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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal, Available Online

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC)

Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

Articles

Local Versus Foreign: How Audience Preference and Media Coverage Shape Soccer in Nigeria Mumini Alao 1

Post-truth, the Print Media and Political Messages in Ghana Wincharles Coker & Francis Afriyie 24

Twitter and Election Campaigns: Measuring Usage in Nigeria‘s 2015 Presidential Election Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso 44

Resolving the Political Tension: How Online Photographs Portray Candidates in Nigeria‘s 2015 Presidential Election Koblowe Obono 66

UNESCO‘S Recommendations on Communication and Cultural Heritage Matters ((1967 - 1984) and Implementation in Nigeria Ayodeji O. Awobamise & Adebola A. Aderibigbe 87

iii

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal, Available Online

Local Versus Foreign: How Audience Preference and Media Coverage Shape Soccer in Nigeria

Mumini Alao

Department of Mass Communication University of Lagos Lagos, Nigeria. mail: [email protected]

Abstract: This study juxtaposes foreign and domestic soccer narratives in the media to determine the level of influence each exerts on Nigerian fans. Respondents from four stadiums in Nigeria responded to questionnaire items while soccer administrators and sports media practitioners answered in-depth interview questions on this juxtaposition and the criterion of influence. Findings show the dominance of foreign content; jointly influenced by both the media and audience. Foreign soccer stories with a mean score of 4.63 featured prominently on the cover pages of sports newspapers compared to 3.29 for local stories while most fans (88.9%; n=1878) preferred foreign content. Results also show that commercial considerations influenced the agenda setting credential of sports media practitioners. Recommendations on how domestic soccer could attract more followership in Nigeria were made.

Keywords: Audience, preference, media coverage, domestic soccer, foreign soccer, gate-keeping, agenda setting, Nigeria.

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

Introduction appraise the impact the media The prevalence of foreign content in actually generate. the Nigerian media space is an on- The mechanistic perspective of going discourse among scholars in media effect sees the audience Nigeria especially within the members as passive and reactive; context of cultural imperialism. focuses on short-term, immediate Akinfeleye and Amobi (2011) assert and measurable changes in that the media are potent social thoughts, attitudes, or behaviors and systems that transmit cultural assumes a direct influence on the heritage from one generation to the audiences. Research in some climes, next. Unimpressively, however, the including that of Nigeria, has shown media in Nigeria have been accused that the audience is not always a of undermining this social docile group of people that the responsibility performance by media could manipulate at will allowing the dominance of foreign (Klapper, 1960). Nevertheless, the content. The perceived neglect of hypodermic needle hypothesis that traditional media functions by media influence is immediate and journalists has prompted Akinfeleye heavily impacting on the audience – (2003) to question whether Nigerian comparable to what happens when a reporters operate as fourth estate of soldier fires a bullet on an attacker the realm or wreck! is still popular. While this is so in In the 1960s and 70s, media certain areas of mass scholars and social scientists communication such as advertising believed that the media had the and propaganda, there are not power to sway huge audiences. But enough studies to confirm the extent as of late, the situation has become of such direct media impact on the complex, following the sports audience in Nigeria. In this phenomenon known as media study, media influence is convergence wherein both the operationalized ad the power of the media and their audiences are in the media to make the audience behave same marketplace of information in a particular way while media deluge where supply exceeds impact describes a cause-effect demand. To understand the highly relationship with the audience with complex processes through which a very few intervening variables media effect takes place, researchers (Akinfeleye, 2003; Morah & usually isolate elements in the Omojola, 2014; communication process: 2011; Folayan, 2016; Odiboh, et al. communicator, channel and 2017). message in order to properly

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

The Nigerian sport media has across the country. On television, played a prominent role in nurturing DSTV-SuperSport has several and promoting Nigerian soccer. sports channels and it has been Apart from reporting the exploits of joined on the pay-tv segment by teams and players, it has also been StarTimes sports channels and the major custodian of the sport‘s KweseSport. On the internet, the history. In the 1960s and 1970s in number of Nigerian websites and Nigeria, foreign club soccer was blogs (Okorie, N., Loto, G. & largely unknown to Nigerian fans. Omojola, O. 2018) dedicated to Local clubs such as IICC FC, sports is growing every day.

Stationery Stories FC, Mighty Jets Research Questions FC, Rangers International FC and This article investigates how media the national team - The Green coverage of soccer has affected Eagles - (as they were known then) audience preference for the sport. drew spectators that filled stadiums The following are the research to the brim. Support for local club questions: sides and the national team was like  To what extent does media religion; the passion was high. But coverage influence audience from the 1980s when media preference for domestic and technology advanced rapidly, fans gained more access to modern mass foreign soccer? media – TV, radio, newspapers, and  To what extent does audience now the Internet. Contents on preference influence media foreign soccer have since gained coverage of domestic and foreign popularity. Today, it appears local soccer? soccer has been pushed to the  What influence does media type background as the Nigerian media (print, broadcast or online) have face the accusation of killing domestic football (Izamoje, 2018). on audience preference for domestic or foreign football? As of January 2017, there were  How do soccer managers and three dominant national daily sports media practitioners perceive the newspapers in circulation in Nigeria influence of the media on - Complete Sports, Sporting Sun and audience preference for domestic Sporting Life. Quite a few exist as and foreign soccer? weekly newspapers dedicated to Literature Review reporting specific foreign club-sides Media coverage refers primarily to such as Manchester United and FC the contents of the mass media. Barcelona. On radio, Brila FM has More broadly, it is a term used to four sports radio stations spread describe the attention journalists

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 give to particular subjects or issues item relative to other published in the media. Thus, a newspaper items) and frequency (the number of may be described as giving more times the particular item or subject- coverage to football than basketball. matter is published (covered). Two types of media coverage are Media coverage of an issue may often found in the media literature: also be positive or negative in terms Placed media coverage which is of the impression it has or creates content published by media users on the audience. such as a public relations firm or The Agenda Setting Theory has individuals hired for the purpose; excellent expository constructs that and earned media coverage which explain how journalists impact is content produced by journalists or media audience in the process of a free contribution submitted by selecting stories for publication. The members of the public that the mass theory states that the mass media media outlet may accept to publish may not be so effective in telling its (endvawnow.org, 2017). audience what to think, but the mass

Placed media coverage often comes media is very effective in telling its in form of advertisements, opinion audience what to think about. pieces (op-eds), pitched interviews, Although various independent editorials, press releases, and media scholars have developed variations information kits. In most cases, this of the theory, Maxwell McCombs type of coverage is paid for. On the and Bernard Shaw (1993) that other hand, earned media coverage actually coined the term ‗agenda is usually free and is published by setting‘ and did most of the journalists using their professional pioneering research on the subject- judgement. However, publicists do matter. Agenda-setting is the influence such professional creation of public awareness and judgement through various methods concern of salient issues by the such as getting reporters and editors news media. Two basic assumptions interested in a particular subject, of the theory are: giving journalists fresh information - The press and the media do not that the media audience would value reflect reality; they filter and and adding a ‗spin‘ to issues in a shape it; manner that could make journalists - Media concentration on a few report the story. issues and subjects leads the

Media coverage may be measured public to perceive those issues as in terms of volume (length of the more important than other issues. report on air or in print), For example, in sports journalism, prominence (the positioning of the by placing stories about foreign soccer clubs and foreign soccer on

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 their front pages and making Angeles, led by Maxwell dominant broadcast items, McCombs, began to notice that journalists wittingly or unwittingly whenever a news story that tell their audiences that foreign conceivably could have been a football soccer and players are more major one was played down, its important and these audiences see it impact on the public seemed to as so. significantly dissipate. They,

Since 1972 when Maxwell therefore, began a series of studies McCombs and Bernard Shaw to establish an epistemological basis published their first series of articles in this regard (Lowery & De Fleur, on Agenda Setting in the Public 1988). McCombs and his team were Opinion Quarterly, hundreds of able to define the concept of agenda studies have been carried out and setting with a set of parameters. In various concepts and meta-theories spite of the variations and developed. Rogers and Dearing perspectives by critics, the (1993) have identified three types of taxonomy created from these studies agenda setting: remains the reference point in - Public agenda setting, in which explicating and applying the theory the public agenda is the (McCombs & Shaw, 1972).

dependent variable (the Blair (1988) and Pechmann (2001) traditional hypothesis). have also conceptualized media - Media agenda setting, in which scheduling as an important schema the media agenda is treated as in media coverage. They define the dependent variable (agenda media scheduling as how often building). individuals are exposed to - Policy agenda setting, in which information within a given time elite policy makers' agenda are frame (frequency and repetition treated as the dependent effects). Pechmann and Entman variable (political agenda (1989), in their report from several setting). studies on this, suggest that three Cohen (1963) introduced a new quality exposures to a dimension to the debate with the communication are probably assertion that the press may not be sufficient for a message to have its successful much of the time in effect but noted that it may take telling people what to think, but it is many more exposure opportunities stunningly successful in telling its to produce the effect of three quality readers what to think about. In the exposures. This is because potential mid-1960s, a small group of message recipients may choose not journalism researchers at the to attend to the message at some University of California in Los

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 time or may be exposed only to a  Information must pass through a portion of the entire message at ―gate‖ to move from one some other time. But when the channel to the next. message is repeated quite often, its chances of making an impact on the  Forces govern the channels. recipients are increased. There may be opposing

Lewin‘s theory on gatekeeping also psychological forces causing illustrates the powerful influence of conflict, which create resistance the media editor (Lewin, 1951). to movement through the Lewin conceived the news flow channel. along a channel consisting of  There may be several channels several gates controlled by gatekeepers each of whom would that lead to the same end-result. make a decision as to whether the  Different actors may control the news items should continue through channels that lead to the same the channel. end result.

Gate sections are governed The gate-keeping concept either by impartial rules or by ‗gatekeepers‘. In the latter case, disregards or downplays the interest an individual or group is ‗in of the reader or viewer. While power‘ to make decisions of emphasizing the enormous powers ‗in‘ and ‗out‘. Understanding of the editor or series of editors at the functions of the gates the gates of the news flow, the becomes equivalent then to theory does not help much in understanding the factors which explaining what informs their determine the decisions of the choices, which in actual practice gatekeepers and changing the often goes beyond professional rules social process means of news or story selection. For influencing or replacing the gatekeeper. The first diagnostic example, influential publishers and task in such cases is that of big advertisers sometimes do the finding the actual gatekeeper. gate-keeping (directly or indirectly) (Lewin, cited by Ogunade, by telling the editors what to 1988:85) publish. Yet, the theory is very The process of the gatekeeping helpful – at least in suggesting to us model involves the following: that, largely, it is what the gate-  Information moves step by step keeper thinks the reader wants to through the channels. The read, view or hear that eventually gets published or broadcast. number of channels varies and the amount of time spent in In his review of the evolution of agenda setting research, McCombs each channel can vary.

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

(1993) has noted that the complements to agenda-setting fruitfulness of the agenda-setting include cultivation analysis and the metaphor is documented in three spiral of silence. ―Attribute agenda- features: setting links the theory with  the steady historical growth of framing‖ (McCombs, 2005. p. 546).

its literature, Shoemaker and colleagues studied  its ability to integrate a number the forces in news gatekeeping in of communication research relation to coverage of congressional bills in the United subfields under a single States. According to Shoemaker and theoretical umbrella as it has Reese (1991), they had two moved through four phases of hypotheses: expansion and  the routine gatekeeping force of  a continuing ability to generate assessing a bill‘s new research problems across a newsworthiness was related to variety of communication how prominently a bill was settings in the marketplace of covered, And 2) ideas.  the individual journalist McCombs himself has been at the characteristics (education, forefront of the expansion of the political ideology, work theory and growth of its literature. experience, ethnicity, gender, In 2005, he espoused further that there were five phases of agenda voting behavior) were related to setting which include basic agenda- how prominently a bill was setting effects, attribute agenda- covered. setting effects, contingent They also predicted that the conditions for agenda-setting newsworthiness of a bill would be effects, sources of media agenda more important than journalists‘ and consequences of agenda-setting personal characteristics. Surveying effects. He noted, however, that in both journalists (for their personal its evolution through the five stages, characteristics) and editors (for agenda-setting theory has evaluating newsworthiness), they incorporated or converged with a found that only newsworthiness had variety of other established a significant effect on the amount of communication concepts and coverage given to a bill. Thus, their theories. Incorporated concepts first hypothesis was supported as include status conferral, well as the idea that newsworthiness stereotyping, image building and would be more important than gate keeping. Theoretical

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 personal characteristics. (Stacks & affiliations. This means that Salwen, 2009). individuals join groups and blend

As more scholars published articles their agendas with the agendas of on agenda-setting theories it became the group. The groups and evident that the process involves not communities represent a collected only active role of media agenda of issues and one joins a organizations, but also participation group by adopting an agenda. On of the public as well as the other hand, agenda setting policymakers. The difference defines groups as collections of between agenda-setting and agenda- people based on some shared building is based on the dominant values, opinions or attitudes that role of media or public. Thus individuals have. This is different ‗setting‘ an agenda refers to the from traditional agenda setting effect of the media agenda on because individuals join groups in society, caused by the transfer of the order to avoid social dissonance and media agenda to the public agenda, isolation. Therefore, in the past in while ‗building‘ an agenda includes order to belong, people would learn some degree of reciprocity between and adopt the agenda of the group. the mass media and society where Now with the ease of access to both media and public agendas media, people form their own influence public policy (Rogers, agendas and then find groups that Dearing & Bregman, 1993). have similar agendas that they agree with. Advances in technology have The agenda-building perspective made agenda melding easy for ascribes importance not only to people to develop because there is a mass media and policymakers, but wide range of groups and individual also to social process, to mutually agendas. The Internet makes it interdependent relation between the possible for people around the globe concerns generated in social to find others with similar agendas environment and the vitality of and collaborate with them. In the governmental process. Many past agenda setting was limited to concepts have been developed to general topics and it was explain the various somewhat geographically bound because travel different meta-theoretical was limited. assumptions. They are explained Accessibility below. Accessibility can be defined as how Agenda melding much or how recently a person has This focuses on the personal been exposed to certain issues. As agendas of the individual vis-à-vis individuals try to make less their community and group cognitive effort in forming social

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 judgements, they are more likely to shows that the news media can rely on the information that is easily bundle sets of objects or attributes accessible. This leads to a greater and make these bundles of elements probability that more accessible salient in the public's mind information will be used when simultaneously. In other words, people make judgments on certain elements in people's mind are not issues. linear as traditional approaches

Second Level Agenda Setting indicate. Instead, they are Agenda-setting research at the interconnected with each other to second level deals with the make a network-like structure in influence of attribute salience, one's mind; and if the news media whereas the first level agenda- always mention two elements setting illustrates the influence of together, the audience will perceive issue salience. The focus at the first these two elements as interconnected. level agenda-setting which emphasizes media's role in telling us Framing "what to think about" is shifted to Framing focuses on the applicability media's function of telling us "how of individual's pre-existing to think about it" at the second level cognitive schema, which is different agenda-setting. This second level from agenda-setting and priming. considers how the agenda of Framing is the process of selecting attributes affects public opinion. certain aspects of an issue to gain Certain attribute agendas in the people's attention and to lead them news with low psychological to a particular line of interpretation. distance, drove compelling Also, the media's selective uses of arguments for the salience of public certain frames can affect the way agenda. The second-level agenda- the audience thinks about the issue. setting differs from traditional Both framing and agenda setting agenda-setting in that it focuses on seem to examine which attributes or attribute salience, and public's aspects of an issue are emphasized attribute agenda is regarded as one in the media. Some scholars see of the important variables. framing as an extension of agenda-

Third Level Agenda Setting setting (McCombs & Reynolds, 2009). The most recent agenda-setting researches explore the extent to The advent of the Internet and social which the news media can transfer media has elicited a variety of the salience of relationships among opinions concerning agenda-setting a set of elements to the public. The effects online. Some have claimed network agenda setting model that the power of traditional media

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 has been weakened. Others think sports, class room teaching and that the agenda-setting process and religious beliefs.‖ Specifically, on its role have continued on the sports, he notes that ―the media Internet, specifically on electronic agenda is defined by sports news bulletin boards. Traditional media and by broadcasts of actual sports such as newspapers and broadcast events.‖ He states further: ―Both television are ‗vertical media‘ in (agenda setting and professional which authority, power and sports) have been staples of the influence come from the top and mass media, even more so with the flow down to the public. Nowadays advent of cable and specialized vertical media are undergoing a sports channels. Agenda-setting rapid decline with the rise of links this broad media agenda to horizontal media – the New Media first and second level agenda-setting that enable everyone to become a effects among the public and with source of information and influence. subsequent attitudes and behavior,

