both at university and at home whom have made the

‘university experience’ an unforgettable journey!

i Abstract

The objective of this analysis was to determine whether selected kicking performance indicators (PIs) revealed any convergence in playing trends or game strategies between rugby union and rugby league. The continual interchange of players and coaches between the two codes suggest that universal skills are apparent. A paucity in empirical research comparing the codes highlighted a potential niche to which original research could be contributed.

A specifically designed hand notation template was employed to record different types of attacking and defensive kicks, their frequency and success from a random selection of elite matches from rugby union (n=15) and league (n=15). Using percentage error calculations, intra-observer reliability was confirmed, with all PIs meeting the pre- defined acceptance boundary (<5% for attacking kicks, <15% overall). A Shapiro-Wilk test deemed the data to be non-parametric, therefore a Mann Whitney test was utilised to assess any significant differences.

The results suggested that overall, kicking frequencies between the codes are significantly different (U=37.50, p<0.01) with a mean of 10 more kicks per match in rugby union. More specifically, the difference in weighting of the attacking/defensive kicks revealed a higher prevalence of attacking kicks in rugby league – 60/40% compared to union 37/63%. A comparison of different types of kick, such as the drop goal, clearance kick and chip kick showed no significant difference in frequency between the codes (p>0.05), ultimately underlining them as common strategies. Conversely, there were more grubber kicks in rugby league (U=20.50, p<0.001) and clearance kicks to touch in union (U=.000, p<0.001), supporting the notion that union is a territorial based game, as opposed to the possession orientate alternative utilised in league.

This investigation concluded that although some convergence between the two codes exists, the extent and success to which kicking techniques can be transferred are mainly governed by specific strategies, unique to each code.

ii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION.

1.0 Introduction.

1.1 Rugby Union and Rugby League.

Rugby union can be described as a multi dimensional, invasion team sport which incorporates intermittent levels of speed, acceleration and physicality. A team comprises of fifteen players, which are sub divided into eight forwards and seven backs, all of which require the same generic skills of passing, tackling and running along with specific technical skills such as kicking often dependent on their particular position.

Rugby league has been described as “the cousin and counterpart to the better known game of rugby union” (Beck and O’Donoghue, 2004, p 150). It shares the same invasive and contact characteristics of union but can be differentiated by a few distinct factors,

• Less number of players i.e. 13 as opposed to 15 in union.

• The ‘five-tackle’ rule – teams have five tackles where they remain in possession

before they concede possession unless a try is scored.

• No line-outs or competitive scrums.

1 Although the two codes are separated by distinct factors one may also consider their

symmetry, as like other invasive team sports they can be characterised by “fast

movements, player interaction and unpredictable patterns of play” (Beck and

O’Donoghue, 2004, p 150).

Further parallels between the codes can be recognised through the physiological

characteristics that they both require. Particular physical attributes such as speed and

acceleration are paramount to both (Watson, 1995) but to what extent is determined by

specific positional roles that players from either code must fulfil (Bhanot, 1987).

Nowadays kicking is an integral component to the game of rugby. Although many rugby

union critics argue that it contributes to an unattractive game and detracts from the free

flowing expansive sport that attracts more supporters, the prevalence of the skill is increasing, especially amongst elite rugby union teams. Studies completed by the

International Rugby Board (IRB) after the 2007 Rugby Union World Cup (RWC) report

that “while all international matches produce around 55 kicks per game, this figure was

dwarfed at the knock out stages of RWC 2007. The final produced 91 kicks and the semi

finals 86 and 85”.

The increased prominence of kicking as an attacking weapon may be a product of the

prioritisation and overall dominance of defences in modern rugby. The elevated emphasis

placed upon defence often requires alternative tactics such as kicking that can be used to breach an organised defence. Therefore we may consequently assume that successful

teams regard kicking as a vital component in the formula for success.

2 1.2 Evolution of Rugby

In 1995 the arrival of rugby union into the professional era, was subsequently followed

by the introduction of the first full time, domestic rugby league competition in 1996. This

signified the evolution from rugby’s early years of recreational amateurism to the elite,

business environment of professional sport. This significant development elicited a

multitude of alterations within the sport both on and off the field. Contemporary reports completed by Deliotte (2007) reveal that “since 1996/97, the first full season of professional rugby in England, the average match attendance has more than doubled from

4,600 to over 11,000”, these figures ultimately display the highest rates of match attendance growth of any major UK sports competition. The sport has also evolved physically, “the game has become more intense due to increases in total activity duration and speed of play” (Eaves and Hughes, 2003 p103).

1.3 The Need for Analysis

Professionalisation has increased the kudos placed upon success, in order to attain maximum levels of performance coaches and performers are constantly consulting the most contemporary technological advancements in sports science to gain an advantage over their opponents. Veale et al (2007) suggest that performance analysis has developed into an important tool when investigating movement patterns in any code of football; it provides coaches with additional knowledge of performance that may be manipulated to generate elevated levels of success.

3 Early research suggested that elite level coaches were unable to recollect all the important

information about their athlete or team’s performance, information that was retained was

also often found to be unreliable and inaccurate. This observation is supported in research

by Franks and Miller (1986) who discovered that international level soccer coaches could

recollect only 30 per cent of the key factors that determined successful soccer

performance during one match, consequently highlighting the need for a methodical system that allowed the coach and athlete to retain information about their performance and how it may be improved.

1.4 Notational Analysis

Hughes and Franks (1997, p 60) argue that “general rudimentary and unsophisticated forms of notation have existed for centuries” nowadays performance analysis is an integral part of an athletes learning. Technological advances have ensured that notational analysis has evolved from its first original publication completed by Fullerton (1912)

“which explored the combinations of baseball players batting, pitching and fielding and the probability of success” (Hughes and Franks, 2004) into a lucrative industry which provides career opportunities and has revolutionised the analysis of sporting performance.

1.5 Performance Analysis in Rugby

Performance analysis is now imperative component within elite rugby, Long and Hughes

(2004, p 130) highlight its importance by arguing that “performance analysis has been integrated into the modern era of rugby, to provide objective feedback to both coaches and players”. Franks (1996) continues to stipulate that this form of analysis driven

4 feedback is an instrumental constituent during the coaching process. James et al (2003)

argue that research investigating performance analysis in rugby union has generally witnessed studies exploring a variety of specific aspects within the game, such as patterns of teams play, or physiological aspects of positional work rates of individual players (e.g.