Meraz (2009) says that the limited especially viewing sports on research about the Internet is television, becoming a fan and attending sports events.‖ limiting the ecological validity of the agenda setting theory. He argues A study by Lee, Choi and Lee that although blogs and other forms (2003, cited by Eagleman, 2008), of computer (or mobile) mediated focusing on discussion board users‘ communication appear to be quickly coverage of World Cup soccer, gaining ground at the expense of observes, however, that agenda traditional news media outlets, more setting theory has been applied to research needs to be done to vouch the media‘s coverage of sports in for the universality of the theory. He only a few instances. Therefore, it is adds, however, that what is plainly necessary to explore the mass visible is that in the prevailing media‘s coverage of sports to hyper-competitive environment, determine what agendas are being traditional newsrooms have set by the media, or what issues in embraced newsroom blogs as an sport the media are telling its alternative vehicle for news delivery consumers to think about. in an effort to survive. With regard to how the media McCombs (2005. p.553) observes agenda is set in sports, a study by that as the agenda setting theory Knoppers and Elling (2004, p.60) evolved, scholars have applied its reveals journalists‘ claim that the central notion widely to areas criteria they use to select stories outside of political agendas such as they report on are ―straight forward ―corporate reputations, professional and simple and they themselves are

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‗neutral‘ in applying these criteria to Studies conducted on agenda setting the selection process.‖ The and sports in Nigeria are not visible journalists had asserted that they enough. But a qualitative research looked at the athlete or team with by Onwumechili (2009) in which he the top performance no matter who investigated the meaning of the is performing when questioned European football leagues‘ about their objectivity in selecting domination of the Nigerian football athletes or team to cover. Based on market is quite instructive. Using a this finding, it would seem that the frame analysis of two daily sports sports journalists covering MLB newspapers, one national daily (Major League Baseball) would newspaper and a satellite television always report on the athletes with sports channel, the study found that the best performance records. the media use a frame of ‗Nigeria as

Kischefsky‘s (2011) study of how colony‘ to report football, thereby popular American sports interpreting Europe as the center of broadcasting group ESPN sets the modern football and Nigeria as periphery. agenda discusses agenda-setting and framing and then examines The researcher summarized the how the two concepts relate to roles that the various media have the presentation of the lead played in the domination of stories on three ESPN outlets in Nigerian market by European football. According to him, comparison to non-ESPN outlets. television images from SuperSport’s While the ESPN outlets made coverage of European leagues create similar decisions to that of the a taste for European football non-ESPN outlets on the priority (soccer) among Nigerian fans. That of story placement, there were taste creates the impetus for similar enough instances to show that coverage of the European leagues in ESPN did frame its stories in a Nigerian newspapers and by way to draw more viewers. This Nigerian radio stations. The was done by focusing more coverage in the local newspapers attention on teams from larger began with a focus on specific media markets and by keeping European clubs that had Nigerian players in their squads but gradually sports, such as NASCAR, in grew into coverage of entire foreign which ESPN has a financial leagues. stake in the success of the sport, While not disputing Onwumechili‘s on the minds of the audience. conclusion, Alao (2018) explains some of the influences behind the

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 average Nigerian sport editor‘s fourth club side, Mountain of Fire agenda setting, averring that an Ministry (MFM) Football Club has editor takes final decisions on which a lower pedigree but was story to publish based on several purposively selected because of its factors. In performing this role, he location in Lagos. or she operates under several A breakdown of the census figures influences. These include: owner- shows that the four states selected investor interest; pressure group for this study had the following activities; commercial populations: Abia State 2,881,380; considerations such as advertisers; Kano State 9,401,288; Oyo State laws and regulations; social and 5,580,894 and Lagos State political institutions and the 9,113,605 (National Population audience. In the sports journalism Commission of Nigeria, 2017). sub-field, the two most critical Sampling Frame and Sampling influences are advertisers and the Technique audience. Non-availability of the official

Methods census figures specifically for the The research design for this study cities of Aba, Ibadan and Kano integrates both quantitative and meant that the cities could not be qualitative approaches to data used as frames from which to collection. The specific methods scientifically draw sample sizes for adopted are content analysis, survey the survey of football fans for this and in-depth interview. study. To overcome the problem,

Survey the researcher adopted the random The study was carried out in four stratified sampling technique. major Nigerian cities where football Cohen, Manion and Morrison is very popular: Aba, Kano, Ibadan (2011), explain that this technique and Lagos. The choices of Aba, involves dividing the population Kano and Ibadan as study locations into homogenous groups, each were informed primarily by the group containing subjects with presence of Enyimba International similar characteristics.

Football Club in Aba, Kano Pillars In this study, the researcher Football Club in Kano and Shooting narrowed sampling to Nigerian Stars Sports Club (otherwise known soccer fans that actually go to the as ―3SC‖) in Ibadan. These are three local stadium to watch domestic of the most successful and best football with a logical assumption supported club sides in Nigerian that they also watch the game, either football by virtue of their history domestic or foreign, on television. and records of achievements. The The homogenous characteristics

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 which qualify them as good cases for the study, Complete Sports, was for this study is their love for soccer done at the newspaper‘s library with and their willingness to go out of the help of two research assistants their way to pay an entry or gate fee who were trained on the use of the to watch the game. The researcher coded sheets designed by the deliberately took cases from soccer researcher. Ninety-one editions fans that patronized the local of Complete Sports covering three stadiums because they are typically consecutive months, 1st September passionate and knowledgeable about to 30th November, 2016 were the game and would provide well analyzed. The period of coverage informed responses to the was chosen deliberately to be when questionnaire. both the Nigerian and foreign Sample Size (particularly European) soccer A sample of 2,000 soccer fans was seasons were in session in order to proportionately taken from those give both the domestic and foreign who visited the stadiums on a football content equal chances of typical big local match day. Five being featured in the newspapers. hundred (500) copies of the Content analysis of Supersport questionnaire were distributed in television and Brila FM sports each stadium. A total of 1,878 of the radio were done by analyzing their questionnaires were returned program schedules downloaded completed in the following order: from their respective websites, Aba - 560; Kano - 502; Ibadan - supersport.com and brilafm.net. 407; and Lagos - 409. The Content analysis of dominant media in spots were completesportsnigeria.com was selected for the study. Content done by analyzing the website‘s analysis was conducted on one sport daily newsletter featuring its top newspaper (Complete Sports), one five stories delivered to its over sport radio station (Brila FM), one 25,000 subscribers via email every television sport channel day for the same three-month (SuperSport on DSTV) and one period, 1st September to sport website 30thNovember, 2016.

(completesportsnigeria.com). In- In-depth Interviews depth interviews were also The researcher conducted in-depth conducted with the editor, interviews with the media officers proprietor, general manager or other of the club sides selected for the relevant official in each media. study to gain further insight about

Content Analysis the teams and their supporters. Also, Data collection for the content the following sports journalists were analysis of the newspaper selected interviewed: Dr. Larry Izamoje,

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 executive chairman, Brila FM radio; editor, completesportsnigeria.com Mr. Felix Awogu, general manager, website.

DSTV-Supersport Television; Mr. Findings Dare Esan, editor, Complete Sports Media coverage as influence on newspapers; Mr. Nnamdi Ezekute, audience preference for domestic and foreign soccer

Table 1: Preferred match to watch when favorite domestic and favorite foreign club sides are shown simultaneously on television.

Preference % Domestic club 11.1 Foreign club 88.9 Total 100.0 (n= 1878)

Majority of the respondents (89%) domestic club side. However, most had preference for their foreign club respondents demonstrated a great sides when live football involving deal of patriotism when they had to their favorite domestic and foreign choose between their favorite club club sides were shown side and their national team as simultaneously on television while shown in the next table below. only 11% had preference for their

Table 2: Preference between favorite club side and national team

Preference % Favorite club 38.3 National team 57.7 Undecided 4.0 Total 100.0 (n= 1878)

Responses on Table 2 show that The responses reveal also that the over half of the respondents had respondents had significant support preference for their national team for their national team over their when matches involving their favorite domestic or foreign club favorite club side (domestic or sides. foreign) were shown on television Levels of impact across media simultaneously with that of the types (print, broadcast and national team. However, 38% of the online) on audience preferences respondents still preferred to watch for domestic and foreign soccer their favorite (domestic or foreign) The broadcast media (TV and radio) club side while 4% were undecided. is the platform mostly patronized

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 for soccer content, having 46.8 per third of the audience who use it cent. Newspapers attract about one- more for football content. (31.8).

Table 3: Media platform mostly used for soccer content

Media % Television 34.5 Radio 11.3 Newspapers 31.8 Online 19.9 No response 2.4 Total 100.0 (n= 1878)

Responses on Table 3 show that newspaper, about half (49%) of the overall, about 35% respondents respondents selected foreign soccer found television media as their reports, one quarter (25%) selected most preferable platform for soccer international (i.e. national teams) content. 32% prefer the newspaper soccer reports while only 15% platform, 20% online platform selected local soccer reports. The while 11% prefer the radio platform. responses correspond with the high The indication of this is that number of respondents who television media has contributed the expressed a preference to watch most to the soccer fans preference matches of their favorite foreign for foreign soccer over domestic team over their favorite domestic soccer followed by newspapers, team. online media and then radio. Listenership to soccer reports on Readership of soccer reports in radio Sports newspapers Data confirm that most of the Data show that more than three- respondents (68%) do listen to quarters (80%) of the respondents soccer reports on radio, 27% do not read soccer reports in sport while 5% offer no response. newspapers, 18% do not while 2% Furthermore, about 43% of the offer no response. This sequence respondents indicated that their suggests that newspapers play an favorite football program on the important role as a source of radio was foreign soccer reports, information for soccer fans and that about a quarter (24%) specified it may be influential in determining international soccer reports, while the loyalty and attitude of the soccer less than a quarter (18%) indicated fans toward their favorite teams local soccer as their favorite reports either domestic or foreign. When on the radio. This is in agreement asked to specify their favorite with their choice of favorite soccer section of the soccer reports in the sections in the sports newspaper. It

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 is evidence further of the popularity with the fact that a large number of of foreign soccer reports among the respondents were youths and Nigerian soccer fans. internet access is readily available Use of Internet for soccer reports on their mobile phones. Therefore, Data gathered specify that more we can deduce that the internet now than half of the respondents (53%) plays an influential role in did not read soccer reports on the information dissemination, loyalty internet, 41% used the internet for and attitude of the soccer fans soccer reports while 6% did not toward their favorite team - offer a response. The data also show domestic or foreign. This finding that, despite its relatively young age also indicates that the Nigerian compared to traditional media such soccer fans are dynamic in their as newspaper and radio, internet use choice of media for different types as a source of soccer reports was of soccer content and that media growing among Nigerian fans. This types have an influence on the finding might also be associated consumption patterns of the fans.

Table 4: Categories of news on cover page of sport newspapers

Categories μ σ n Local Soccer stories 3.2955 2.20941 132 Foreign Soccer stories 4.6296 2.10805 135 Stories on Nigerian 1.8732 1.01319 71 Footballers Abroad Other Sports Local Stories 1.0000 .00000 10 Other Sports Foreign 1.0323 .17813 62 Stories Display Adverts 2.0135 1.09160 74 Total 2.9256 2.13679 484

Table 4 shows that foreign soccer abroad (μ=1.87) on the cover page. stories with a mean score of 4.63 Also, other sport foreign stories featured prominently on the cover featured is (μ=1.03) while the least pages of the sport newspapers in feature on the cover is other sports Nigeria during the period under local stories, (μ =1.00). Thus, it can consideration. This is closely be deduced that foreign and local followed by local football stories soccer stories usually feature (μ=3.30), display adverts (μ=2.01) prominently on the cover page of and stories on Nigerian footballers sport newspapers in Nigeria.

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Table 5: Categories of news in inside pages of sport newspapers

Categories μ σ % Local soccer stories 8.0147 4.12218 21 Foreign soccer stories 22.4000 7.78172 21 Stories on Nigerian 2.3953 1.42481 13 footballers abroad Other sports local stories 2.3171 1.00466 13 Other sports foreign stories 1.4857 1.22165 5 Display adverts 2.6727 2.18043 17 Classified adverts 5.228 3.08231 9 Total 8.0406 8.85217 100

Results in Table 5 show that foreign Nigerian footballers abroad football stories with a mean score of (μ=2.40) and other sports local 22.40 is the most prominent in the stories (μ=2.32) also featured fairly interior pages of the sport inside the sport newspapers. The newspapers during the period under results indicate that foreign soccer consideration. However, local stories dominated the inside pages football stories (μ=8.02), classified of the sport newspapers during the adverts (μ=5.22), stories on period under consideration.

Table 6: Categories of photographs

Categories μ σ % Local Soccer photographs 5.8880 5.19649 24 Foreign Soccer photographs 28.1556 10.66929 26 Photos on Nigerian Footballers 2.6711 1.65238 15 Abroad Other Sports Local Photos 1.4000 .75394 4 Other Sport Foreign Photos 2.3594 .89739 12 Display Adverts 5.2346 3.58912 16 Classified Adverts 1.2105 .41885 4 Total 10.3192 12.34281 100

As presented in Table of Nigerian footballers 6, photographs on foreign soccer abroad (μ=2.67), other foreign with a total mean score of 28.16 are sports photographs (μ=2.36) and the major feature of the sport other local sports newspapers in Nigeria during the photographs (μ=1.40) are also period under consideration. Local visible. Thus, it can be inferred that soccer photographs (μ=5.89), foreign soccer photographs feature display adverts (μ =5.24), photos more in Nigerian sports newspapers.

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How club sides managers and more attractive to the fans.‖ (Esan, 2018) media practitioners perceive the influence of the media on While football managers audience preferences for domestic passionately appeal to sports and foreign soccer journalists to reduce the attention The researcher used the outcome of given to foreign football in order to the in-depth interviews with five promote domestic football, the leading sports editors/media sports journalists see forces of proprietors to gain more insight into demand and supply in an the connection between media environment of hype-competition influence and audience preferences rather than patriotism and social for domestic and foreign football. responsibility.

The respondents were unanimous ―It has come to the level of about their influences on their economics now. We have to readers/listeners/viewers. Although consider the bottom line because they admitted that their perception we have bills to pick. Advertisers of audience preference also prefer to associate more with influenced them (editors) in foreign club sides because they want to reach the audience where choosing and giving prominence to they are. Naturally, we in media stories, when asked ―who influences also have to do what will help us the other more: sports journalists or to stay in business and make the audience?‖ all of them chose profit so we provide the content ―sports journalists‖. One of the that the fans and advertisers editors explained graphically: prefer. However, as professional ―I believe that the Nigerian journalists, we recognize our sports media has promoted social responsibilities. We foreign football (soccer) to a therefore have created several level that our audience derives windows to promote local huge gratification from football as well. I can preferring foreign football. Most delightfully say that we are fans want to associate with getting encouraging results from Arsenal, Chelsea instead our audiences in this regard‖ of Kwara United or Lobi Stars. (Izamoje, 2018).

The media started it and the Conclusion and audience got hooked. We now Recommendations have no choice than to sustain It can be deduced from the findings the new passion especially that media coverage has influenced because the quality and audience preference in favor of entertainment value of foreign football is indeed higher and foreign soccer significantly. This alludes to the huge volume of foreign soccer content published

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 and broadcast in the Nigerian categories of the respondents as media. primary content source, majority of An overwhelming majority of the the students and unemployed used respondents who expressed the internet as a secondary source fondness for foreign soccer gave whereas most public and private reasons for their choices (in order sector workers used radio as the of preference) were the quality of secondary source. football, quality of players and Based on findings to this quality of infrastructure which they investigation, the researcher rated higher than what is available recommends as follow: in domestic soccer. On the other 1. Rather than label Nigerian hand, all the media practitioners media offering predominantly interviewed claimed that their foreign soccer content as editorial decisions on domestic and ―imperialist‖ or ―unpatriotic‖, foreign soccer coverage were Nigerian communication influenced primarily by the scholars should accept such demands of their audience. This media as business concerns suggests that audience preference motivated by the urge to satisfy influences media coverage of their audiences so that they can domestic and foreign soccer generate revenue. The media significantly and to a great extent. should therefore be cultivated This study firmly establishes and encouraged to promote the flexibility and independence of domestic football. the audience in making decisions on 2. Managers and publicists of which football content to consume. domestic soccer in Nigeria It also answers the research question should see the comparatively in the affirmative that simultaneous lower patronage of domestic media coverage of domestic and soccer by Nigerian fans as a foreign soccer has a significant challenge and be more creative impact on audience preference. on how to attract and engage the Specific media types impact fans in order to boost match-day significantly on audience preference attendance as well as for domestic and foreign soccer. followership in the media. The Furthermore, the demography of the media officers of the club sides audiences was very much at play in interviewed in this study terms of their preferred media for enumerated the efforts each of soccer consumption. While them has been making to television and newspapers were engage the fans. It is common to all the occupational recommended that these efforts

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should be sustained especially sponsored by state governments the use of social media which who run these clubs on has grown in popularity among shoestring budgets. Club Nigerian soccer fans. managers should attract private 3. Managers of domestic soccer sector funding especially from should also address the reasons big multinational corporations cited by respondents in this operating in Nigeria. The study for their lukewarm federal government can attitude to domestic football. encourage such sponsorship These include corrupt practices with incentives such as tax in all areas by officials rebates and other preferential especially among public considerations. Improved servants (Omojola, 2009; 2011), funding will help retain in the the low quality of organized Nigerian league more players games, low quality who presently seek for better infrastructure and poor contracts abroad, and also refereeing. Improvement in attract foreign players to the these areas will make the local Nigerian league.

league more attractive to fans. 5. Nigerian soccer fans should In particular, poor officiating show greater patriotism in and poor soccer pitches have patronizing the domestic league been a sore point on soccer for a despite its shortcomings. Such long time in the country. The patronage will encourage Nigeria Professional Football greater corporate participation League (NPFL) should end the and attract more funding from curse by insisting on standards. sponsors who want their Incompetent and corrupt advertising and publicity to officiating should be seriously reach the huge football fan base. penalized. Such measures will The resultant cash inflow can be collectively improve the overall used to address the quality of domestic football and shortcomings in the domestic attract greater coverage and game to the benefit of all followership by the media and stakeholders. the audience respectively. 6. The Nigerian Broadcasting 4. Inadequate funding has often Commission (NBC) which is been identified as one of the the government agency that major challenges of domestic regulates electronic media soccer in Nigeria. This is content in Nigeria could because majority of the local introduce additional measures to football club sides are

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support local content, of the world‘s biggest movie specifically domestic football industries. Such protectionist content the way it has done for policies have been used by other Nollywood (Daramola, countries such as England to Hamilton, & Omojola, 2014), attract football fans to the which has turned out to be one stadium.

References Daramola, Y., Hamilton, K & Akinfeleye, (2003). Reflections on Omojola, O. (2014). The the historical, sociological and challenge of subtitling in philosophical foundation and Yoruba Nollywood Movies the merging issues about and Possible Solution. television for national Covenant Journal of development in Nigeria. In R. Communication, 2(2), 46-60. A. Akinfeleye, & Okoye., I.E. Eagleman, A.N. (2008). (eds), Issues in Nigerian Media Investigating agenda-setting History: 1900-2000 AD. and framing in sport Lagos: Malthouse. magazines: An analysis of the Akinfeleye, R.A., & Amobi, I.T. coverage of major league (2011). Nollywood video films baseball players from 2000 as a medium for reconstructing through 2007. (PhD. thesis, the African cultural identity. Indiana Unilag Communication University).http://www.gradwo Review, 5(1), 1-23. rks.umi.com/33/19/3319879.ht Alao, Mumini (2018). ‗My ml. Retrieved January, 2017. Experiences in Sports Esan, D. (2018). Interview with the Publishing: Between researcher (FGD pilot). Professionalism and Folayan, B.J. (2016). Environmental Can Nollywood save Nigerian Pressures‘. Lecture delivered at children from an impending the Unilag Alumni Lecture mass society? Covenant 1984-1987 Set Reunion, Journal of Communication, Department of Mass 3(1), 1-20. Communication, University of Izamoje, L. (2018). Interview with Lagos, July 12, 2018 the researcher (FGD pilot). Blair, M.H. (1988). An empirical Kischefsky, J. (2011). Analysis of investigation in advertising ESPN and the Agenda Setting wear-in and wear-out. Journal Theory. (Master‘s of of Advertising Research, 27, Communication and 45-50.

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Leadership Dissertation, research. New Gonzaga University). York: Routledge. Klapper, Joseph T (1960). The McCombs, M.E., Maxwell E. & effects of Shaw, D. L. (1972). The mass communication. agenda setting function of Glencoe, Illinois: The Free mass media. Public Opinion Press. Quarterly, 176-187. Knoppers, A., and Elling, A. Meraz, S. (2008) The blogosphere's (2004) We do not engage in gender gap: Differences in promotional journalism: visibility, popularity, and Discursive strategies used by authority. In P. Poindexter (ed. sport journalists to describe the ). Women, men, and selection process. International news. New York: Routledge. Review for the Sociology of Morah, N.D., & Omojola, O. Sport. 39 (1). 57-73. (2014). Digital large screens as Lewin, Kurt. (1947). Frontiers in a community Medium: group dynamics. Interactivity and community Group Relations, 1(2), 143- relevance in Focus. In 153 A. Ojebode (ed.), Community Lowery, S.A. & De Fleur, M.L. media for development and (1988). Milestones in mass participation: Experiences, communication research: thoughts and forethoughts. Media effects (2nded.). New Ibadan: John Archers Limited, York, NY: Longman. pp.385-402. McCombs, M. (2005). A look at National Population Commission agenda-setting: past, present (2017). Retrieved from and future. Journalism Studies, http://www.population.gov.ng/ 6 (4),543-557. index.php/state-population. McCombs, M.E., and Shaw, D.L. Okorie, N., Loto, G. & Omojola, O. (1993). The evolution of (2018). Blogging, civic agenda-setting research: engagement, and coverage of Twenty-five years in the political conflict in Nigeria: A marketplace of ideas. Journal study of nairaland.com. of Communication, 43(2), 58- Kasetsart Journal of Social 67. Sciences, 39(2), 291-298 (open McCombs, M.E., & Reynolds, A. access: (2009). How the news shapes https://www.sciencedirect.com our civic agenda. In J. Bryant /science/article/pii/S24523151 & M.B. Oliver (Eds.). Media 18301607). effects: Advances in theory and

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Odiboh, O., Omojola, O., Ekanem, fractured paradigm. Journal of T. and Oresanya, T. (2017). Communication, 23, 51-58. Non-governmental Pechmann, C. (2001). A comparison Organizations in the Eyes of of health communication Newspapers in Nigeria: 2013- models: Risk learning versus 2016. Covenant Journal of stereotype learning. Media Communication, 4(1), 66-92. Psychology, 3, 189-210. Ogunade, D. (1988). The gatekeeper Rogers, E.M., Dearing, concept: a literature J.W.& Bregman, D. review. Unilag Communicatio (1993). The anatomy of n Review, 3(1), 80-92. agenda-setting research. Omojola, O. (2011). Mass Media Journal of Interest and Corruption in Communication, 43(2), 68-84. Nigeria. Unilag Shoemaker, P. and Reese, S. Communication Review, 4 (2), (1991). Mediating the 21-39. message: theories of influence Omojola, O. (2009). English- on mass media content. oriented ICTs and ethnic New York: Longman. language survival strategies in Stacks, D.W. and Salwen, M.B. Africa. Global Media Journal, (eds.). (2009). An integrated 3(1), 33-45. approach to communication Onwumechili, C. (2009). Nigeria, theory and research. New football, and the return of York: Routledge. Lord Lugard. International Virtual Knowledge Centre to End Journal of Sport Violence Against Women and Communication, 2, 451 – 465. Girls (2017). Types of Media Pechmann, C. and Entman, Coverage. Retrieved from R.M. (2012). Framing: http://www.endvawnow.org/en Towards classification of a /articles/1245-types-of-media- coverage.html?next=1246.

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An Open Access Journal, Available Online

Post-truth, the Print Media and Political Messages in Ghana

Wincharles Coker, Ph.D and Francis Afriyie

Department of Communication Studies University of Cape Coast, Ghana mail: [email protected]

Abstract: Post-truth is a regular component of electioneering campaigns and political discussions among politicians in sub-Saharan Africa. This regularity and dearth of literature have made the concept attractive to researchers who are interested in exploring its intricacies. This article examines the post truth strategies adopted by Ghanaian politicians of the two leading parties in their politically aligned newspapers -The Daily Statesman and The Enquirer. Three strategies were detected, namely kairos, disinformation/misinformation and strategic transmission of lies. By strengthening their gatekeeping performance through close examination and vetting of political statements before publishing them, newspaper editors stand the chance of moderating post truth politics and its attendant notoriety on the political scene of Ghana. Keywords: Post-truth, politics, propaganda, framing, media, strategy, Ghana.

Introduction to characterize the blatant In 2016 the Oxford Dictionary dishonesty and cynicism of political entered the term ―post-truth‖ as the campaigns associated with Brexit Word-of-the-Year. It was first used (Lockie, 2017). Post-truth describes

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 a political culture in which political decision making (Calcut, 2016). discourse is framed largely by Politicians capitalize on people‘s appeals to emotions disconnected inability to recognize post-truth to from the details of policy (Calcut, sway the electorate‘s opinion about 2016; Higgins, 2016). It thrives on politically risky issues of national the repeated assertion of taking interest in order to gain political points to which factual rebuttals are points and further their parochial ignored in order to pave way for lies interest. Post-truth politicians do not instead of facts. It is a technique completely avoid or eschew the politicians use to water down very truth but then, they intentionally tilt sensitive issues which are in the or twist the obvious and public gallery that everybody is manufacture their own evidence aware of in order to discredit the such that it would ignite the factual argument made by the emotions and beliefs of the opposition. In their quest to gain electorate. Post-truth politics political power, politicians therefore depicts how politicians try intentionally bend or ‗twist‘ the to be economical with the truth so truth to win political points or gain that whatever they say about the advantage over their opponents. issues in controversy would be

The idea of lies and relegation of consistent with people‘s already facts in post-truth politics makes it held beliefs and emotions. Being an seem like a form of propaganda. emerging political escape to However, there is a thin line winning power, it is likened to between the two concepts. propaganda that thrives on lies and Propaganda is simply the it is visible in content published by suppression and distortion of facts professional reporters and citizen to design a message to persuade its journalists (Okorie et al., 2018; Adeyemi et al., 2016). intended audience to think and behave in a certain manner. To Rationale and Significance of the Baran and Davis (2012:76), it Study involves the no-holds-barred use of In this study, we seek to communication to propagate demonstrate that post-truth politics, specific beliefs and expectations. as it pertains in other parts of the

On the other hand, post-truth is world, is not different from making unsubstantiated assertions Ghanaian politics. We do so by and manufacturing evidence that exploring communication strategies will be consistent with people‘s Ghanaian politicians employ to emotions, beliefs and values in ‗twist‘ or misrepresent the truth, order to drive public policy and focusing on the newspapers of the two leading political parties in the

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 country, viz. pro-New Patriotic Congress (NDC). He notes that Party‘s (NPP) The Daily Statesman invectives are more emotionally and pro-National Democratic laden and considered inappropriate Congress‘s (NDC) The Enquirer. and embarrassing, purposely to

The present study is of importance offend the addressee(s) or targeted to researchers who have interest in group. In invectives, the speaker rhetoric, politics and/or says something that is painful to the communication by focusing their addressee and thus, offends him. attention to the new trend of politics Using Critical Discourse Analysis in the world (Odiboh, et al. 2017; (CDA) as a framework, he Omojola, & Yartey, 2016). This is examined ten excerpts of political because it seeks to fill a huge gap in invectives drawn from various the political rhetoric, political Ghanaian newspapers, laying communication and media studies in emphasis on the language, style and Africa as much attention has not the social constructs of the text. He been given to this area. The research argues that the effect of the rhetoric is without doubt useful for of invectives is that the addressee is attempting to establish clear demeaned, lowered in status and distinctions between post-truth and considered as empty. He again other related concepts such as argues that invectives are used as propaganda, deception, lies and offensive tools to threaten truth in the study of politics. addressees.

Review of Related Studies Ofori (2016) agrees with Agyekum Current studies on the language of that politicians, instead of Ghanaian politics in the media are presenting the public with absolute critical in focus. While some have truth, rain insults on their opponents examined speech acts such as in order to gain political points or invectives and insults used by advantage over their opponents. politicians, others have sought to Like Agyekum, Ofori (2016) draws explore the notion of indirectness on CDA in examining the kinds of and vagueness among politicians in intertextuality used in the Ghana. Agyekum (2004) analyzed representation of insults in pro-New the use of invective language in Patriotic Party (NPP) and pro- modern Ghanaian politics with National Democratic Congress focus on the public speeches of the newspapers in Ghana. With the aid flagbearers of the two leading of Fairclough‘s discourse-as- political parties in the country, discursive-practice (Fairclough, namely the New Patriotic Party 2003) and van Dijk‘s (1998) (NPP) and the National Democratic concept of ideological square, he

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 examined 69 news articles in both his approach to the study was pro-NPP and pro-NDC newspapers, reliable. which he sampled from between An earlier work on the nature of 2012 to 2014. The newspapers are indirectness in Ghanaian political Daily Guide, The New Statesman, discourse by Obeng (1997) fairly and The Chronicle constituting the supports the observations of Ofori pro-NPP newspapers, while The (2016). The study of Obeng sought Informer, The Palaver, The Al-Hajj, to describe how politicians, in Enquirer, Radio Gold online dealing with potential face- constitute the pro-NDC newspapers. threatening acts or politically risky In his findings, the use of direct, topics, avoid the obvious and strategic and indirect quotations to communicate indirectly in order to report insults and voices of the protect and further their own careers people takes center stage as these to gain both political and are the variables that, according to interactional advantage over their Ofori (2016), make a news item to political opponents. He be considered as newsworthy. He demonstrates that indirection further explains that the various employed by politicians relies on insults are represented along the line metaphors, proverbs, of ‗Us’ vs ‗Them’ dichotomy, in circumlocution, innuendo, and which the NPP/NDC papers present evasion. For Obeng (1997), themselves in positive terms, and politicians avoid candid or obvious the opposition in negative terms. statements and choose to Again, he argues that the communicate indirectly, especially polarization of how media when the topic of the discourse institutions emphasize the positive communicates difficulty. He actions of in-group members, and showed that political actors in de-emphasize its negative actions on Ghana tend to communicate in one hand, as well as de-emphasize vague ways in order to protect, the positive actions of the out- further their own careers and gain group. Ofori (2016) further both political and interactional observed that positive self- advantage over their competitors. presentation and negative other- He pointed out that indirectness is presentation are manifested in the more pervasive in developing representation of insults in NPP and democracies than developed NDC papers. Pro-NPP papers, the democracies, and went further to author emphasized, directly quoted note that while evasion is the the voices and insults of non- highest employed indirectness politicians targeted at the out-group. strategy by western politicians, the Ofori‘s research was detailed and

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 metaphor and proverb are the person, event, or issue‖ (Kaid, 2009: highest indirectness strategies 18). Framing could therefore be employed by politicians in Ghana. seen as the central organizing idea

Theoretical Framework for content that provides context The study is underpinned by the through a series of process such as framing theory, within the specific selection, emphasis, exclusion and context of political economy. The elaboration (Zauder, 2007). In other reason for the choice of the theory is words, the media frame issues to that the media, especially control public opinion about the newspapers, frame stories by reality of our everyday life. shaping them in a way that would Sometimes, public opinions have to serve their interest just as post-truth be regulated in order to champion a politicians shape facts in order to particular course that is of national serve their parochial interests. The interest (Lippmann, 1922). theory is useful for understanding Techniques of framing news are how politicians try to make sense of multiple. These include headlines, everyday life by framing stories in subheads, photos, photo caption, way that would appeal to the leads, source selection, quotes emotions of the sympathizers of a selection, logos, statistical and particular political party. Framing charts and concluding statements theory is also relevant because it has (Tankard, 2001). Fairhurst and Sarr the potential to influence public (1996), for example, identify the opinion about certain controversial following as five basic framing issues or occurrences. The theory techniques: was first developed by the 1. Metaphor: To frame a sociologist Ervin Goffman in 1974 conceptual idea through to ―provide a systematic account of comparison to something else. how we use expectations to make 2. Stories: To frame a topic via sense of everyday life situation and narrative in a vivid and people in them‖ (Baran & Davis, memorable way. 2012:330). To this extent, framing 3. Slogan, jargon, and catchphrase: may be considered as ―selecting To frame an object with a perceived reality and make them catchy phrase to make it more more salient in a communicating memorable and relatable. text‖ (Hanggli, 2010: 145), or more 4. Spin: To present a concept in precisely the presentation of such a way as to convey a information to ― an audience and valuable judgment that might be how the selection of one method or an inherent bias by definition. content of presentation over another affects how an audience perceives a

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5. Contrast: To describe an object, These include attempts to promote person, etc. in terms of a less democracy and liberalism whilst visible comparison. entrenching systems favoring those Framing is quite different from in elevated positions of power and agenda setting. While agenda setting wealth (McChesney, 2004). These tells the audience what to discuss individuals are mostly located and what to think about, framing within the realms of politics and goes further by showing the they exercise this influence over the audience how to think about those media to their own advantage. They issues (Scheufele, 1999). influence the media to project issues