Hughes and Williams, 1988, Hughes and White, 1996; Deutsch et al., 2002). Conversely,

investigations in rugby league have been limited to physiological aspects (Gabbett,

2005).

1.6 The Problem

To date there has been little empirical research assessing the convergence of the two

codes, or more specifically the lack of published research addressing any tactical or

technical variables or performance indicators in rugby league. However, nowadays it

could be argued that the continual interchange of players and coaches within rugby union

and rugby league highlights the opportunity to assess and compare specific skills that are

paramount and transferable to both codes. In conclusion it is apparent that each code

requires specific individual characteristics, but the generic skill of kicking is fundamental

and highly prevalent in both.

1.7 Aims of the Investigation

This investigation aims to compare the kicking strategies between the two codes, by

assessing the frequency, quality and type of kicks used. This investigation will compare

and contrast the two codes of rugby, reflecting upon both as a means of mapping kicking

within the sport, but will not relate kicking as a indicator of success of individual teams.

5 1.8 Limitations and Delimitations

The availability and accessibility of rugby league footage limited the sample number to fifteen matches. This limitation was partly governed as the footage required was of a specific, elite population. This study focuses on assessing kicking in ‘open play’, therefore kicks deemed as closed skills (penalty kicks, conversions and restarts) were excluded. This was specifically imposed to ensure that the skills that were assessed could be deemed as open skills performed in a pressurised match environment.

1.9 Hypotheses.

Following the literature reviewed from both rugby union and rugby league the following hypotheses were made.

1. More attacking kicks in rugby league

2. A higher frequency of drop goals in rugby union

3. More defensive kicks in rugby union

4. Higher total frequency of kicks in rugby union

5. Higher success ratio of attacking kicks in rugby league

6. Higher occurrence of tries being scored from kicks in rugby league

6

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF

LITERATURE.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY.

3.0 Methodology

Nevill (2002) discusses that notational analysis of sports performance is concerned with identifying critical events often defined as performance indicators (PIs), in individual or team sports. Such events are thought to be vital to success in those particular sports.

Although not exclusive, most (PIs) are discrete events (counts or frequencies) with reference to this analysis, the frequency and different types of kick. It is the important duty of notational analysis to compare the frequency distribution of such events over a range of factors (types of kick) and how these key events differ from those of peer groups

(between union and league).

3.1 Equipment

In order to ensure that all the data collected is of the highest quality and can be deemed valid, reliable contemporary equipment must be used appropriately to generate the desired results. Below is a list of the equipment used whilst obtaining the data.

• Sky + Satellite Box with the features of a remote control and multi functional playback.

• Sony KE-32TS2E Television

• Pre – Designed Hand Notation Sheet

• Computer Programmes – Microsoft Excel 2003 and SPSS 12.0

20 3.2 Data Sample

Whilst constructing the potential data sample, it was concluded that only elite, domestic club level games from both codes would be considered, as the accessibility to footage and standard of northern hemisphere international rugby league was less prevalent and of a lower standard than that of the more recognised code of rugby union.

Due to the under development of international rugby league in the northern hemisphere, the Engage and represent the optimum level of competition which includes elite level performers from the worlds more prevalent rugby league playing nations. Therefore a comparison of northern hemisphere international rugby league and rugby union would be both unreliable and irrelevant. However, the lack of elite club footage available for rugby league required the data to be supplemented with three international matches in order to finalise the data sample.

Tables 3.1 and 3.2 display the sample of games that were randomly recorded for analysis.

In order to generate an accurate reflection of data, the analysis aimed to include a collection of matches from a varied selection of Europe’s elite competitions, definitions of these competitions can be found in the appendix (A) of this research.

21 Table 3.1 Chronological Collection of Rugby League Games Analysed

Date Games Competition 15/06/07 vs Super League 15/06/07 vs Catalan Dragons Super League 20/07/07 St Helens vs Warrington Wolves Super League 20/07/07 St Helens vs Wigan Warriors Super League 28/07/07 St Helens vs Bulls Carnegie Challenge Cup 29/07/07 Catalan Dragons vs Wigan Warriors Carnegie Challenge Cup 14/09/07 Wigan Warriors vs St Helens Super League 19/09/07 Warrington Wolves vs Catalan Dragons Super League 21/09/07 vs Wigan Warriors Super League 22/09/07 Hull F.C vs Huddersfield Giants Super League 28/09/07 St Helens vs Super League 13/10/07 Leeds Rhinos vs St Helens 20/10/07 Great Britain vs New Zealand Int. Tri - Nations 09/11/07 Wales vs Lebanon Int. RLWC 08’ Qualifier 09/11/07 Samoa vs USA Int. RLWC 08’ Qualifier

Table 3.2 Chronological Collection of Rugby Union Games Analysed

Date Games Competition 21/01/06 Llanelli Scarlets vs Toulouse European Heineken Cup 21/01/06 Sale Sharks vs Munster European Heineken Cup 22/01/06 Bath Rugby vs Leinster European Heineken Cup 14/04/06 Saracens vs Leicester Tigers English Guinness Premiership 15/05/06 Ospreys vs Munster Mangers Celtic League 20/05/06 Gloucester vs London Wasps English Guinness Premiership 14/09/06 Leicester Tigers vs Sale Sharks English Guinness Premiership 26/10/07 Cardiff Blues vs Sale Sharks EDF Energy Anglo – Welsh Cup 03/11/07 Leicester Tigers vs Cardiff Blues European Heineken Cup 10/11/07 Edinburgh vs Toulouse European Heineken Cup 10/11/07 London Wasps vs Munster European Heineken Cup 22/12/07 Bristol Shoguns vs London Wasps English Guinness Premiership 30/12/07 Saracens vs Newcastle Falcons English Guinness Premiership 04/01/08 Bath Rugby vs Gloucester English Guinness Premiership 06/01/08 Leicester Tigers vs Harlequins NEC English Guinness Premiership

22 3.3 Data Collection Procedure

This particular procedure of capturing and notating the footage can be deemed as a simplistic method, but requires concentration and the ability to understand and process the key operational definitions. A random selection of elite matches from rugby union

(n=15) and league (n=15) were captured and stored using a Sky + Satellite box. A pre- designed hand notation template (Figure 3.1) was then used to tally attacking and defensive kicks. Throughout any given match a try scored directly from a kick was indicated using a (*) next to the tally and then summarised as whole figures at half and full time.