Framing theory is useful in such that would appeal to the addressing how economic emotions of their followers. constraints limit the way stories are Shoemaker and Mayfield (1987) published in the media. This theory observed that ideologies of people investigates the means of production who finance the media determine by looking at how economic media content. When the power elite institutions sponsor the media to completely finance the media, news promote their interest and agenda content should reflect the ideas and (Baran and Davis, 2012). This raises the values of the elites. When a the important question of ownership newspaper receives financing or and financial support as having a funding from politicians or political political or ulterior motive for either parties, its content is likely to be running the true picture a particular influence by those politicians. story in the media or withholding Method and Data some facts from its production such Data collection was limited to two that it would appeal to the emotions topical issues published by pro-NPP of a particular group of people, Daily Statesman, pro-NPP and The through gatekeepers such as editors. Enquirer newspapers: the ―Montie 3

The funding model of a media saga‖ and the ―restoration of nursing institution is of primary significance training allowances‖. Data were st st in the potential outcome of content collected from 1 July to 31 from that institution. This is a key December 2016 since this period issue raised by political economy happened to be the time when these media theorists and it identifies the topical issues trended. Even though influence of economic and there were other political issues politically motivated subversions published in these newspapers, the and manipulations of the media emphasis in this article, however, is (Herman & Chomsky, 2002; on these two sensitive issues which Bennet, 2003; McChesney, 2004). were captured in the political columns of the newspapers. Three

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 news articles, one on each topic of were used by Ghanaian politicians the subject matter, were to engage in post-truth in the pro- conveniently sampled from the NPP The Statesman and pro-NDC political column of each newspaper. The Enquirer newspapers, viz. (a)

Data therefore comprised two kairos, (b) misinformation and disinformation and (c) outright lies. articles from Daily Statesman and one from Enquirer. To get the three Kairos: The enabling environment news articles on the two politically Our analysis revealed that the sensitive matters namely the newspapers provided a kairotic ―Montie 3 pardon‖ and the moment or an enabling environment ―restoration of the nursing trainee for politicians to engage in post- allowance‖ in the newspapers, ten truth politics. The Statesman (10) articles published within the newspaper, for example, on August last quarter of the year 2016 (from 24, 2016 published a story on the October 2016 to December 2016) of ―Montie 3‖ saga, a trio that both newspapers were conveniently threatened to cause mayhem to the sampled. A convenience sample is judiciary, with the headline ―PPP, motivated by analytical interest in PNC condemn Mahama for granting an available body of texts that is pardon to the Montie 3‖. This story known not to include all texts in a presented an opportune moment to population that the analyst is politicians to engage in unbridled concerned with. Such a sample is post-truth in the heat of the 2016 convenient in the sense that the electioneering process as it analyst does not care to make an presented the then President, John effort or find it too difficult to Mahama as backing the trio, and sample from that population therefore calling the bluff of the (Krippendorf, 2004). judiciary. The excerpt below Discussion illustrates how the opposition party, Analysis of the data showed three the NPP, framed the developing basic communication strategies story.

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Excerpt 1

From Excerpt 1, it could be seen headline that appealed to the that the story was reported in emotions and sentiments of the response to the former President electorate without necessarily Mahama‘s decision to free the providing any factual evidence to ―Montie 3‖ through a presidential support it. The headline of the news pardon. The president remitted the article is an important part of every remaining prison sentence on the news story because often the Montie trio, namely Salifu Maase success of a particular story is (alias Mugabe), Alistair Nelson and highly dependent on its headline. It Ako Gunn. The leaders of the afore- is the headline that ushers a reader mentioned political parties wanted to the entire story (Bednarek & to register their displeasure to the Caple, 2012). This implies that if an president‘s decision and also to let editor of a newspaper frames a their party supporters know that the headline in a manner that gives a decision of the president was not particular party an advantage over right and was done in bad faith, and the others then such a newspaper this was done through the Statesman paves the way for post-truth to newspaper. The newspaper provided ferment. The next excerpt illustrates the enabling environment for the how the same story was framed by politicians to engage in post-truth the pro-NDC The Enquirer politics by giving the story a newspaper on 24th August, 2016.

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Excerpt 2

The story was made out of an remission to the ―Montie 3‖ through opinion of Mr. Solomon Yaw a presidential pardon, a decision Nkrumah, the National which attracted a lot of Communication Officer of the condemnation from some section of National Democratic Congress Ghanaians as an attempt to (NDC) with respect to the former undermine our judicial system as president‘s decision to pardon the institution. As a pro-NDC ‗Montie 3‘. The headline of the newspaper, the paper framed the story has been framed in a manner headline such that it would ignite that provides an enabling emotions and sentiments of NDC environment for politicians to supporters especially those who engage in post-truth. The headline signed a petition for the former was written by the editor of the president to activate his pardon newspaper and not the politicians. power under Article 72 of the 1992 Thus once a politician witnesses that constitution to grant remission to the his statement or comment has trio. This gives credence to the attracted a headline that has the political economy theory which tendency to appeal to emotions, he states that those who finance media or she will continue to peddle institutions can limit or bias the way inaccurate information .The issues or stories are published in the sentence ―Prez shows class‖ as the media. headline of the story suggests that The following analysis relates to the former President Mahama did restoration of nursing trainees‘ massively well by granting allowance, which became topical in

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 the build-up of the 2016 presidential its July 25, 2016 edition on page 4 polls. It was considered as one of with the headline ―Angry student the key policies that could nurses reject Mahama‘s vote-buying determine who won the polls. The allowance‖. Daily Statesman run a story on it in

Excerpt 3

The story was published with sympathizers of the NPP. The respect to a decision made by the headline clearly indicates that the leadership of the Concerned Student former president John Mahama Nurses of Ghana for its members to wanted to use the allowance to bribe reject the monthly allowance. From the nursing students for their votes Excerpt 3 above, it can be seen that since the 2016 general election was how the headline is framed provides fast approaching at that time. The an enabling environment for post- headline supports Lockie (2016) truth to thrive. This is because the views that post-truth politicians newspaper has framed the headline manufacture their own fact to meet in a manner that appeals to the their political needs. emotions and sentiments of the

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Excerpt 4

It can be seen from excerpt 4 that By this singular decision, the the newspaper has quoted the president has sought to establish a politician verbatim and it is another precedent that suggests that way by which the media provide the individuals with sympathy to the enabling environment for post-truth NDC convicted of crimes against to thrive. When politicians realize the state are more deserving of his that the media just pick up whatever mercy than any ordinary Ghana‖. they say without doing any thorough This was an attempt to suppress the investigation before they publish it truth and the veracity of the issue in for the public to consume, they will controversy and it was done to continue to paint misleading offend the emotions and sentiments pictures about politically sensitive of those who do not sympathize issues and this is the genesis of post- with the president and his party. It is truth politics. Mr. Atik Mohamed, the responsibility of the media to who is the General Secretary of the scrutinize and filter claims made by People‘s National Convention, is politicians in order to ascertain the quoted in the news article saying: veracity or otherwise before they get ―To this end, we find the decision to the public by activating their by the president to grant remission gatekeeping role. So, if the media to this Montie trio reprehensible, as present whatever politicians say and it clearly undermines our collective even quote them verbatim without efforts at deepening democracy and scrutinizing it, which provides an promoting national cohesion. avenue for post-truth to thrive.

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Excerpt 5

Also, it is seen in excerpt 5 that the present issues in manner that general secretary was quoted in the appeals to the emotions and same story saying ―It is our view sentiments of their sympathizers also that, the president‘s decision behave in a way they (politicians) further provides insurance for all his want them to and this gives sympathizers and NDC supporters credence to the framing theory in general who wish to foment which is used to underpin the study. trouble in this year‘s election to do Misinformation and Disinformation so with impunity knowing pretty According to Nyhan and Reifler well that the president will be there (2015), false or inaccurate to guarantee their freedom‖. This is information may continue to a clear manifestation of how the influence beliefs and attitudes even media provide the avenue for after being debunked if it is not politicians to engage in post-truth replaced with an alternative causal politics. By that statement the explanation. When citizens are general secretary portrayed the frequently misinformed about a former president as being political issue or candidate, post- insensitive to the freedom of truth politics will emerge. In the Ghanaians who do not support his analysis of the content we found out party. He further portrayed that the that the newspaper presented former president‘s decision was to inaccurate information about the incite his party supporters to cause former president‘s decision to chaos and disturbances in last year‘s pardon the ‗Montie trio‘ and this election but failed to provide gave birth to post-truth politics. This evidence to justify it. Post-truth was an attempt to manipulate the politicians eschew the truth and truth of the matter as to whether or

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 not the former president‘s decision 2016 made a story on the ―Montie was right. The Statesman 3‖ saga with the headline ―PPP, newspaper which is pro-New PNC condemn Mahama for granting Patriotic Party paper on August 24, pardon to the Montie 3.‖

Excerpt 6

Excerpt 6, which can be found on how it is presented in the newspaper paragraph six of the news story saying that they are there simply featured in the August 24th, 2016 because they are not sympathizers edition of the Statesman with the of the NDC cannot be treated as the headline ―PPP, PNC condemn accurate representation of such Mahama for granting pardon to information. It was meant to smear Montie 3‖, shows visibly the the former president and his NDC presentation of misinformation. The administration. reason being that the paragraph Another news story that is also portrays there are so many innocent featured in the 25th July, 2016 Ghanaians who are serving prison edition of the Statesman with the sentences simply because they are headline ―Angry student nurses not sympathizers of the National reject Mahama‘s vote-buying Democratic Congress (NDC). Even allowance‖ (Excerpt 7) though there might be some innocent prisoners in Ghanaian jails,

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Excerpt 7

The ninth paragraph of the news misinformation, they (politicians) story says, ―The ripple effects were will capitalize on it and peddle any enormous and massive to the extent information that they think will that, student who could not cope serve their interest. with the situation dropped out of Strategic Transmission of Lies school, while those who wished to Lying is to make an untrue or false enroll in the nursing training statement about something. institutions had their dreams According to Bok (1999 as cited in quashed‖. This is a clear indication Fleming and Zyglidopoulos, 2016), of misinformation and it paints a people lie to others when they misleading picture to the public ―communicate messages meant to especially those who do not mislead them, meant to make sympathize with the former believe what we ourselves do not president. It portrayed him as being believe‖ (Bok, 1999: 13). In the so heartless to Ghanaians who want context of politics, post-truth to be trained as nurses. Scrapping politicians manufacture their own the allowance resulted in evidence in order to further their exponential growth in enrollment political agenda and parochial figures in nursing trainee interest. The Statesman reported a institutions. So, presenting the story on the restoration of the reverse in the story and how it has nursing trainee allowance with the been framed will make the public headline ―Angry student nurses believe that the decision resulted in reject Mahama‘s vote-buying a decrease in enrollment in nursing allowance‖ as is illustrated in trainee institution across the Excerpt 8. country. When politicians realize that newspapers present

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Excerpt 8

This story reported the response of There was no statistical proof of an the student leadership of nursing estimated number of students who training institution across the were dropped out of school as a country. An element of lies can be result of the allowance withdrawal. seen from Excerpt 8 which is the This was an attempt to twist the ninth paragraph of story in the truth such that it will perfectly serve aforementioned edition of The Daily the interest of the opposition party, Statesman. It is considered a lie on the NPP. the grounds that the story failed to Another lie is found in the 24th provide evidence to substantiate the August, 2016 edition of the assertion that indeed students were Enquirer which is pro-National dropped out of school when the Democratic Congress (NDC) allowance was scrapped just as post- newspaper and the story is truth politicians withheld facts to headlined ―Prez shows class‖. Here water down issues that have the is an example in Excerpt 9. tendency to cause political tragedy.

Excerpt 9

In the sixteenth paragraph of the environment for post-truth to thrive. aforementioned publication, Mr. Analysis of the data set also Solomon Nkansah, communication revealed that the two Ghanaian officer of the governing party, The newspapers circulated National Democratic Congress said misinformation to the public ―The NPP also undermined the because of the media‘s unbalanced independent views of the of the gatekeeping system, made manifest Supreme Court when it capriciously in their inability to scrutinize the increased the number on the claims made by post-truth Supreme Court [bench] in 2002 to politicians with respect to politically overturn a verdict involving lawyer sensitive issues. Third, the study Tsatsu Tsikata‖ The decision to add also showed that The Daily a number to the supreme court Statesman and The Enquirer bench is constitutional. Hence for strategically disseminated lies aimed him to say that it undermines the at diverting attention from the truth. independence of the court is a lie. False information was spread by The media are supposed to subject these newspapers about the politicians‘ claims to scrutiny to opposition to discredit it. ascertain the truth before they are The study revealed the print media transmitted as news. Once the media created the enabling environment refuse to examine politicians‘ for post-truth to thrive in the statements before publication, it country. They allowed politicians to gives politicians insurance to peddle peddle misinformation and lies falsehood provided it will give them which paved the way for post-truth political advantage and this gives to perpetuate in the country. One rise to post-truth politics. implication of this is that print Conclusion media in Ghana should strengthen The study set out to analyze how the its gatekeeping role in order to Ghanaian print media engaged in subject political claims to scrutiny post-truth politics, using content before they are published. Not doing analyses from the Daily Statesman so could have serious implication in and Enquirer - the pro-New terms of conflicts and even Patriotic Party and the National terrorism (Morah & Omojola, Democratic Congress newspapers 2011). respectively. The study revealed Future researchers should also three basic communication consider analyzing the content of strategies implemented by Ghanaian radio morning show programs that politicians to engage in post-truth in deal with politically risky issues and the two newspapers. We observed investigate the condition under that the media created a kairotic which politicians try to be moment, or an enabling

Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018 economical with the truth if telling and actuality in order to make the absolute truth will make them them objective (Omojola, 2008). lose grounds politically. Also, to 3. Further research is required into confirm that indeed the media create the analysis of the content of the enabling environment for radio morning show programs politicians to engage in post-truth, that deal with politically risky further studies should consider issues to examine conditions analyzing the content of information under which politicians try to be politicians post on social media economical with the truth if platforms such as Twitter, Facebook telling the absolute truth will and Instagram with respect to make them lose politically. politically risky issues and examine 4. It is also important for if they exhibit some elements of researchers to explore the post-truth. political economy of the media

Recommendations in sub-Saharan African The following summarizes our countries concerning what recommendations: factors create the enabling 1. The print media in Ghana, and environment for politicians to possibly in sub-Saharan African engage in post-truth, nations, should strengthen their 5. There also is the need to study gatekeeping role in order to the phenomenon of post-truth monitor political claims to on social media. Specifically, before they are published. studies are needed to analyze 2. Stories published by media the various strategies used by houses should be shaped by politicians to engage in post- such news values as accuracy truth on various social platforms.

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Bennett, W. L. (2003). New media Higgins, K. (2016). Post-truth: a power. Contesting media guide for the perplexed. power, 17-37. Nature, 540 (7631), 9-9. Calcutt, A. (2016). The surprising Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content origins of ‗post-truth‘ – And analysis: An introduction to how it was spawned by the its methodology. Sage. Liberal Left‘, The Kumar, D. (2012). Media, war and Conversation, 18 November. propaganda: strategies of Retrieved from information management http://theconversation.com/t during the 2003 Iraq war. he-surprising-origins-of-post- Communication and truth-and-how-it-was- Critical/Cultural Studies, spawned-by-the-liberal-left- 3(1), 48-69 68929. Lecheler, S., & De Vreese, C. Chomsky, N. & Herman, E. (2002). (2011). Getting real: The A propaganda model. duration of framing effects. Manufacturing consent: The Journal of Communication, political economy of the mass 61(5), 959-983. media. (2nd ed). New York: Lippman, W. (1922). Public Pantheon Books. opinion: The formation of Feng, V. W., & Hirst, G. (2012, men’s attitude. New York: July). Text-level discourse Harcourt, Brace and parsing with rich linguistic Company. features. In Proceedings of the Lockie, S. (2017). Post-truth politics 50th Annual Meeting of the and the social sciences. Association for Environmental Sociology, Computational Linguistics: 3(1), 1-5. Long Papers- 1 (pp. 60-68). McChesney, R. D. (2004). The Association for problem of the media: US Computational Linguistics. communication politics in the Fleming, P. & Zyglidopoulos, S. C. twenty-first century. NYU (2008). The escalation of Press. deception in organizations. Nyhan, B., and Reifler, J. (2015). Journal of Business Ethics, The effect of fact‐checking on 81(4), 837-850. elites: A field experiment on Goffman, E. (1974). Frame US state legislators. American analysis: An essay on the Journal of Political Science, organization of experience. 59(3), 628-640. Harvard University Press. Morah, N.D. & Omojola, O. (2011). Nigeria, Media and Economic

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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal, Available Online

Twitter and Election Campaigns: Measuring Usage in Nigeria’s 2015 Presidential Election

1Nkiru Comfort Ezeh Ph.D. & 2Augustine Godwin Mboso Ph.D.

1Department of Mass Communication Madonna University, Okija, Nigeria 2National Open University of Nigeria, Study Centre, Uyo, Nigeria. mail:[email protected] mail:[email protected]

Abstract: This study put the effectiveness of Twitter on the radar in Southeast Nigeria with regard to the 2015 presidential electioneering campaigns of the two leading candidates. The need existed to understand if the online platform used by the incumbent President Goodluck Jonathan of the Peoples‘ Democratic Party (PDP) and challenger Muhammadu Buhari of the All Progressive Congress (APC), as part of a complimentary media strategy, was effective in shaping voter behaviour in that part of the country. Data generated from 200 respondents showed that although Twitter provided the information needed via voters‘ interaction with political candidates, it did not significantly alter voter interest nor affect voting decision. Voters could not recall their use of Twitter as a factor in casting their ballot owing to post election time lapse.

Keywords: Presidential election, Twitter, campaign, social networking, voters, southeast Nigeria.

Introduction 2003, p. 82). The online interactive Twitter‘s relevance in politics can option on the platform makes be seen in its ability to make the presidential campaigns especially politician connect with the more notable, easier and faster electorate through text, audio or (Owen and Davis, 2008) compared video without the gatekeeping to other campaigns. This interference of the journalist. observation about Twitter as a New Candidates and their campaigns can Media communication channel gauge reactions to their messages in prompted this investigation on the real time. Voters can easily share extent to which the relatively new their standpoints while politicians channel, used complementarily to can track and respond to voters' the conventional ones, influenced evolving views in the course of the voter interest in the 2015 campaign (Kapko, 2016). Twitter presidential elections campaign in helps voters understand political Nigeria. issues as they emerge. Voters use Conversely, some scholars (Bentley the Twitter platform via the Internet College, 2006; Wojcieszak and to read political news, share political Muntz, 2009; Bushey, 2010; Kapok, knowledge through information 2016) have argued that though exchange and obtain responses that Twitter makes political discourse enable them situate their more accessible, the 140-character participation in politics. Twitter is limit makes it difficult or impossible not new to presidential for campaigners to share detailed electioneering campaigns around the policy proposals on the platform, world. The 2015 presidential thereby preventing an in-depth election in Nigeria enabled us to campaign discourse – an action that ascertain if the use of Twitter did can limit awareness (Oresanya, et influence voter-behaviour. al., 2017) This they argue makes it

Writers (Palser, 2007; Darly, 2008; difficult for people to get a greater Pal & Gonawela, 2017) confirm that understanding of the candidates' Twitter is a source of political news cornerstone ideas. Among these as it provides new opportunities for scholars, Kopek particularly notes unmediated dialogue between that social media outlets like Twitter candidates and voters, and when the are popular for publishing ensuing messages are accepted by contentious political conversations these voters, they offer a powerful which fuel widespread polarization form of endorsement. The result is and partisan animosity, as the that voters‘ access to information debates at issue turn off more people increases, leading to ―a revitalized than they attract. These negative democracy, characterized by a more compliments are further proof that active informed citizenry‖ (Levin, Twitter should be investigated to

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 determine its relevance to a nation with regard to how it contributed to during election periods. vote-wiseness. The foregoing Statement of the Problem assertions have been problematized How to provide credible and into specific objectives and research relevant online information to questions as stated below. influence voting decisions is a hot Objectives of the Study topic among scholars and political  To determine the extent to which observers of Nigeria‘s political candidates in Nigeria‘s 2015 space. Which platform should be presidential candidates utilized deployed: Is it Twitter, Facebook, Twitter in their electioneering WhatsApp or the other one, to campaigns to induce voter stimulate voters‘ decision and participation. participation toward a candidate?  To ascertain the relationship Voters need authentic between the political information communication channels to access provided by Twitter during the the information that could provide campaigns and citizens‘ voting them with comparative narratives decision during the 2015 necessary to encourage partisan election. considerations. This paper zeros in  To ascertain voters‘ recall of on Twitter and the way it shaped political information about voters‘ decision in Nigeria‘s 2015 Nigeria‘s 2015 presidential presidential election which had two candidates on Twitter and its main candidates – the incumbent influence on voter behaviour. Goodluck Jonathan of the PDP and Research Questions the main challenger - Mohammadu Buhari of the APC.  To what extent did 2015 presidential candidate in Nigeria An effective political utilize Twitter in their election communication medium should be campaigns to induce voter capable of providing information participation? that can guarantee a well-informed  What is the relationship between citizenry, competent to participate in the relevance of political governance (Sawant, 2000). information provided by Twitter Political decisions emerge from during the 2015 presidential credible and adequate information election campaigns and decision about policies, programmes and making by voters? activities which the electorate  What is the level of voters‘ recall requires to vote wisely. The of political information on drawbacks of Twitter as asserted by Twitter about presidential Kopek and co-critics made it imperative to study the platform

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

candidates and its influence on Literature Review voter behaviour? Twitter Community

Significance of the Study Twitter, sometimes described as the Social media is an evolving area of SMS of the Internet (D‘Monteis study in communication, especially 2019), is basically a website as it relates to political operated by an organization - communication. We should be able Twitter Inc. A technology to tell if the platform enhanced entrepreneur Jack Dorsey started the democracy and disparaged it. The company in March 2006 and 2015 presidential election in Nigeria launched the platform in July of the provided that opportunity to same year. Twitter offers social determine if the political networking and microblogging information Nigerians received services, enabling its users to send through Twitter influenced their and read messages called tweets, voting decisions. This is especially which are text-based posts of up to timely as Nigeria has scheduled 140 characters, displayed on the another presidential election for the user's profile page. Tweets are first quarter of 2019. publicly visible by default, though

The study is beneficial to political senders can restrict message campaigners, desirous of reaching a delivery to just their followers. larger number of information Users may subscribe to or ―follow‖ seekers, outside the realms of the other users' tweets (Stone 2009). As conventional media. It would a social network, Twitter operates explain how Twitter can be the followership principle. When extensively used to propagate you choose to follow another needed information that can lead to Twitter user, the user's tweets the expected change in attitude, appear in reverse chronological opinions and political behaviour. order on your main Twitter page. It The study explains the efficacy of allows users the ability to update the Twitter as a veritable interactive their profile via text messaging or communication tool that can by some apps meant for that purpose. influence voter appreciation of politics and political issues. The Twitter is regarded by many users as research report shall also contribute the best social media platforms for to emerging literature in political conveying political messages in communication, particularly, as it bite-size pieces to an electorate with relates to Twitter use in presidential an ever-decreasing attention span campaigns. (Moore, 2015). Nigerians who were

at the forefront of Internet users in

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Africa (Ayodeji, 2016; Okorie, Loto 24, 2015, a total of 2.6 million & Omojola 2018; Okorie et al., tweets related to Nigeria‘s elections 2017) keyed into this platform to were recorded, either through hash increase their voices and visibility in tags or handles. the 2015 presidential election, held Mohammadu Buhari who only in March 28, 2015. The key players joined Twitter in December 2014 in the 2015 presidential election had over 160,000 followers prior to were - the Independent National the election, and was active on the Election Commission (INEC), platform with tweets personally Goodluck Johnathan, Mohammadu drafted by him and signed with his Buhari and their respective parties initials (Moore, 2015). He operated as well as the electorate - used on the following harsh tags; Twitter visibly in the build-up to the #Thisisbuhari, #Febuhari, election and during the election and #Iamready, #Ichoosebuhari, 2015. #march4buhari, #IchooseGMB,

The Independent Electoral #MBuhari, #GMB15. His election Commission (INEC), a body in campaign kicked off with regional charge of conducting elections in gatherings in each of the six geo- Nigeria set up a Twitter handle political zones. These tags provided account (and hash tags at the opportunity for people to follow #nigeriadecides, #nigeriaelection him across Nigeria as he delivered #2015INEC etc.) through which it the message of ―Change‖. educated people on the voting Goodluck Jonathan also had hash process, debunked rumours about tags like; #GEJWins, #Goodluck the commission, and sent reports #gejnigera, #GEJ2015, from polling booths. It was also #forwardnigeria, used by both the political parties #continuity@pregoodluck, and voters to communication #ichoosegej. However, Moore election issues. Key activists and (2015) notes that Jonathan influencers who were already abandoned his official Twitter popular on Twitter leveraged their account set up in May 2011. popularity among the socially Nevertheless, his media advisor who connected voting population to was a robust Twitter user with a inform and persuade voters to elect huge following served as Jonathan‘s respective candidates, and most mouthpiece, pushing the President‘s importantly do so peacefully message of ‗Continuity‘, keeping (Moore, 2015). According to people updated about his political Oluwatola (2015), in the plans, and responding to campaign build-up to the election day issues. - December 1, 2014 through March

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

Twitter and Presidential Campaign has been widely used in recent years Effective communication is crucial to support electoral campaigning. to politics. The ability to Twitter reinforces political communicate has always been a messages and build online and useful political skill and politicians offline support that help drive use persuasive communication to interesting debates about any canvass an issue or a cause. This is politician or political party. Twitter particularly important in Nigeria can validly mirror the political where unemployment, security, landscape offline and can be used to terrorism, etc. (Morah & Omojola, predict election results to a certain 2011) are the main issues of extent (Stieglitz and Dang-Xuan discussion in the public space that 2014). Yardi and Boyd (2010) need to be clarified by political suggest that, in political context, leaders. They use specific although the Twitter users are more communication channels to reach a likely to interact with others who particular target audience with a share the same views as they do in pre-determined message to generate terms of retweeting, they are also the knowledge that can influence actively engaged with those with political behaviour of their whom they disagree. However, audience. The message and target replies between like-minded audience will determine, to a large individuals would strengthen group extent, the most efficient identity, whereas replies between communication medium to be dissimilar views could reinforce in- deployed in influencing voters group and out-group affiliations.

(Ezeh, Chukwuma & Enwereuzo, Ahmed, Joidka and Cho (2016) 2015). assesses the use of Twitter in the

The emergence of the Internet as a 2014 Indian general elections, medium of mass communication has which was the first time the country elicited competition among the used social media for electioneering conventional media, like radio, campaigns. The findings suggest television, newspaper and magazine that the new-and-upcoming parties among others (Ezeh, Chukwuma & used Twitter for self-promotion and Okanume, 2017) as noted earlier. media validation, while established The place of the social media to parties used the platform to rally political support is no longer in supplement their offline strategies. doubt. To advance the conversation The authors also observe that the and mobilize political support, winning party‘s electoral success social media have become a critical was significantly associated with political tool for campaign planners. their use of Twitter for engaging The microblogging service Twitter, voters.

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

Ifukor (2010) examines the political discourse. Analyzing how linguistic construction of textual Donald Trump used the power of messages in the use of blogs and Twitter to defeat his closest rivalry, Twitter in the Nigerian 2007 Hillary Clinton in the 2016 electoral cycle comprising the April Presidential election in America, 2007 general elections and rerun Kpako, (2016) asserts that Trump elections in April, May, and August was also particularly adept at using 2009. A qualitative approach of simple language to share his discourse analysis is used to present unfiltered views on Twitter in a way a variety of discursive acts that that matched his campaign blogging and microblogging branding. When you read a tweet by afforded social media users during Donald Trump you could almost the electoral cycle. The data were hear Donald Trump's voice, whereas culled from 245 blog posts and 923 if you were reading tweets by tweets. The thesis of the study is Hillary Clinton from her Twitter that citizens‘ access to social media account you could obviously see electronically empowers electorates that it was coming from campaign to be actively involved in staffers. You have a sense that every democratic governance. Electronic single tweet came from Donald empowerment is a direct result of Trump to some extent and this had a access to social media (and mobile very persuasive value to the public. telephony) by more citizens who The expressed view about Donald constitute the electorate. This Trump‘s use of Twitter in 2016 encourages more public discussions election shows that self- about politics and makes the representation matters in political democratic process more dynamic communication via Twitter. than in the pre—social media era. Essoungou, (2011) notes that one of An analysis of the data shows that the most striking novelties of the there is a dialectical relationship 2011 presidential election in between social media discourse and Cameroon was the impressive the process of political number of candidates who empowerment. incorporated social media into their

Twitter is an important platform for campaign strategies, the meager five political expression that has helped per cent Internet penetration in that people find their voices. The leading country as of then notwithstanding. presidential candidate for America‘s The 2015 Nigeria‘s presidential presidency used Twitter to energize election also featured this new trend their supporters and draw citizens in political campaigns as candidates who wouldn‘t have followed upgraded their message delivery with the new communication tools

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 that Twitter offered. The popularity money spent, race characteristics of Twitter was such that it presented and so forth (Shannon, McGregor & considerable hope for a more Logan 2017). Stieglitz and Dang- informed and active citizenry with Xuan‘s (2014 cited in Larsson and the attendant conducive media Moe, 2011) study on Twitter use environment for candidates to during the 2011 Swedish general promote themselves, articulate their election found that Twitter served as positions, and interact with voters in a channel for disseminating political fundamentally different ways unlike contents and not for political dialog. what obtained in the previous Stoddart (2013) suggests that the elections. brevity of the 140-character tweet

Ayodeji, (2016), examines how limit has meant that Twitter is being Nigerian youth formed socio- used by politicians for little more political networks on social media than broadcasting sound bites. He platforms of Facebook and Twitter, notes that rather than Twitter and how these media influenced the attracting more potential voters, it 2015 general elections. The findings seemed to simply report what had show that not all followers of already been decided. Rather than political parties and politicians on using Twitter to establish a two-way Facebook and Twitter were their dialogue which bypasses the media supporters. Moreover, the platforms and provides a direct connection raised the consciousness of Nigerian with citizens, Twitter merely youth during the 2015 elections in reinforced the existing old media the area of constructive and model of one-way communication destructive arguments directly with and sound bites. politicians, which gave birth to new Graham et al. (2013) present a study socio-political movements of on political candidates‘ behaviour followers and antagonists. The on Twitter during the 2010 UK results also show that youth General Election campaign, networks helped to shape the 2015 focusing on four aspects of tweets: elections in terms of exposing and type, interaction, function and topic. preventing insecurity and fraud. The study insists that although there Conversely, other studies (Larsson were a group of candidates who and Moe, 2011; Stoddart, 2013; used Twitter to interact with voters Shannon, McGregor & Logan 2017) by, mobilizing, helping and suggest that Twitter use has limited consulting them, thus tapping into power to engage voters and predict the potential that Twitter offers for electoral outcomes and that its usage facilitating a closer relationship with and the outcome of that usage may citizens, the politicians mainly used be predicted by other factors such as it as a unidirectional form of

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 communication. This corroborates come from one central source as in with (Grant, Moon & Grant 2010) the conventional media, but from findings that Twitter is used more multiplicity of sources - all trying to for broadcasting than conversing in influence the opinion of one another Australia. This, Stoddart (2013), especially that of those in position believes is because politicians are of authority. often not confident enough to use Political participation does not take social media in an engaging way, place in a vacuum but within a perhaps because of fear of losing public realm (Polat 2007). message control. Deliberative democratic theory

Theoretical Framework gives political organizations an This study is predicated on the important role in the public sphere. Public Sphere Theory (Habermas, Habermas (1989) defines the public 1962). The core of this theory is that sphere as a network for political action is steered by the communicating information and public sphere, and that the only points of view about the common legitimate governments are those good. According to Calhoun (1992), that listen to the public sphere. a genuine public sphere should have Habermas refers notionally to his the following common features: public sphere as a space that  The focus of the discussion in provides more or less autonomous the public sphere is on issues of and open arena or forum for public common concern to the Public. debate. He states that the public  It is inclusive in principle and sphere is like an intermediary should be equally accessible to system of communication between all who may be interested in formally organized, and informal those issues or may be face to face, deliberations in arenas influenced by those issues. at both the top and bottom of the  The proceeding of this political system (Habermas, 2006). communicative action is based To him this type of deliberation is on rational and critical the hallmark of the liberal or deliberation. participatory democracy. Public  The deliberation itself is subject sphere as he explains further, is to normative standard of ―rooted in networks for wild flow of evaluation, and should be solely messages – news, reports, judged on the validity and commentaries, talks, scenes and rationality of the images, and shows and movies with communication, rather than on an informative, polemical, the identity of the speaker or the educational or entertaining content‖ decision from an arbiter. This is (p. 415). These contents do not

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

reiterated by Omojola (2009; the form of digital music 2011). distribution); a greater freedom of