The following post match statistics were calculated:

• Frequency of various types of kicks and their successfulness.

• Percentage of attacking and defensive kicks out of the total number of kicks.

• The percentage of successful attacking kicks.

• The percentage of unsuccessful attacking kicks.

• The percentage of successful defensive kicks.

• The percentage of unsuccessful defensive kicks.

• Number of tries scored from kicks.

23 ATTACKING KICKS DEFENSIVE KICKS Bomb Cross Field Chip Kick Grubber Drop Clearance Clearance Kick Kick Kick Goal Kick to Touch Pos Neg Pos Neg Pos Neg Pos Neg Pos Neg Pos Neg Pos Neg

H/T Total

F/T Total

Key: Red boxes are used to highlight half and full time totals for the various types of

kicks.

Figure 3.1 Finalised hand notation template

24 3.4 Operational Definitions In order to ensure that the data collection was accurate, all operational definitions were developed in consultation with rugby union and rugby league literature. Some operational definitions were amended so that they were contusive of both codes.

Table 3.3 Definitions of different attacking kicks

Attacking Kicks Type of Kick Definition Bomb The ball is punted high directly into the air with the attacking team aiming to either pressurise the catcher into making a mistake or regain possession themselves.

Grubber The ball is kicked along the floor in an awkward or specific manner, dissecting and turning the defence. Cross Field An aerial kick which uses the same principle as the ‘bomb’ but is kicked laterally across the field by one player and caught by another. Chip Kicker aims to breech an aggressive, well-organised defence by kicking the ball in a controlled manner over the oppositions head for either themselves or a team-mate to chase and regain. Drop Kick The ball is kicked on the half-volley by any individual player over the posts during open-play. Table 3.4 Definitions of ‘positive’ attacking kicks

Attacking Kicks Type of Kick Positive outcome Bomb The kicking team must either retain Grubber possession immediately from the kick, force Cross Field an error which has the same result or the kick Chip must results in points being scored (drop goal, Drop Goal penalty, try).

25 Table 3.5 Definitions of ‘negative’ attacking kicks Attacking Kicks

Type of Kick Negative Outcome

Bomb A negative attacking kick will be assumed if Grubber either of the following scenarios occur: Cross Field • Possession is not directly regained Chip from the various types of kick. Drop Goal • Opposition error does not occur from the kick. • The kick does not result in points being scored.

Table 3.6 Definitions of different ‘defensive’ kicks

Defensive Kicks Type of Kick Definition Clearance Kick A kick which doesn’t intentionally aim to find touch, but surpasses the opponent’s last defender, forcing them to retreat and field the ball. Clearance Kick to Touch A kick that is intentionally kicked from the field of play directly or bounced into touch.

Note: A ’40m-20m’ kick to touch in rugby league from which the kicking team retain possession will be acknowledged as a defensive kick, despite the kicking team retaining possession.

26 Table 3.7 Definitions of ‘positive’ defensive kicks

Defensive Kicks Type of Kick Positive Outcome Clearance Kick The kick will be acknowledged as successful if the ball surpasses the last defender, forcing them to turn and retrieve the ball or if the retrieving player makes an error (knock on). Clearance Kick to Touch The ball is cleared to touch, vacating the field of play at least 20m in advancement from its original position. Note: Pitch markings will be used in order to ascertain the 20m advancement of a positive clearance kick. It is also important to acknowledge that in rugby union the ball may not be kicked directly to touch if the kicker is outside of the 22m zone.

Table 3.8 Definitions of ‘negative’ defensive kicks

Defensive Kicks

Type of Kick Negative Outcome Clearance Kick A kick that fails to surpass the opponents last defender, doesn’t pressurise them, ultimately unnecessarily conceding possession. Clearance Kick to Touch A kick with a pre-determined intention to find touch which either does not find touch at all or is poorly kicked gaining less than 20m from its original position. Tries Scored Directly From a Kick - This activity is recognised only if a try is the direct result of a kick from either a team mate or the same individual by whom the try is scored.

27 3.5 Pilot Study

In order to develop a valid and reliable method to any research, there must be a piloting process which will enable any potential errors or areas of discrepancy within the system to be eradicated before the system is finalised.

Initial piloting of this method suggested that in specific matches the operational definitions for defensive kicks were not stringent enough, therefore encouraging ambiguity and a disproportionate success rate between the two codes. In order to eradicate this discrepancy it was decided that revised definitions for defensive kicks that were contusive of both codes and that did not allow for bias in their definition of success were required.

3.6 Statistical Analysis

In order to ascertain the most suitable statistical analysis to be performed, the distribution and normality of the data must first be determined. The quantity of the data sample suggested that the Shapiro-Wilk test would provide the most accurate results as opposed to the Kolmogorov-Smirnof test, which is generally reserved for larger data samples >50

(Shapiro and Francia, 1972).

The Shapiro-Wilk test is used to assess “whether a distribution of scores is significantly different from normal distribution” (Field, 2005, p 744). A significant value (<0.05) indicates a deviation from normality, consequently suggesting the use of non-parametric statistical procedures such as the Mann Whitney U. Conclusively, the results from the

28 Shapiro-Wilk test highlighted the majority of the data to be non-parametric. Although some anomalies occurred, in order to be consistent non-parametric statistical analysis was used to assess all the data.

Non-Parametric tests typically do not rely on the restrictive assumptions of parametric tests. Specific products of non-parametric tests such as the Mann Whitney U aim to “look for differences between two independent samples” (Field, 2005, p735), therefore the differences between the pools of data will be assessed using the Mann Whitney U as opposed to the parametric equivalent, the independent t-test.

3.7 Reliability

“In designing new analysis systems, it is fundamental that ‘repeatability and accuracy’ of the system is clearly established” (Hughes et al., 2002, p. 2).

Due to the tallied nature in which the data was collected, tests for percentage error were selected to assess the intra reliability for two separate notations of the same match. The reliability study was performed on one game from each code, with the second viewing completed three days after the first to avoid memory affecting the results.