McQuail (2005) observes that the choice, less constrained by actors in this sphere of deliberation geography; the capacity to are politicians and political parties, disseminate, debate and deliberate lobbyists, pressure groups or actors upon issues and to challenge of civil society. This deliberation professional and official positions; has impact on the decision-making and ability to circulate information, process in national legislatures and ideas, and debate freely as well as in other political institutions as there the opportunity for eliciting political is for the learning effects of will (Dahlgren 2005; Szabó 2007). ruminating political conversations Twitter is a classic example in this among citizens in everyday life. regard and the centre of the focus of ―The media, when organized in an this study. appropriate way, especially when Method open, free and diverse, can be A total of 200 respondents from a considered one of the most population of 12,123 academic staff important intermediary institutions that worked in the nine universities of the civil society‖ (McQuail, (selected out of 18 of such) in 2005, p. 181). But unlike the mass southeast geopolitical zone of media that manipulate the people Nigeria, completed the rather than help them form opinions questionnaire. The academia was in a rational way, access to preferred as respondents because Habermas‘ space is free and research has shown that they use the freedoms of assembly, association Internet very well and spend more and expression are guaranteed. This time online especially with regard to is because of the gatekeeping the use of Twitter in Nigeria. process which makes the media The multistage sampling procedure selective about the people and issues was adopted in this study. The first that pass through their ‗gate‘. stage involved the selection of

A number of scholars have universities. The researchers made a identified the possibilities created list of the universities in each of the by the Internet and digital media three categories (private, state and technologies to develop a virtual federal) in the five states in souteast public sphere for greater horizontal zone of Nigeria. Two universities or peer-to-peer communication; an were randomly selected from each unrestricted medium for the type. Of the six selected exchange of information, easy universities, two were privately access to cultural products (e.g. in owned; two were state universities

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 while the other two were federal were valid for analysis. We universities. observed prima facie that the return

The second stage of the sampling rate could have been higher but for involved the selection of the the issues respondents had with colleges in the marked institutions. recalling their experience on We made a list of all the colleges of Twitter. which two were selected from each Results of the nominated university using General Twitter use for political the simple random method. The participation and voting behaviour third stage involved the selection of The study sought to know the the two departments from each percentage of the respondents that college also using the simple had access to Internet for online random method. This amounted to communication as a prerequisite for 12 departments selected from the 12 the use of Twitter in political colleges that emerged from the six communication. Table 1 below universities. Of the 200 copies of presents the percentage the questionnaire distributed, 171

Table 1: Respondents’ Access to Twitter

n=171 Internet for on-line Access to Twitter communication account Yes 98.4% 48.7% No 1.6% 52.3%

Table 2: Respondent’s Extent of Use of Twitter

n=171 Extent of tweeting Frequently 13.7%

Not too often 61.2% When necessary 14.1% Not at all 11.0%

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

Table 3: Respondents’ extent of following tweets of presidential candidates during the 2015 presidential campaign

n=171 Following the tweet of presidential candidate Regularly 5.5% Moderately 6.3% Not sure 74.4% Not at all 13.7%

Table 3 shows the extent to which the 2015 presidential election the respondents followed the campaign. presidential candidates‘ tweets, Presidential candidates’ use of during the 2015 presidential social media campaign. The result suggests that Many scholars assert that the most respondents did not follow the Internet is a significant component presidential candidates on Twitter as of the sequence that enables a 74.4 percent of the respondents were candidate win a presidential election not sure of the extent of which they (May Joyce, 2010; Morgan- followed the presidential candidates Besecker, 2011). The study put this on Twitter. Another 11.8 percent assertion to the test with regard to moderately followed the presidential the use of Twitter to solicit votes by candidates while 13.7 percent of the Messrs Jonathan and Buhari, the respondents did not follow the tweet two leading candidates during the of any presidential candidate during 2015 presidential election.

Table 4: Use of Twitter by Jonathan and Buhari according to respondents None of Jonathan Buhari Them Others Candidates that use Twitter more 24.3% 7.8% 52.5% 15.3% extensively Candidates that appeal to 38.4% 2.4% 41.6.8% 6.7% respondents contact with Twitter

Table 4 shows the two leading However, majority of the presidential candidates used Twitter respondents believed that neither more extensively than others. Some Goodluck Jonathan nor 24.3 percent of the respondents Muhammadu Buhari extensively claimed that Goodluck Jonathan used the social media, while 15.3 used the social media more than percent of the respondents believed Muhammadu Buhari at 7.8 percent. that some political candidates not

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 mentioned on the questionnaire used study sought to find out other the social media more extensively reasons that might have persuaded during the said campaign. However, respondents to vote in the 2015 Goodluck Jonathan appealed more presidential election. Table 4 to them through Twitter than presents he figures. Mohammadu Buhari. Next, the

Table 4: Reasons that Influenced Vote

n=171 % Believable information 9.8 Satisfies my religious 3.9 preference Likeable personality 48.6 Credible information 31.0 None 6.7 Total 100.0

Table 5: Respondents’ opinion measurement on social media use in political campaign and participation

n=171 Strongly Strongly disagree Disagree Not sure Agree agree Candidates use Twitter to 3.5% 5.1% 45.9% 13.3% reach some voters 32.2% Candidates use of social media to persuade voters to 2.0% 3.1% 34.1% 45.5% 15.3% participate in election Social media provided political information that 36.9% .4% 2.4% 40.0% 20.4% persuaded voter- participation Social media provided an interaction platform for 16.9% 7.5% 30.2% 40.0% 17.3% chatting with candidates Voting decision influenced by the interaction from 6.7% 16.9% 41.6% 24.7% 10.2% social media network

The Table 5 above implies that more persuasive political information to respondents believed that Twitter influence voter behaviour. It means was used by the presidential that more persons and in fact, candidates in the 2015 presidential majority of the respondents, agreed elections in Nigeria, to reach some that the social media provided an voters. Again, majority of the interactive platform through which respondents at 60.8 person agreed voters were able to chat with the that candidates used Twitter to urge presidential candidates during the some voters to participate in 2015 presidential election. It shows election; and nearly two-thirds of also that social media interactions the respondents believed that the influenced the voting decision of social media platform provided about one-third of the respondents.

Table 6: Provision of Political Information by Twitter and Voter Decision Making

n=171 Twitter Twitter Interaction provided provided from political political Twitter Twitter information information influenced largely that persuaded that persuaded your influenced voter- voter- voting voting participation participation decision behaviour Social media provided political .805** .326** .401** 1.000 information that

persuaded voter- .000 .000 .000 participation Social media provided political .805** .349** .368** information that 1.000 persuaded voter- .000 .000 .000 participation Interaction from .326** .349** .524** Twitter influenced 1.000 your decision .000 .000 .000 making Twitter largely .401** .368** .524** influenced voting 1.000 behaviour .000 .000 .000 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The result on Table 6 shows that information but had no significant Twitter provided relevant political relationship with voter decision

making during the 2015 presidential and participation in the election. The election. The insignificant value of result therefore, confirmed political the correlation testified the assertion information provided by the social from the obtained results. Table 5 networks during the campaigns did was also used to substantiate that not influence decision making by Twitter provided political voters during the 2015 presidential information to voters, capable of election.

influencing their vote decision to Recall of content of political participate in the election. This view information shared on Twitter was substantiated by the calculated Recall capability frees content from mean value of 3.75 which is greater becoming transient and ephemeral, than the decision point value of 3.0. since user of the media remembers However, the insignificant value of them and crave repeated access to 0.000 obtained in Table 6 against such communication channels that the mean value of 0.0 showed the provide the said content. Table 7 low level of those exposed to such sheds light on this. political information and the expected influence on voter-interest

Table 7: Content recall on social media as influencing voter behavior Recall content of political information posted in the social media network Count Expected Count Yes Not sure Faintly NO Total Twitter largely Strongly influenced agree 2.1 6.5 4.8 19.7 33.0 voting behaviour Agree 5.4 16.9 12.5 51.3 86.0 Not sure 6.3 19.8 14.7 60.2 101.0 Disagree 1.8 5.7 4.2 17.3 29.0 Strongly disagree .4 1.2 .9 3.6 6.0 Total 16.0 50.0 37.0 152.0 255.0

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

Asymp. Sig. (2- Value df sided) Pearson Chi-Square 88.603a 12 .000 Likelihood Ratio 84.948 12 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 22.307 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 255

The result above shows that there is appreciable number of respondents no relationship between any (98.4%) who had access to Internet, likelihood that the voter behaviour but low use of Internet to access was recalled. At best, the experience Twitter (48.7%) for online was faintly recalled. It means, in a communication was recorded. it is nutshell, that the respondents did interesting to know that Internet not recall their use of Twitter as accessibility is no longer a major medium that influenced their voting problem to Nigerian academics as decision in the 2015 presidential many of them now have access to election in Nigeria. The result the Internet, though their extent of therefore accepted the null utilization of Twitter is still very hypothesis and rejected hypothesis low as most of them are not regular three in respect of the third research tweeters question. None of the presidential candidates

Discussion of findings under study used Twitter The first objective of the study was extensively to court voters. to investigate the extent 2015 However, Jonathan appealed more presidential candidate in Nigeria to 38.4% of those who accessed the utilized Twitter in their election Twitter platforms compared to campaigns to induce voter Buhari‘s 2.4%. The use of Twitter participation. It is understandable by the two candidates facilitated that the choice of which platforms democratic participation in the used for e-campaigning is political process through determined by how and where communication that could lead to citizens spend time on the internet. voter decision during the election. The study therefore sought to know The public sphere theory applies to the percentage of the respondents this finding since the political that had access to Internet for online candidates partook of the public communication as a prerequisite for sphere through chatting with Twitter the use of Twitter in political users. Through those chats ideas communication. There was an were shared as part of the

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 communication process. The social on voter-interest and participation in media platform of Twitter, the election. therefore, enabled citizens to gain Recall that likeability of the knowledge of political issues of candidates is the major factor that public significance. influenced the decisions of the

The opinions of the respondents respondents as voters according to were also surveyed to determine if the finding. This may explain the use of Twitter during the 2015 succinctly why voters in South-east presidential electioneering campaign geo-political zone in Nigeria voted helped them obtain the needed Jonathan (Moore, 2015) in spite of information that induced their the record showing that Buhari also participation and decision to vote in used Twitter appreciably as an the election. It was found that electioneering campaign medium. majority of the respondents agreed The study also determined if the that Twitter provided an interactive respondents recalled the use of the platform through which voters were Twitter for the assessment of the able to chat with the presidential presidential candidates through the candidates at the 2015 presidential information disseminated to election. The individual needs and influence voting decision. The preferences were freely expressed outcome was that the respondents‘ and published as opinions through rate of recall of the posted chats which was a clear electioneering information was low. demonstration of freedom of This translated to low voter assembly and association and participation and insignificant freedom to express and publish their influence on voting decision and opinion, according to Habermas election results. (1962). There is an issue of note here. The Caution is imperative at this point time lapse prior to this 2017 study - with regard to the foregoing finding. nearly two years – is a critical factor Though Twitter platform users had in the recall sequence and a vital the freedom to associate with the component of the outcome of this presidential candidates, this usage investigation. This shows time as an did not influence them entirely to intervening variable in studies that participate in 2015 election. The relate to recall. The result accepted insignificant value of 0.000 obtained the null hypothesis that voters did in Table 5 against the mean value of not recall their use of Twitter as an 0.0 showed the low level of those influence on voting decision – an exposed to the political information acceptance shaped by the passage of and the influence of that exposure time.

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

Conclusion be trivialized as a chat medium but Academic staff, as prospective be used as medium for transmitting voters, used the Internet extensively political issues of public concern. for online communication but they Politicians should maximize the were no regular tweeters. The 2015 benefits of Twitter as a political presidential candidates did not use channel to improve their Twitter extensively and therefore relationships with voters as part of did not appeal to the voters. Though the overall commitment to Twitter provided an interactive revitalizing democracy and civil platform on which voters could chat engagement. When usage is with the presidential candidates in frequent - regular, engaging and the build up to the election it did not consistent in the presentation of significantly influence voters‘ persuasive political information - decision. The effectiveness of voter participation can be assured. Twitter as a platform for voter There is need, therefore, to engagement is visible but its use and determine how best to use Twitter the way its content is recalled by platform for effective inducement of users remains issues of note. voter participation in elections. It

Recommendations also important for researchers to Twitter should be used to present know that time is a critical element public service agenda in order to of posteriority in research. provoke civic vitality. It should not

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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal, Available Online

Resolving the Political Tension: How Online Photographs Portray Candidates in Nigeria’s 2015 Presidential Election

Koblowe Obono

University of Ibadan Ibadan, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract: This paper investigates the online pictorial portrayal of two frontline candidates in Nigeria‘s 2015 presidential elections and how it resolved the related political tensions. Careful observation and analyses of the candidates‘ photographs, in accordance with the social constructivist perspective, enabled the determination of their conduct and verbal communication in a social context. Findings show that candidates‘ facial expression, body language, among others, portrayed mutual accord, cordiality and partnership. The impressions created from these did help to neutralize the perceived threats of violence from both sides of the political divide. In spite of the unpleasant rhetoric by the candidates on several occasions, the photographs portrayed them as friends as the images symbolized unity in diversity. One fact emerged from this study: When texts and rhetoric from political candidates and their supporters came like a flood, photographs were there to raise a standard against it.

Keywords: Photographs, online media portrayal, election violence, social constructionism, presidential elections, political communication, Nigeria.

Introduction Pictorials of the frontline Photographs do reinforce verbal candidates, GEJ of the People‘s messages. Their use in Nigeria‘s Democratic Party (PDP) and GMB 2015 presidential elections is of the All Progressives Congress important because, people are likely (APC), would reveal their political to retain 65 percent of information if stance during the election period. paired with relevant images than 10 The study examines pictorial per cent that will remember it after portrayal of presidential candidates. three days (Medina, 2018). The The strength of the analysis lies in relevance of pictures to the assumption that ―in politics, communication is crucial as their nonverbal signals disclose messages may affect human politician‘s intentions, emotions, or cognitions based on their relations with the other interpretation and meanings read participant(s) in the communicative into them, especially in a politically event‖ (Alvarez-Benito & Inigo- charged environment. The images Mora, 2015:329). Nonverbal may either promote political language is, therefore, a key tool of decorum or tension. This paper political communication. Its focuses on online photographs of messages disclose politicians‘ prominent candidates in a intentions and formation of human presidential election to reveal their judgments (Kopacz, 2006). Visual stance on election violence. communication is crucial in a

Nigerian elections have historically violence-prone environment, been characterized by waves of especially the Nigerian political political violence (Adibe, 2015; environment, which is often tense Akubo, 2015; Campbell, 2010, (Adibe, 2015; Akubo, 2015; 2015). Following the 2011 post- Campbell, 2010) due to the desire of election violence, a similar candidates to win elections at all occurrence was envisaged in the cost. The study of pictures is 2015 elections with regard to the significant because the audience will utterances of the incumbent move beyond presumptions to the President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan giving of meanings to the revealed (GEJ) and his challenger General disposition of contestants. This Muhammadu Buhari (GMB). How nonverbal revelation will inform the can communication contribute in knowledge, attitude and behaviour calming the tensions? Analysis of of political fans regarding their online pictorial of the main engagement in election violence. contenders would determine the Their natural response to election level to which their demeanour crises would be affected by the body encouraged or detracted from the language of contestants. Pictures are electoral violence rhetoric. channels that give prominence to an

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 individual (Igene & Ofuani, 2012; offers the platform to put this Adeyemi et al., 2016; Odiboh et al., conjecture to the test.