The specificity of the operational definitions placed upon the variables do not allow for much individual interpretation, especially with attacking kicks that have a pre-defined movements highlighted in coaching literature (drop goal, grubber, bomb). Therefore a lower percentage error of < 5% will be used to assess the reliability of these kicks. Due to the enlarged indistinctness of the remaining kicks, an increased percentage error of <15

29 % will be deemed acceptable and an overall percentage error of < 15 % will lead us to assume that the method is reliable. The formula used to calculate the percentage error is displayed below.

% Error = ∑ (MOD [S1 – S2) x 100

∑ S1 S1 – Test 1 S2 – Test 2 ∑ = sum of the difference between S1 and S2

3.8 Reliability Results

Percentage error results from the reliability tests in rugby union display 0 % error for all attacking kicks, but unacceptable levels of error for positive and negative clearances kicks along with negative clearances to touch. However, it should be acknowledged that these in frequent anomalies are exaggerated by the limited number of overall games and do not breach the acceptance of the overall percentage error. With an overall percentage error of <15 % (11.32 %) it can be subsequently assumed that the methodology and the operational definitions for rugby union are reliable.

Elevated levels of percentage error are also apparent for attacking and defensive kicks in rugby league. Although these errors are more acute, with chip kicks the only attacking anomaly, the acceptance level is again exceeded. However, as with rugby union these unacceptable levels of percentage error are attributed to the limited quantity of the data sample. Ultimately the overall percentage error of 14.29 % is deemed acceptable within the confines of this research. A comprehensive display of the reliability results and tests for normality can be found in appendix (C).

30

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

4.0 Results

This chapter will use data tables, Excel illustrations and SPSS statistical analysis to progressively depict the frequencies of various

attacking and defensive kicks and their successfulness in rugby union and rugby league. After summarising frequency and match averages of the overall data, this chapter will continue to display percentage success rates for individual attacking and defensive kicks.

The significance of the data between the two codes will then be described through non-parametric statistical tests such as the Mann-

Whitney U. For individual game analysis, see raw data located in appendix (B) of this investigation.

4.1 Numerical Summary of Attacking and Defensive Kicks

Table 4.1 Comparison of total attacking and defensive kicks in both codes

Code Attacking Kicks Defensive Kicks

Rugby League 334 229

Rugby Union 272 475

Rugby League Match Average 25 15

Rugby Union Match Average 18 32

31 After comparing the total attacking and defensive kicks in both codes, Table 4.1 illustrates the highest numbers of attacking kicks to be in rugby league and the most defensive kicks in rugby union. Overall there appears to be more kicks in rugby union (average of 50 kicks per match) compared to rugby league (average of 40 kicks per match).

32 Union Defensive, League 63% Attacking, 60%

Union Attacking, League 37% Defensive, 40%

Figure 4.1 Percentage summaries of attacking and defensive kicks

The exploded slices in Figure 4.1 highlight a 20 % elevation of attacking kicks compared to defensive kicks in rugby league.

Conversely, the exploded slices also indicate a 26 % superiority of defensive kicks compared to attacking kicks in rugby union.

33 League Neg, Union Neg 73% 69%

Union Pos 27% League Pos, 31%

Figure 4.2 Percentage success rates of attacking kicks

After establishing the overall breakdown between attacking and defensive kicks in Figure 4.1, Figure 4.2 highlights the success rate of

attacking kicks in both codes. Negative attacking kicks are represented by more predominant percentages than positive kicks, 73% in union and 69 % in league.

34 League Neg, 49% Union Pos, 56%

League Pos, Union Neg, 44% 51%

Figure 4.3 Percentage success rates of defensive kicks

This pie-chart displays acute differences in levels of positive percentage success rates of defensive kicks in both codes. Defensive kicks in rugby union are shown to have a 56 % positive outcome in comparison to 51 % in rugby league.

35 4.2 Analysis of Types of Attacking and Defensive Kicks

Table 4.2 Summary of specific attacking and defensive in both codes

Code Attacking Kicks Defensive Kicks Total Total Tries Defensive Scored

From Bomb Cross Chip Grubber Drop Total Clearance Clearance Kicks Field Goal to Touch Rugby League 64 44 93 120 13 334 200 29 229 563 23

Rugby Union 113 19 73 59 8 272 214 261 475 747 17

The data in Table 4.2 suggests that more attacking kicks occur in rugby league (n= 334) than rugby union (n= 272). The most

prevalent attacking kick in rugby league was the grubber (n= 120) and in union the bomb (n= 113). Although rugby league displayed

the most attacking kicks, the highest frequencies of defensive kicks occurred in rugby union (n= 475) compared to (n= 229) in rugby

league. The margin between defensive clearance kicks within the two codes appears to be particularly fine in comparison to the

distinct differences in clearance kicks to touch. This data concludes that overall, more kicks occurred in rugby union than rugby

league, although a higher number of tries scored from kicks transpired in rugby league.

36 25

20

15

10

Frequency 5 Bomb Cross - Field Chip Grubber Drop Goal Overall 0 Type of attacking kick

Rugby League Rugby Union

Figure 4.4 Full time match averages for attacking kicks

This bar-graph generally indicates the dominance of attacking kicks in rugby league. The different types of attacking kicks all exceed those in rugby union; the only anomaly is the bomb which is more apparent in union displaying, double the average number of kicks per game in union than league.

37 35 30 25 20 15 10 Frequency 5 0 Clearance Kick Clearance Kick to Overall Touch Type of Defensive Kick

Rugby League Rugby Union

Figure 4.5 Full time match averages for defensive kicks

Although minimal margins separate clearance kicks between the codes, the increased frequency of defensive clearances to touch in rugby union contribute to the overall average frequency of defensive kicks showing a dissimilar comparison between the codes.

38 Table 4.3 Total frequency and percentage success rate of specific attacking kicks in union and league

ATTACKING KICKS

Code Bomb Overall Cross Field Overall Chip Overall Grubber Overall Drop Overall % % % % Goal % Success Success Success Success Success Total S /US League 13 51 20 % 16 28 36 % 34 59 37 % 35 85 29 % 6 7 46 %

Total S / US Union 29 84 26 % 7 12 37 % 25 48 34 % 15 44 25 % 1 7 13 %

Key:

In this table successful kicks (S) are denoted in green text and unsuccessful kicks (US) in red

The overall most successful kicks are highlighted with a blue background

Upon first impression it becomes clear that none of the attacking kicks in either code exceeded an overall percentage success rate of

50 %. The bomb and cross-field kicks proved to be more successful in rugby union, where as the chip, grubber and drop goal show

higher levels of percentage success in rugby league.

39 Table 4.4 Total frequency and percentage success rate of specific defensive kicks in union and league

Defensive Kicks Code Clearance Kick Overall % Success Clearance Kick to Overall % Success Rate Touch Rate Total Successful / Unsuccessful League 103 97 52 % 17 12 59 % Total Successful / Unsuccessful Union 99 115 46 % 164 97 63 %

Key:

In this table successful kicks are denoted in green text and unsuccessful kicks in red

The overall most successful kicks are highlighted with a blue background

Comparisons of the successfulness of attacking and defensive kicks suggest that defensive kicks possess higher levels of success than the attacking kicks, with the majority of overall percentages surpassing 50 %. Table 4.4 also indicates that the difference in success rate is dependent on the type of kick. Although the boundaries between the percentage success rates are acute, clearance kicks appear to be most successful in rugby league (52 % compared to 46 %) and clearance kicks to touch superior in rugby union (63 % compared to 59 %).

40 4.3 SPSS Statistical Comparison

Table 4.5 Significant differences between the frequency of attacking and defensive kicks in union and league

Type of Kick Statistical Output Mann Whitney U Exact Sig. Significance Attacking Kicks Bomb 48.50 .007 ** Cross Field 54.50 .015 * Chip 81.00 .202 Grubber 20.50 .000 *** Drop Goal 87.50 .305 Defensive Kicks Clearance Kick 99.50 .595 Clearance to Touch .000 .000 *** Overall 37.50 .001 **

Key: Different levels of significance are indicated using the following scale.

(P < 0.05) = * (P < 0.01) = ** (P < 0.001) = ***

The asterisks system deployed in the remainder of tables in this chapter allows for a more accurate statistical representation for the different types of attacking and defensive kicks and their successfulness in both codes. Overall (U = 37.50, P < 0.01) indicates a high

41 significant difference between the total number of kicks between the codes. However, no significant differences were discovered for attacking kicks such as the chip kick (p = 0.202), drop goal (p = 0.305) and defensive clearance kicks (p = 0.595).

Table 4.6 Analysis of positive kicks between the codes

Type of Kick Statistical Output – Positive Outcomes Mann Whitney U Exact Sig. Significance Attacking Kicks Bomb 71.50 .089 Cross Field 73.00 .106 Chip 85.00 .267 Grubber 46.50 .005 ** Drop Goal 75.00 .126 Defensive Kicks Clearance Kick 111.50 .967 Clearance to Touch .000 .000 ***

Key: Different levels of significance are indicated using the following scale.

(P < 0.05) = * (P < 0.01) = ** (P < 0.001) = ***

42 Table 4.7 Analysis of negative kicks between the codes

Statistical Output – Negative Outcomes Type of Kick Mann Whitney U Exact Sig. Significance Attacking Kicks Bomb 53.00 .013 * Cross Field 59.50 .026 * Chip 94.50 .461 Grubber 28.00 .000 *** Drop Goal 108.50 .870 Defensive Kicks Clearance Kick 93.50 .436 Clearance to Touch 5.00 .000 ***

Key: Different levels of significance are indicated using the following scale.

(P < 0.05) = * (P < 0.01) = ** (P < 0.001) = ***

Tables 4.6 and 4.7 illustrate the successfulness of different types of attacking and defensive kicks in rugby union and rugby league.

Levels indicating no significance (p > 0.05) are apparent in all types of positive kicks excluding the grubber (U = 28.00, P < 0.01) and clearance kicks to touch (U = 5.00, P < 0.001). However, this trend is reversed for negative kicks between the two codes, which generally displays more levels of non-significance.

43

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

6.0 Conclusion

6.1 General Conclusions

The objective of this analysis sought to determine whether selected kicking performance indicators revealed any convergence in playing trends or game strategies between rugby union and rugby league. Percentage error calculations obtained through intra-observer reliability tests confirmed the validity of the methodology, with the pre-defined levels of acceptance for specific kicks and overall totals inside the tolerable boundaries. A

Shapiro-Wilk test deemed the data to be non-parametric; subsequently differences were assessed using a Mann Whitney test.

The developments of computerised notation systems now allow coaches and players immediate access to a detailed data base of statistics regarding performance. However, the hand notation system utilised in this investigation was recognised as the most appropriate method to obtain the specific frequency data that was required.

Retrospectively, the use of a detailed computer software such as Sports Code, may have had the ability to provide a more in-depth set of results in a more efficient manner.

The information gathered as a result of the system can be collated and used to develop a comprehensive database for the frequency and outcomes of a variety of attacking and defensive kicks in both codes. Furthermore this investigation may provide coaches with relevant data upon kicking trends and strategies, unique to each code, but potentially transferable to both.

6.2 Statement of Results

54 The results obtained from this investigation enable us to deduce the convergences and disparities that exist between the kicking strategies in both codes of rugby. The compliance of the results in relation to the previously established hypothesis will now be assessed.

Overall, a significant difference (U =37.50, p<0.01) implied that total kicking frequencies were not contusive between the codes. On average, 10 more kicks occur in a game of rugby union (Table 4.1). More specifically, there was a greater frequency of attacking kicks in league, but more defensive kicks in union. The comparison of different kicking frequencies such as the drop goal, clearance kick and chip kick showed no significant difference between the codes (p>0.05), ultimately underlining them as common strategies. However, the remainder of kicks display some form of dissimilarity. The most significant differences can be observed in the frequency of the grubber kick (U=20.50, p<0.001) and clearance kick to touch (U=.000, p<.001). The grubber kick appeared to be the most prevalent type of kick in rugby league, and the clearance to touch the most dominant in union (Table 4.2). These differences subsequently support the notion that union is a territorial based game, as opposed to the possession orientated game utilised in league. The higher percentage success rate of attacking kicks in league (Figure 4.2) along with the more regular occurrence of tries deriving from kicks, potentially underlines the technical proficiency and superiority that rugby league possesses over union in terms of attacking kicking strategies. However, the distribution of tries scored in relation to the type of kick showed no conclusive results in this investigation. In order to generate a more accurate database, additional longitudinal studies upon a larger data sample would be required.