2017, Oresanya et al., 2017) and The nonverbal behaviour of would have implications on politicians has also drawn citizens‘ reactions towards elections. increasing attention, focusing on the While pictorial images may positioning of the eyes to influence contribute to resolving political electoral outcomes. While most tensions, violence, and crises research has been limited to situations, extreme partisanship may nonverbal language and election be addressed through pictorial violence, little is known about communication. The study will add online juxtaposition of presidential information to the existing body of contenders for political knowledge on political communication or the use and communication, election violence interpretation of pictorial images for and peace structures. It will benefit political peace overtures in Nigeria. readers as the paper will provide This study, therefore, examines them with scientific knowledge and online media pictures of GEJ and basis to interrogate political issues GMB, with a view to determining and the place of body language in their posture and composure during national election discourse. the 2015 presidential elections. It

Statement of the Problem describes the perceived contribution Negative electioneering campaigns of nonverbal political are gaining prominence in the communication to the resolution of political discourse (Van Santen & political tension. The analysis digs Van Zoonen, 2009; Kumolu & Oke, into the candidates‘ sociopolitical 2015). Ethical issues encounters, facial expressions and notwithstanding (Omojola, 2008; body contacts. It reveals the 2011), research has shown probability of political harmony increasing citizens‘ negative insinuated by pre- and post-election reactions to political leaders‘ online photographs of presidential behaviour and the concomitant candidates and its implications on tension as the main foci of political moderating election violence. news (Vliegenthart, Boomgaarden Objectives of the Study & Boumans, 2011). However, while The study was guided by two negative slants do provoke election research objectives: violence, the potential also exists 1. To examine the conduct of that pictorial representation in a Goodluck Jonathan (GEJ)and news narrative can play a key role in Muhammadu Buhari (GMB) in calming political storms and the 2015 Nigeria‘s presidential election

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

online pictures during the 2015 and associated with killings and Nigerian presidential elections. deaths (Kukah, 2015; Human Rights 2. To describe, in these online Watch, 2011).

photographs, contestants‘ facial The electioneering environment is expression, body contact, often hostile, characterized by the dimensional space and how they jettisoning of core campaign issues resolve the tension generated and setting of negative agenda. with regard to the 2015 Negativity is cooked up to discredit Nigeria‘s presidential election. opponents and incite the public against a candidate, thereby A Review of Nigeria’s Political breeding antagonism and threats of Environment and Threats of election violence. Most campaigns Violence in 2015 Elections emphasise the negative sides of The political environment of a opponents rather than present a clear nation is one of the determinants of political agenda. This negative the nature and outcome of election sequence of incitement and threats in a democracy. The probability of a was a key factor in the 2015 chaotic election would depend on presidential elections. Deployment the social, economic, religious, of hate speeches contributed to the political and contextual character of general feeling that Nigeria could the process. Election period is often witness genocidal killings like those tense and post-election outcomes of Rwanda (Kukah, 2015). These predictable because of the strong tensions necessitated the relationship between hate establishment of the Abuja Accord campaigns and violence, which (promoted by a former military occur before, during and after dictator Abdulsalami Abubakar elections (Akubo, 2015; Jega, which) contained a proposal to 2007). make the contestants abide by the Elections in Nigeria have outcome of the election historically been characterized by (Mohammed, 2015). The accord conflict because electioneering specified that since everybody campaigns are often marked by believed there would be some hell pettiness, intolerance and violence, and fire if their candidates lost, it including abductions and became imperative that candidates assassinations (Jega, 2007). Election themselves publicly voiced it that violence is, therefore, not new they would accept the results of the (Abbas, 2007; Jega, 2007; Human elections as declared by the electoral Rights Watch, 2011; Kukah, 2015). commission. The build-up to the election time is described as warfare (Abbas, 2007),

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While hate speeches have much them to become winners (Alechenu, negative impact on citizens and their 2015). The election airspace was disposition toward elections and ventilated with rumors of violence; candidates (Akubo, 2015), the hence, many Nigerians believed the inherent messages can damage the verbal proclamations and foresaw a electoral process. In an era of highly contentious election citizens‘ journalism, characterized outcome. Reiterating this, Adibe by unchecked use of the New (2015) projected a likely post- Media, political operatives spread election violence in the north if rumours and defamation adverts Buhari lost but renewed militancy in through websites and social the Niger Delta if Jonathan did not networking tools. With reference to win. the elections in the Middle Belt of Accordingly, the environment for Nigeria, Campbell (2010) observed the 2015 Nigerian presidential the adverse effect of hate campaigns election was complicated with and outbreaks of violence, which violent expressions, hate speeches stirred up lingering resentment and and threats of post-election crises. massacre of 1500 people. Relative While political participation was to the 2011 election crises, higher high, politically motivated vigilante tensions were envisaged in the 2015 and militant groups were ready to elections (Campbell, 2015). take up arms. Pressure groups

Skepticism surrounding the conduct made violence-sensitive statements, of peaceful elections was hinged on which predicted disruption of peace the 2011 election outcomes, where if the presidency went either way. violence erupted in northern Nigeria Violence loomed large with due to the pronouncement of anticipated blood-shed, Goodluck Jonathan as winner and displacement and civil war. In the President-elect (Adibe, 2015). The midst of this uncertainty, utilisation announcement triggered rioting and of appropriate communication post-election violence with an mechanism was needed to estimated 800 deaths (Human dismantle, calm and abort the Rights Watch, 2011), described as purported crises. Hence, while the greatest bloodshed since the presidential candidates signed the 1967–70 civil war (Campbell, commitment to peaceful elections as 2015). Based on previous represented in the Accord, the same experiences and current projection was pictorially displayed to reveal of political anomie, threats of their political stance on the issue to violence were taken seriously the public. because Jonathan and Buhari had fanatical supporters, who expect

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Before the 2011 elections, Campbell 2018), joblessness of the youth (2010) predicted greater militant population and emotional blackmail activity in the Niger Delta if (Kukah, 2015). Despite the Jonathan lost the election and exposure of citizens to the harsh greater radicalization of northern political environment and violence Nigeria‘s Islamic population if a narratives, online pictorial depiction southern Christian emerged becomes a viable channel for victorious. In both scenarios, counteracting hate rhetoric. The violence was envisaged, and platform is a more accessible and eventually occurred in northern permanent communication channel Nigerian when Buhari lost the for public exposure and presidential position. Based on this interpretation of presidential body experience, public expectation from language. Since the goal of political the 2015 presidential elections was communication is to inform, educate similar, especially as the campaigns and persuade citizens to make were shrouded with hate speeches informed decisions, the display of and threats of post-election violence presidential images is necessary to to be championed by ardent calm or escalate crises situations. supporters of Jonathan and Buhari. This paper describes the role of Attack campaigns were publicised online pictures in calming tensions through different communication associated with 2015 presidential and media channels. Campaigns election. portrayed character assassination, Theoretical Framework hate speeches and violent acts Social constructionism theory or (Akubor, 2015) even though some the social construction of reality was traditional news media used the adopted to underpin the work. It elements for systematic arguments emphasizes the socially created and emotional appeals (Jerit, 2004). nature of social life and the idea that But by and large confrontation and society is actively and creatively negativity featured prominently in produced by humans. Used in 1966 GEJ ―Transformation‖ and GMB by Peter Berger and T. Luckmann, ―Change‖ campaigns agenda. the social construction of reality is

Campaigns are fundamental to an aspect of micro interpretive contested positions. They are pre- theory perspectives in sociology. structured (Marcus, Newman & They portray the world as made and MacKuen 2000). Hate campaign that the basic features of social order environment and circumstances are captured in the principle that the fuelling hostility are traceable to an society is a human product and that interplay of variables like high use the important experiences of others of social media (Okorie, et al. takes place in the face-to-face

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 situation of social interaction Luckmann (2008) conceives it as an (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). They individual permanently linked and believe that people create society, interacting with subjects to which is converted to objective construct society. While explaining reality, thereby making the society a that communicative construction of human product and an objective reality consists of communicative reality. They summarised the basic elaboration, Knoblauch et al. (2008) features of social order as human adds that social actions are product. While the theory assumes negotiated, changed, maintained or that daily life is ordered through implanted in society. shared meanings by the community The construction of presidential (García, 2015), the approach is candidates in Nigeria is a social associated with the post-modern era activity engineered by interactions in qualitative research and and conversations among diverse concerned with construction and political and media subjects in understanding of knowledge society. García (2015) notes four (Andrews, 2012). general characteristics of social

The purpose of social constructionism - the primacy of constructionism is to enable social projects, historical and comprehension of social interaction, cultural specificity of products, and production and distribution of interdependency between knowledge (García, 2015). knowledge and action and the Propositions of the theory would critical posture that all knowledge is enable interpretation about the historical and socially specific. For reality of calming political storm her, social world is shaped by during the 2015 presidential conversations, conceived as patterns elections. Pictorial construction of of joint activities and determined by presidential candidates, their images subjects. Social constructivism is a and the meanings they conjure are useful theoretical framework as it shared within the online and offline allows necessary qualitative analysis communities to increase political to reveal insights on how people knowledge. The theory assumes interact with the world (Creswell, that people jointly construct their 2009). Because symbols and signals world and the meanings they give to are components of knowledge and their encounters with others (Leeds- the meanings associated with Hurwitz, 2016). It is concerned constructed reality, the language of with the ways people think about communication is vital for and use categories to structure and interpreting the 2015 presidential analyse human experience in the elections in Nigerian. The chosen world (Jackson, Penrose). communicative genre would

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 contribute to solving electoral A combination of observation and violence since language is the main qualitative content analysis were means to social construction. used to gather the data featuring

The theory provides the basis for a online media juxtapositions of the formal analysis of the political leaders. Observation was communicative formation and employed because social transmission of personal identity, constructivism allows qualitative knowledge and historical social analysis, which gives insight on the words (Luckmann, 2008). It is a nature of human interaction way to know and observe the world (Creswell, 2009). It became in order to yield its nature to people. imperative as it generally focuses on A critical observation of the settings and designed to generate pictorial social interactions of GEJ data on the activities and behaviours and GMB would enable of subjects. Accordingly, the interpretation of the constructed pictorial body behaviour of peaceful images towards the contestants in different social expected non-violence behaviour. settings was observed. Content Methodology analysis, on the other hand, The descriptive research design was describes the contents, including the employed. Online photographs were political message, patterns and observed and analysed to give themes of communication. The meaning to the posture and constructed images of contestants composure of the APC and PDP were, therefore, observed, analysed presidential candidates in the 2015 and interpreted for their relevance to Nigerian elections. Their nonverbal post-election public response. temperamental projections were Because human interaction often examined, revealing their involves other forms of disposition to opposition politics. communicative devices like The study of pictures is important gestures, photography and body because it uses conceptual, language, the study described the figurative or iconic system of connections of pictures within the signals, and other technical means to prevailing socio-political context. It convey communicative actions gives meaning to the nonverbal (Luckmann, 2008). The body actions of Jonathan and Buhari language, facial expression and during the election period. dimensional space between The process of selection of Jonathan and Buhari were examined photographs for analysis was to decipher their input in calming systematic. All online pictures that the purported election tensions. had both Jonathan and Buhari were retrieved from online images. A

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 total of 59 pictures were retrieved intent of political messages from the but only 27 fell within the study candidates‘ point of view. They context. While the relevant pictures communicate individual‘s were retained, the rest were dispositions rather than imposed eliminated based on the number of constructs. Pictorial portrayal is, people in the photograph, the social therefore, a self-representation of context of communication and type politicians‘ emotions and self- of picture. Since the study was display of impressions to influence limited to real life situations where public perception, attitude and Jonathan and Buhari were featured behaviour. The pictures showcased together in specified locations, the political stance of candidates. another process of elimination While the body language and facial occurred. Cropped photos and expressions of the presidential painted pictures were discarded as candidates were analysed, the they constituted subjective human dimensional space between them creations rather than natural revealed their level of social representation of contestants. It also distance. These variables gave excluded pictures that featured more meaning to pictorial display, and than two political figures, leaving political behaviour and message.

13 for analysis. The repetition of The study period is five months, photographs was observed, hence, a January to May, 2015. It captures methodological restriction to contestants‘ online representation pictures whose dates corresponded two months prior to and after the with the day of the political event elections. January was selected and with headlines reporting the because most pre-election activities same issue. This drastically brought like submission of presidential down the relevant pictures to four. nomination forms, publication of list The analysed photographs are, of nominated candidates and debut therefore, limited to those posted of campaigns began then. While within the week of events. March was central to all the Purposive and available sampling activities as it was the month for techniques enabled selection of pre- presidential elections, May was the and post-election images that met month of handover to the president the pictorial, numerical and elect and the inauguration situational criteria. ceremony. The time span

Focused on the self-constructed accommodated the sociopolitical reality pictures of candidates, the meetings of candidates - Abuja selected photographs were analysed Accord (January, 14) and renewal of because of the assumption that self- the peace accord (March 26) -, and portrayals would showcase the formal handing over (May, 28), and

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 inauguration ceremony (May, 29). president-elect. Their constructed The study period is important media images symbolised peaceful because while electioneering is coexistence and commitment to often tense due to the struggle to violence-free election outcomes. win the seat, losers oppose election The candidates communicated results within the same period, with cordial relationship, resonating likely result of violence. noncompliance to election violence.

Online pictorial portrayal of These have implications on soothing Goodluck Jonathan (PDP) and the political environment. Mohammadu Buhari (APC) featured Pre-election Online Pictorial different situational contexts and Demeanour of the Presidential locations. Data on their demeanour Candidates Electioneering period is focused on body language, facial often tense as contestants use expression, dimensional space and different campaign strategies to social context of communication. label their opponents. However, The analysis began with the during the socio-political interpretation of the constructed interactions of the 2015 presidential social realities and was geared aspirants, online pictorials toward description of the showcased Jonathan and Buhari as sociocultural outlook of candidates, friends during the Abuja Accord and interpretation of pictures and their renewal of the peace treaty. likely influence on post-election Analysis of their pre-election public behaviour. Interpretation of nonverbal behaviour in pictures findings and deduced meanings are reveal peace, unity, solidarity, and situated within the Nigerian cohesion, which symbolize cordial sociocultural context. relationship. The images epitomize Results harmony, thereby negating the The result describes online pictorial assumptions of violence. Pictures of demeanour of Goodluck Ebele Jonathan and Buhari reveal their Jonathan (GEJ) of the PDP and stance on election violence as General Muhammadu Buhari depicted in the joyous mood of (GMB) of the APC and its hugging and smiling with close contribution in calming 2015 body contact during the Abuja election tensions. It describes their Accord (Figure 1). Portrayal of their communicative body language, closeness through hand to hand and facial expression and dimensional stomach to stomach hugging, space during Abuja Accord, renewal indicates their functioning in a of the Peace Accord, formal handing politically comfort zone and closed over and inauguration of the social distance. Clinging to each

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 other demonstrates warmth and to political understanding and acceptance of each other. The stability between factions. It friendly demeanour may contribute represents peaceful relationship.

Figure 1: Buhari and Jonathan during the non-violence sensitization Workshop. Source: Pulse: January 14, 2015

The photograph in Figure 1 was language, communicates the pursuit taken in Abuja during the 2015 of peace and a refrain from hate. general elections‘ sensitization Their conduct epitomizes harmony workshop on non-violence. Warm between contenders, which embrace, with hearty smiles, after reinforces their verbal position the signing of the Abuja Accord, against election violence. The implies or means commitment of photograph, therefore, depicts good contestants to peaceful neighbourliness, happiness, electioneering, polls and friendship and calm. The signing of management of election outcomes. the treaty expressed the intentions of It suggests endorsement of violence- contestants for a harmonious free election. The disposition of political stage, and the iconic picture candidates, as reflected in their body reinforced the message.

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To uphold the treaty, the main rivals In an outlook of smiles, the met again to renew their nonverbal display was another commitment to peaceful elections. opportunity for contestants to The photograph in Figure 2 captures emphasize their commitment to both contenders in a warm, friendly peaceful electoral act. body posture and facial expressions.

Figure 2: Renewal of peace treaty Source: Nigerian Eye (2015). March 26, 2015

The picture was taken during the implication for party supporters who signing of the renewal of election may sheath their swords following peace accord at Sheraton Hotel and the revealed images of their leaders. Towers, Abuja on March 26, 2015. By virtue of the pictorial behavior of Their conduct a few days before contestants, followers would presidential elections resonates interpret, give meanings, modify calm, not crises, thereby projecting their notion of opposition, and have to the public that ―election is not a a rethink of election violence. Pre- do or die affair‖ – a popular line election meetings portrayed the during electioneering in Nigeria. stance of presidential candidates The foregoing images have

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 against election hostilities and communication of presidential tensions. candidates contradicted public Post-Election Online Images and expectations, hence, instead of the Implication in Calming Electoral projection of war imagery, peace Tensions was depicted. The same construct Contentions are one of the natural emerged during the formal handing outcomes of election in Nigeria. over from President Goodluck They aggravate crises, leading to Jonathan to the president-elect, violence. Following the pre-election Muhammadu Buhari as shown in peace treaties, nonverbal Figure 3 below.

Figure 3: Jonathan handover to Buhari Source: Tukur, Sani (2015) Premium Times, May 28

Positive facial expression and body during the inaugural ceremony with contact were also observed. The genuine happiness, hearty smiles, partial delight during the formal eye contact and closed body contact handing over of power was natural (Figure 4). Jonathan verbally as expressed in the handshake and commended the performance of smiles of both leaders. This picture Buhari during the inauguration would have implications on calming ceremony. Pictorially, both men the expected post-election squall were in a lively discussion mood. based on this projection of warmth. Their discourse moved beyond After their sober reflection, Buhari smiles to laughter, indicating and Jonathan portrayed great delight acceptance of election outcomes.