55 This investigation concludes that although some obvious convergence between the two codes exists and serves to benefit one another; the extent and success to which kicking techniques can be transferred are mainly governed by specific strategies that are unique to both codes.

6.3 Future Research Initial improvements to this research design should consider the use of some form of computer based notation. The results orientated ethos surrounding professional sport has recognised the need for accurate analysis, and as a result, performance analysis is now a rapidly evolving industry possessing specific computer software which can accurately and efficiently assess multiple variables in a wide magnitude of sporting performances.

This research suggests a certain degree of convergence between the two codes of rugby, therefore offering scope to develop more extensive research. In order to achieve a more thorough understanding of their harmonisation, a wider variety of performance indicators common to both codes should be analysed with particular regard to the success of individual teams. By recognising transferable skills, coaches from either code will be able to compare successful methods and techniques that may benefit their team’s performances. The frequent interchange of players between the codes also proposes the opportunity for individual player and positional profiles to be constructed. This proposition would help in the identification of players whom the ability to become successful dual code players.

Continual comparisons between the codes may eventually advocate a unified code of rugby, which Eaves (2006) argues will enable individuals and teams to refine the most paramount skills associated with rugby, subsequently enhancing the playing standards in both codes.

56

REFERENCES

57 References.

Alan, K. (2000). A comparison of upper and lower body strength between collegiate rugby union and rugby league players. Unpublished (Bsc) dissertation. Cardiff, UWIC.

Bamford, M. (1989). Rugby League: The Skills of the Game, Wiltshire: The Crowood Press.

Beck, C. and O’Donoghue, P. (2004). Time-Motion Analysis of Intervarsity Rugby League Competition. Performance Analysis of Sport VI, UWIC, Cardiff.

Bhanot, J.L. (1987). Maximal Anaerobic Power of Indian Soccer Players according to Playing Positions. Science and Football (Editors: Reilly, T., Lees, A., Davids, K. and Murphy, W.), London: E & FN Spon, 172-174.

Brewer, J. and Davis, J. (1995). Applied Physiology of Rugby League. Journal of Sports Medicine, 20, 129-13.

Coutts, P., Reaburn, P. and Abt, G. (2004). Heart rate, blood lactate concentration and estimated energy expenditure in a semi-professional rugby league team during a match, Journal of Sports Science, 21, 97-103.

Delaney, T. (1984). The Roots of Rugby League, West Yorkshire: Smith Settle.

Deloitte. (2007). Rapid Guinness Premiership attendance growth drives record revenues. [on-line]. http://www.deloitte.com/dtt/press_release/. Accessed [21/01/08].

Deutsch, M. U., Kearney, G. A. and Rehrer, N. J. (2002). A comparison of competition work rates in elite club and Super 12 rugby. In W. Spinks, T. Reilly and A. Murphy (Eds.) Science and Football IV (160-166). Cambridge University Press.

Docherty, D., Wenger, H.A and Neary, P. (1998). Time motion analysis related to the physical demands of rugby. Journal of Human Movement Studies 14, 269-277.

Dixon, A. (2006). Kicking. RFU Technical Journal [on-line]. http://www.community- rugby.com. Accessed [15/02/08].

Dunning, E. and Sheard, K. (2005). Barbarians Gentlemen and Players: Second Edition. A Sociological Study of the Development of Rugby Football, London: Routledge.

Duthie, G., Pyne, D. and Hooper, S. (2003). Applied physiology and game analysis of rugby union. Sports Medicine, 33 (13), 973-991.

Eaves, S.J. (2006). ‘The Convergence of the Twain’: A notational analysis of northern hemisphere rugby league and rugby union football 1988-2002. Unpublished, PhD Thesis, UWIC.

Eaves, S.J. and Broad, G. (2007). A comparative analysis of professional rugby league football playing patterns between Australia and the United Kingdom. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 7, (3) 54-66.

Eaves, S.J. and Hughes, M. (2003). Patterns of play in international rugby union teams before and after the introduction of professional status. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 3 (2), 103-111.

Eaves, S.J., Hughes, M., Lamb, K.L. (2005). The consequences of the introduction of the professional playing status on game action variables in international northern hemisphere rugby union football. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 5 (3), 58- 66.

Field, A. (2005). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS: Second Edition. London: Sage.

59 Franks, I.M. (1996). Use of feedback by coaches and players. In Reilly, T. J., Bangsbo and M. Hughes (Ed) Science and Football III. London: E & FN Spon.

Franks, I.M and Goodman, D. (1986). A systematic approach to analysing sports performance. Journal of Sports Science, 4, 49-58.

Franks, I.M., Goodman, D. and Miller, G. (1983). Analysis of Performance: qualitative or quantitative. In Hughes, M.D. and Franks, I.M. (1997). Notational Analysis of Sport. London: E. & F.N. Spon.

Franks, I.M. and Miller, G. (1986). Eyewitness testimony in sport. Journal of Sports Behavior, 9, 39-45.

Gabbett, T.J. (2005). Science of Rugby League Football: A review. Journal of Sports Science, 23, 961-976.

Gough, S. (2006). Spiral or On-End Kick. RFU Technical Journal [on-line]. http://www.community-rugby.com. Accessed [17/02/08].

Gough, S. (2007). Kick to Score. RFU Technical Journal [on-line]. http://www.community-rugby.com. Accessed [15/02/08].

Greenwood, J. (1997). Total Rugby. 4th Edition. London: A. and C. Black.

Hale, B. and Collins, D. (2002). Rugby Tough. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Hughes, M. and Clarke, A. (1994). Computerised notational analysis on the effects of law changes upon patterns of play of international teams in rugby union. Journal of Sports Science, 12, (2), 181.

60 Hughes, M., Cooper, S.M. and Nevill, A. (2002). Analysis procedures for nonparametric data from performance analysis. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 2 (1), 6-20.

Hughes, M., Evans, S. and Wells J. (2001). Establishing normative profiles in performance analysis. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 1, (1), 1- 26.

Hughes, M.D. and Franks, I.M. (1997). Notational Analysis of Sport. London: E. & F.N. Spon.

Hughes, M. and Franks, I.M. (2004). Notational Analysis of Sport, (2nd Ed), Systems for Better Coaching and Performance in Sport, London: Routledge.

Hughes, M. and White, P. (1997). An analysis of forward play in the men’s Rugby Union World Cup, 1991. In M.D. Hughes (Ed.). (183-192). Notational Analysis of Sport I & II. Cardiff: CPA, UWIC.

Hughes, M.D. and Williams, D. (1988). The development and application of a computerised rugby union notation system. Journal of Sports Sciences, 6, 254-255.

Hynard, M. (2004). Introducing Basic Kicking Tactics. RFU Technical Journal [on- line]. http://www.community-rugby.com Accessed [15/02/08].

IRB. (2007). Statistical Review and Match Analysis of the 2007 Rugby World Cup [on- line]. www.irb.com. Accessed [18/12/07].

Jackson, R.C. (2003). Pre-Performance Routine Consistency: Temporal analysis of goal- kicking in the rugby union world cup. Journal of Sports Science, 21 (10), 803-814.

Jackson, N. and Hughes, M. (2001). Patterns of play of successful and unsuccessful teams in elite women’s rugby union. In Hughes, M. and Franks, I.M (2001). Pass.com. Cardiff: UWIC. pp 111-118.

61

James, N., Jones, N.M.P. & Mellalieu, S.D. (2004). Decision Making Performance Profiles in Elite Rugby Union. In P. O’Donoghue and M. Hughes (Eds.), Performance Analysis of Sport VI, Cardiff: UWIC. pp 123-129.

James, N., Mellalieu, S.D. and Jones, N. (2005). The development of position specific performance indicators in profession rugby union. Journal of Sports Sciences, 23 (1), 63- 72.

Kear, J. (1996). Skill Development for Rugby League. Harpenden, Herts: Queen Anne Press.

Long, R. and Hughes, M. (2004). Performance profiles of back row forwards in elite men’s rugby union, before and after the introduction of professionalism. In O’Donoghue, P. and Hughes, M. (2004). Performance Analysis of Sport VI. Cardiff, UWIC. pp 130- 148.

Marshall, K. and Hughes, M. (2001). A comparison of elite level women’s rugby from 1994 to 2000. In Hughes, M. and Franks, I.M (2001). Pass.com. Cardiff: UWIC. pp 119- 136.

McKenzie, A.D., Holmyard, D.J and Docherty, D. (1989). Quantitative analysis of rugby: Success Factors in Contact. Journal of Human Movement Studies 17, 101-113.

McLean, D.A. (1992). Analysis of the physical demands of international rugby union. Journal of Sports Science 10, 285-296.

Morton, A.R. (1978). Applying physiological principles to rugby training. Sports Coach, 2 (2), 4-9.

Nevill, A.M., Atkinson, G., Hughes, M.D. and Cooper, S.M. (2002). Statistical methods

62 for analysing discrete and categorical data recorded in performance analysis. Journal of Sports Science, 20, 829-844.

Olsen, E. and Larsen, O. (1997). Use of match analysis by coaches. In Science and Football III. (edited T. Reilly, J. Bangsbo and M. Hughes), pp. 209-220. London: E & FN Spon.

Oxley, D. (1994). Rugby League - Know the Game. London: A & C Black.

Reilly, T., and Gilbourne, D. (2003). Science and Football: A review of applied research in the football codes. Journal of Sport Sciences, 21, 693-705.

Shapiro, S.S. and Francia, R.S. (1972). An approximate analysis of variance test for normality. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 67, 215-216.

Stanhope, J. and Hughes, M. (1997). An analysis of scoring in the 1991 Rugby Union World Cup for men. In Hughes, M. (Ed.) (1997) Notational Analysis of Sport I & II, UWIC.

Van Heerden, I. (1968). Tactical and Attacking Rugby. London: Herbert Jenkins.

Van Rooyen, M.K. and Noakes, T.D. (2006). Movement time as a predictor of success in the 2003 Rugby World Cup tournament. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 6 (1), 30-39.

Veale, J.P., Pearce, A.J. and Carlson, J.S (2007). Match analysis in football games: Profile of position movement demands in elite junior Australian Rules Football. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 10, 98-107.

Walker, R. D. (1985). Sports injuries: Rugby league may be less dangerous than rugby union. Practitioner, 229, 205-206

63 Watson, A.W.S. (1995). Physical Fitness and Athletic Performance, 2nd Edition. London: Long.

64

APPENDICIES.

APPENDIX A. APPENDIX A.

Definition of Competitions

Rugby League

Engage Super League – Super League (Europe) is the only full-time professional rugby league competition operating in the northern hemisphere and consists of predominantly northern English based teams although recently European teams such as Paris St Germain and the Catalan Dragons have competed.

Carnegie Challenge Cup – Rugby leagues elite knock out competition which includes amateur, semi-professional and professional teams from Britain and more recently France and Russia.

Tri Nations – An annual three way international competition contested by rugby leagues three most prominent teams, Australia, New Zealand and Great Britain

Int. RLWC Qualifier ‘08 – Series of matches in which un-seeded international teams must win in order to qualify for the world cup.

Rugby Union

English Guinness Premiership – England’s elite, professional domestic league competition.

European Heineken Cup – Europe’s elite club competition consisting of round robin group stages followed by knock out process, contested by a wide selection of European rugby nations who qualify by excelling in their domestic competitions.

EDF Anglo Welsh Cup – Follows the same format as the Heineken cup but is contested by English Premiership teams and the welsh regions.

Magners Celtic League – An elite league contested by franchised regions in Wales,

Scotland and Ireland.

APPENDIX B. APPENDIX - B. Summary of raw data – Rugby League and Rugby Union Matches.

Rugby League Matches Attacking Kicks Defensive Kicks Total Tries Scored Kicks From Kicks Bomb Cross-Field Chip Grubber D.G Clearance Kick Cl. to Touch P N P N P N P N P N P N P N Wigan Warriors/ Catalan Dragons 0 2 1 2 4 2 3 4 0 0 4 7 0 0 29 1 St Helens/ Warrington Wolves 1 3 2 4 4 5 0 5 1 0 1 8 1 1 35 2 St Helens/ Wigan Warriors 3 2 3 3 2 5 3 8 1 2 5 5 1 0 43 2 St Helens/ Bradford Bulls 0 1 1 0 3 10 1 5 1 0 3 5 1 0 31 0 Catalan Dragons/ Wigan Warriors 1 2 0 1 3 0 2 8 1 0 3 8 0 4 33 4 Wigan Warriors/ St Helens 0 4 2 1 4 5 3 6 0 2 5 8 0 0 40 1 Warrington Wolves/ Catalan Dragons 0 4 3 5 1 1 2 4 0 0 13 8 1 1 43 2 Bradford Bulls/ Wigan Warriors 3 2 1 2 2 6 2 5 1 0 9 9 0 1 43 1 Hull F.C./ Huddersfield Giants 1 5 0 2 2 4 4 7 0 0 8 6 0 3 42 3 St Helens/ Leeds Rhinos 0 9 0 2 1 6 3 7 0 1 8 11 3 0 51 0 Samoa/ USA 0 7 0 3 1 6 1 7 0 0 5 2 0 0 32 1 Leeds Rhinos/ St Helens 1 4 1 2 1 4 4 4 1 0 14 7 5 0 48 1 Warrington Wolves/ Huddersfield Giants 0 0 0 0 4 2 3 7 0 1 7 3 3 0 30 2 Wales/ Lebanon 0 3 1 0 0 1 0 4 0 1 5 5 1 1 22 1 Rugby Union Matches Attacking Kicks Defensive Kicks Total Tries Scored Kicks From Kicks Bomb Cross-Field Chip Grubber D.G Clearance Kick Cl. to Touch P N P N P N P N P N P N P N Llanelli Scarlets/ Toulouse 0 7 0 1 4 1 2 6 0 0 1 3 13 7 45 3 Sale Sharks/ Munster 3 5 0 1 2 3 1 3 0 1 8 11 12 11 61 1 Bath/ Leinster 1 2 0 1 2 5 1 6 0 0 9 6 6 8 47 1 Saracens/ Leicester Tigers 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 3 0 1 8 3 15 3 42 1 Ospreys/ Munster 0 5 0 1 1 4 0 2 0 1 4 9 13 7 47 0 Gloucester/ London Wasps 3 10 0 1 0 3 2 3 0 0 11 13 12 8 66 1 Leicester Tigers/ Sale Sharks 2 4 0 1 0 2 1 2 0 0 2 7 12 6 39 0 Cardiff Blues/ Sale Sharks 0 5 2 1 4 6 1 6 0 1 6 8 7 4 51 1 Leicester Tigers/ Cardiff Blues 1 5 1 2 4 3 1 2 0 0 3 4 8 4 38 3 Edinburgh/ Toulouse 0 7 0 0 0 1 0 4 0 2 7 10 13 7 51 0 London Wasps/ Munster 6 7 0 0 2 4 2 0 0 1 5 6 8 6 47 2 Bristol Shoguns/ London Wasps 3 6 0 0 1 4 1 2 0 0 11 5 8 11 52 1 Saracens/ Newcastle Falcons 2 3 0 1 1 3 1 1 0 0 6 5 14 2 39 0 Bath/ Gloucester 4 11 2 0 0 2 0 3 0 0 11 14 14 9 70 1 Leicester Tigers/ Harlequins NEC 3 5 1 1 2 6 1 1 1 0 7 11 9 4 52 2 Key: P – Positive Kicks / N – Negative Kicks

APPENDIX C.

APPENDIX C.

Reliability

Inter Reliability study percentage error results for piloted Rugby Union and Rugby

League matches.

• Rugby Union (New Zealand Vs Australia)

• Rugby League (Wigan Warriors Vs Leeds Rhinos).

Rugby Union Rugby League Description Test Test Abs Mean % Error Test Test Abs Mean % Error Of Variable 1 2 Diff Overall 1 2 Diff Overall

Bomb (+) 5 5 0 5 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 Bomb (-) 8 8 0 8 0.00 2 2 0 2 0.00 Cross Field (+) 0 0 0 0 0.00 1 1 0 1 0.00 Cross Field (-) 0 0 0 0 0.00 2 2 0 2 0.00 Chip Kick (+) 1 1 0 1 0.00 4 3 1 3.5 28.57 Chip Kick (-) 2 2 0 2 0.00 2 3 1 2.5 40.00 Grubber (+) 0 0 0 0 0.00 3 3 0 3 0.00 Grubber (-) 4 4 0 4 0.00 4 4 0 4 0.00 Drop Goal (+) 1 1 0 1 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 Drop Goal (-) 2 2 0 2 0.00 0 0 0 0 0.00 Clearance (+) 7 5 2 6 33.33 4 3 1 3.5 28.57 Clearance (-) 7 9 2 8 25 7 6 1 6.5 15.38 Clearance Touch (+) 12 13 1 12.5 8 0 0 0 0 0.00 Clearance Touch (-) 4 3 1 3. 5 28.57 0 0 0 0 0.00 %Overall Error 11.32 14.29 % %

APPENDIX C.

Tests of Normality – Shapiro Wilk Test

Total kicks attacking and defensive kicks in both codes.

Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig.

bomb total .919 .449 30 cross field total 30 .929 .424 chip total .026 30 .851 grubber total .821 .047 30 drop goal total 30 .769 .001 clearance total .000 30 .968 clearance total .967 .000 30 overall 30 .966 .485

Total positive attacking and defensive kicks in both codes

Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig.

bomb positive .833 30 .000 cross field total 30 .003 .963 chip positive .000 .895 30 grubber positive .778 30 .364 drop goal positive 30 .006 .856 clearance positive .000 .526 30 clearance to touch .880 30 .001 positive

Total negative attacking and defensive kicks in both codes

Shapiro-Wilk Statistic df Sig. clearance to touch .877 30 .002 negative clearance negative .963 .962 .841 drop goal negative 30 30 30 grubber negative .363 .348 .000 chip negative .683 .933 .943 cross field negative 30 30 30 bomb negative .000 .060 .112

75