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. Figure 4: Buhari‘s Inaugural Ceremony Source: Okonkwo, K. (2015). Online Nigeria News, May 30

The constructed image of through different media channels. acceptance of victory is also While citizens were rarely exposed revealed in the smiles, laughter, eye to pictures displaying resentment, contact, and close social distance enmity or hatred, images revealing between both leaders. They created comradeship and human accord impressions of a harmonious were consistently rather featured. relationship, which has implications The displayed warm embrace, for maintenance of a peaceful genuine smiles and close body national outlook. Non-violence contact would send positive signals elections could be attributed to the to the public to remain calm labeling of Buhari and Jonathan as throughout the election period. The friends, not foes. Photographs could constructed images, therefore, point supporters to the actual exposed the inherent intentions of political stance of party flag bearers. presidential candidates to citizens, Exposure of the public to these who could interpret their nonverbal soothing political images of peace, cues as a call for peace. This not war, may have implications on communication strategy may have the post-election tranquilly. contributed to the experienced Tension-free politics is a product of electoral calm. This affirms the main political actors; who spoke position of Kukah in Mohammed explicitly and implicitly against (2015) that the candidates were violence, and journalists, who committed to a free, fair and displayed positive political images credible election, expressing that the

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 action they took was for the benefit portraying Nigeria as a growing of ordinary Nigerians who probably democracy. took the elections more seriously Summary of findings than the main actors. Public display The findings generally indicate that of nonviolence is important because online pictorial portrayal of political leaders can influence Jonathan and Buhari in the 2015 followers by what they say and do. elections was geared towards peace

The pictures exposed Nigerian to calm the political environment. publics to messages skewed toward Specifically: political harmony and this image  Photographs of the two construct detracted people from presidential candidates political violence to understanding showcased friendship as they and maturity. Accordingly, The Sun displayed their political stance Online (2015) - a prominent for peaceful elections. Nigerian newspaper - noted that it  The nonverbal demeanour of the was a great relief to millions of contestants symbolised warmth, apprehensive Nigerians to watch harmony, unity, solidarity, Jonathan and his opponent, Buhari, cohesion, cordiality and hugging on television. The display friendship. This resonates calm of contestants‘ emotions in the not crises. photograph delivers a message of  Constructed presidential images peace, warmth and affection. They reveal their support for a evoke mental narratives, which violence-free election as could influence human decision reflected in their body language - making. The nonverbal signals warm embrace, hearty smiles, disclose the politicians‘ eye contacts, hugs and closed predisposition to cohesion, rather social distance than discord. Management of  While citizens were rarely people‘s intentions and emotions exposed to pictures displaying during elections may be actualized resentment, enmity and hatred, through nonverbal communication. messages were skewed toward Positive electioneering and post- comradeship, human accord and election outcomes could be a political wisdom. construct of emotional intelligence  Pictorials epitomized a and competence. Public exposure to harmonious relationship, which the posture and composure of might have contributed to Jonathan and Buhari in those calming electoral tensions and photographs might have played a maintenance of a peaceful highly significant role in moderating political outlook the political extremism and

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 Display of contestants‘ emotions beings. This product of social order delivered a message of human and social reality is considered the coexistence, calm political most important of the social environment and commitment to interaction experiences (García, violence-free elections. This has 2015). Pictorial communication can implications on calming the form the basis for social creation political storm and promoting a and shared assumptions about a crises-free electoral season. violence-free environment. Pictures

Discussion moderate political tension because Verbal and nonverbal interactions they provide the bases for are fundamental in the making and communicative formation and shaping of social life. Nonverbal transmission of personal identities (Luckmann, 2008). interactions guide social behaviour because communicative processes Constructed media images reveal have a basic pragmatic function to the alignment of contestants to non- provide solutions for the problems violence. The impressions created of life (Luckmann, 2008). For may have contributed to the overall Luckmann, what people define as purview of calm during the period. reality are socially determined and Explicit images reconstructed the constructed through interaction, violence rhetoric to a peaceful one. interpretation and shared action. In Aesthetic display of pictures other words, portrayal of online communicated the actual political pictorial interactions of Jonathan slant of contestants, hence, and Buhari, could be interpreted as photographs, oral and written reality to enhance a violence-free statements played complementary political agenda. roles in calming the political storm.

Norms, beliefs, and ideals are These communication strategies socially constructed realities (Berger support the declaration of Goodluck & Luckmann, 1966). The envisaged Jonathan that his political ambition 2015 election violence was was not worth anybody‘s blood contained partly because of the (Mohamed, 2015, cited in Kukah). constructed images of presidential Constructed presidential images candidates that depicted cordiality. could, therefore, influence citizens‘ Contestants and journalists created behaviour based on public images that revealed a calm political awareness, interpretation and giving environment, thereby supporting the of meaning to pictorial contents. social constructionism proposition Media reportage was strategic in that society is actively and focusing attention to images that creatively produced by human symbolised a tranquil society. The body language of the frontline

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 runner candidates complemented behaviour is assumed to have their verbal actions, which slanted implications on the achievement of toward a warm relationship. This a calm state devoid of election observation is consistent with violence.

Obono and Onyechi‘s (2017) Tension-free elections would then submission that pre-election peace partly depend on the commitment of treaties and conceding call of political actors. Their pictorials Jonathan, aided peace building in depict cohesion, not crises. Nigeria. Presidential images communicated

Pictorial portrayal of the candidates peace, hence, the assumption that was phenomenal. The findings pictorial portrayals could calm corroborate Luckmann‘s (2008) political tensions and engineer a assertion that communication is violence-free state irrespective of fundamental for constructing and citizens‘ political, ethnic and maintaining reality, and the religious backgrounds. To resolve production of social order. Peace the issues of election violence in constructs and publications through Nigeria, it is recommended that: appropriate communication genres 1. Political actors use appropriate contribute in managing political body language and facial opposition, aggression, tensions and expression to communicate maintenance of harmony. peace, not violence, to the

Conclusion and public Recommendations 2. Extreme partisanship should be The 2015 presidential election was downplayed through pictorial shrouded with threats of violence. representation of party leaders However, the nonverbal character of 3. Since the demeanour of political the candidates contributed in actors may contribute to the deflating the violent intentions of achievement of a calm election ardent supporters. The study environment, party flagbearers analysed online pictorial should act to thwart election representation of the candidates crises. focusing on the Abuja Accord, 4. Because political leaders have renewal of the peace treaty, handing the power to influence their over to the president-elect and the supporters, they should inauguration ceremony. The pictures constantly project peace to mirrored candidates‘ consistent prevent election violence. engagement in body language, facial 5. While current interpretations of expression and social distance that pictures are sociocultural symbolise candour, closeness and relevant but subjective, further peaceful coexistence. Their pictorial studies should be focused on

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65

audience analysis of presidential elections. images in the 2015 Nigerian

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com/news/headlines/183804- En Personalisering in breaking-jonathan-formally- Politieke Communicatie‘. submits-handover-notes-to- Tijdschrift voor buhari.html. Communicatiewetenschappen, The Sun (2015, January 22). The 37(2), 155–176. Abuja peace accord. Vliegenthart, R.; Boomgaarden, H. Retrieved from G. & Boumans, J. W. (2011). http://sunnewsonline.com/new Changes in political news /?p=101319. coverage: Personalization, Vanguard. (2015, January 15). conflict and negativity in Jonathan, Buhari endorse British and Dutch violence-free polls. Vanguard. newspapers. In K. Brants & Retrieved K. Voltmer (Eds.). Political http://www.vanguardngr.com/ Communication in 2015/01/jonathan-buhari- Postmodern Democracy: endorse-sviolence-free-polls/. Challenging the Primacy of Van Santen, R. and Van Zoonen, L. Politics (pp 92-110). (2009). Stand Van De Basingstoke: Palgrave Wetenschap: Popularisering Macmillan.

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Covenant Journal of Communication (CJOC) Vol. 5 No. 2, Dec. 2018

An Open Access Journal, Available Online

UNESCO’S Recommendations on Communication and Cultural Heritage Matters ((1967 - 1984) and Implementation in Nigeria

1Ayodeji Olalekan Awobamise Ph.D & 2Adebola Adewunmi Aderibigbe Ph.D

1Department of Journalism and Media Studies Kampala International University Kampala, Uganda [email protected]

2Department of Communication and Performing Arts Bowen University, Iwo, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract: This paper examines Unesco recommendations on communication and cultural heritage issues between 1967 and 1984 and how they translated to action, using Nigeria as a case study. Nine recommendations were analyzed in an exploratory desk research that enabled the understanding of whether or not they were implemented, and if they were, the extent to which the implementation achieved set objectives. Findings show that 50 years on, Unesco‘s recommendations, implementation of recommendations and achievement of objectives are yet to form a coherent sequence. Keywords: UNESCO, Communications, cultural heritage, recommendations, implementation, Nigeria.

Introduction cultural diversity as well as the The United Nations Educational protection of cultural heritage. Scientific and Cultural Organisation 5. Communication and information.

(Unesco) is an agency of the United This paper is concerned basically Nations that is charged with the with the 5th theme of Unesco which responsibility of promoting peace, is Communication and information. social justice, human rights and The theme is concerned with the international security through free flow of ideas by word and international cooperation on image to build a worldwide educational, science and cultural community of shared knowledge. programs. Its major aim is to This paper examines the various contribute to the building of peace, conferences and debates organised the eradication of poverty, by Unesco on communication and sustainable development and related matters from 1967-1984, and intercultural dialogue. To achieve considers their conclusions, these, Unesco has five fields of recommendations and attempts to action: analyse them thoroughly. 1. Education: the priorities for education include basic Objective of study education for all with emphasis This paper brings together all on literacy, HIV/AIDS conferences organised by Unesco prevention and teacher training with regard to communication in sub-Saharan Africa, promoting during this period. The target quality education worldwide, as epistemology is knowing how these well as secondary education, conferences influence cultural technological education and orientation and communication higher education. activities today especially in terms 2. Natural Sciences and the of how the recommendations were implemented or policies executed. management of Earth‘s resources: it includes protecting Significance of Study water and its quality, the ocean This study attempts to understand and promoting science and the role of Unesco in bridging the engineering technologies to technological divide and improving achieve sustainable development. the communication and information 3. Social and human sciences: to industry. Furthermore, the study promote basic human rights and expatiates on how recommendations focus on global issues like racism translate to actions. The and discriminations. examination of recommendation- 4. Culture: to promote and actualization ratios provides a encourage cultural acceptance learning opportunity for policy and at the same time maintain makers and implementers.

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Brief history of the UNESCO world once WWII was over. As a The forerunner of UNESCO was the result, the proposal of CAME was international Committee on established that focused on holding Intellectual Cooperation (ICIC) a future conference in London for established in Geneva under the the establishment of an education League of Nations in 1922. The and cultural organization from ICIC committee had as members November 1-16, 1945. When that notable scholars such as Albert conference began in 1945 (shortly Einstein, Marie Curie amongst after the United Nations officially others. Its major responsibility was came into existence), there were 44 to promote international participating countries whose cultural/intellectual exchange delegates decided to create an between scientists, researchers, organization that would promote a teachers and other intellectuals. culture of peace, establish an Unable to secure the funding intellectual and moral solidarity of required to maintain a significant mankind, and prevent another world presence in Geneva, the war. When the conference ended on organization was offered assistance November 16, 1945, 37 of the from France to establish an participating countries founded the executive branch: The International UNESCO.

Institute of Intellectual Cooperation After ratification, the constitution of (IIIC), which became recognized in Unesco took effect from November 1926 and had its offices in Paris. It 4, 1946. The first official general helped to implement plans and conference of Unesco was then held policies made by ICIC. IIIC was an in Paris from November 19 to institution with growing activities in December 10, 1946 with universities, libraries, intellectual representatives from 30 countries. property, arts, information and Since then, Unesco has grown in media. significance across the globe and its

The UNESCO era began in 1942, number of participating member during World War II, when the states has skyrocketed to 195. governments of several European Review of relevant literature countries met in the United The Unesco conferences we are Kingdom for the Conference of discussing in this paper aim Allied Ministers of Education basically to promote media (CAME). During that conference, development and put in place, as leaders from the participating well as execute, policies that help countries worked to develop ways preserve cultural and natural of reconstruct education around the heritage. This review focuses

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 mainly on these two components of states that the involvement of locals culture. Reference is made to in the conservation of heritage Nigeria in order to drive home the ensures socio-economic and point. ecological sustainability. Larkham

The conceptual understanding of (1996), in his work on cultural and cultural and natural heritage is natural heritage conservations, sees relatively new while deliberate the conservation of natural and conservation efforts date as far back cultural resources as an opportunity as the 19th century (Jax & Rozzi, to improve tourism in the countries 2004). Cultural heritage culture where these sites are located. He provides the basis to understand the goes on to explain that if traditions and identities of countries conservation efforts will lead to and communities. According to increased tourism revenue, then the Kammeier (2008), cultural heritage local communities must be or heritage of mankind can be involved. He explains that the main described as a precious but fragile problems in the attempt to preserve gift that comes with a condition of and conserve heritage and culture is care. the fact that government and non-

FIG (1991), on the protection of governmental organisations have natural and cultural heritage for not considered the socio-cultural sustainable development, asserts systems that participated in the that there is indeed a need for creation of the conserved careful management of all monument. Rukwaro (2016) associated systems to promote the explains that people should have quality of life in order to create constant access to decision making opportunities for sound if economic growth and sustained development. development is to be ensured. From the foregoing, it is clear that Fleischhauer and Kammeier (2008) involvement by local communities explain that to properly care for and is one of the bedrocks of cultural preserve our natural heritage, and natural heritage conservation. indigenous people must be brought The people are the most important on board, made to understand the element in the conservation of value of preserving our heritage. heritage and culture because they They explain that a lot of countries are the most affected. If properly co- have excluded the indigenous opted they can play a crucial role in people from participating in the cultural preservation. discussions on cultural heritage preservation. This is further Generally, African media has seen supported by Rees (1989) who tremendous growth. Print and

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 electronic media (including the constantly seeking information that internet) have grown exponentially can help them de-escalate the on the continent (Middleton & violence, whereas in the absence of Njogu, 2009). Regrettably, military such information, violence could and civilian dictatorship, made aggravate. This view is also manifest in one-party system and supported by Valdimir and Schirch impunity, has greatly undermined (2007), who suggest that the mass the exploits of the media especially media have a responsibility to in post-colonial Nigeria. objectively report on conflicts and

Different scholars have promoted provide pertinent information to the the mass media as important tools public in order to ensure that people for promoting peace and are kept abreast of the situation and international understanding. can make informed decisions. They According to Joseph (2014), the stress also that the media are tools mass media, especially international for peace-building as they are media have a mediating role to play engaged in negotiating for peace during times of crisis or war. He and disseminating peace building explains that peace journalism messages. should be used during times of Mbeke (2009), on the role of the conflict as against conventional media in conflict resolution, reporting. That means reporters explains that the media, if not should, in the interest of peace properly used, can instigate more report on the positives, focusing violence as they have been declared more on the things that unite as culprits in the breakdown of social against things that can stoke control on several occasions. He violence. explains that, depending on the

Lake and Rothchild (1996) take a ideology and political leanings of different approach to understanding the reporters, the media can be used the role of the media in conflict to fuel conflict in a volatile and resolution, they explain that the fragile community like those of inability of the media to provide developing countries. timely and relevant information The foregoing explanation shows during conflict can lead to an that the mass media can be used as a escalation of such conflict. tool to resolve conflict or escalate Communication and information are conflict depending on the intention two of the most important of the owner or editor (Morah, & determinants in conflict resolution Omojola, 2011). One of the (Peleg, 2007). The implication is objectives of Unesco is to ensure that people involved in conflict are that the media are instruments for

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 the promotion of peace locally and resources and sources. Researchers internationally – a reason for several browsed through hundreds of pages conferences, conventions, etc, it has on Unesco‘s website, identifying organized over the years. Some nine relevant information on Unesco conferences organized between meetings on communicating and 1967 and 1984 by the multilateral then downloading same as data for organization are the focus of this analysis. Seminars, meetings and paper. recommendations under the

Methodology communication and Information The researchers adopted the desk theme were articulated. Cultural and research method, which involves natural heritage and the media collecting data from the existing emerged as recurring constructs.

Data Analysis

Table 1: Communication conferences held between 1967 and 1984

Sub- Sub-group Year Location Title of conference group name 1968 Paris Recommendation concerning the preservation of cultural property endangered by public or private works 1972 Paris Recommendation concerning the Cultural protection, at national level, of the & natural cultural and natural heritage heritage 1976 Nairobi Recommendation concerning the international exchange of cultural 1 property Recommendation concerning the safeguarding and contemporary role of historic areas Recommendation on participation by the people at large in cultural life and their contribution to it 1978 Paris Recommendation for the protection of movable cultural property 1980 Belgrade Recommendation concerning the status of the artist 1972 Paris Declaration of guiding principles on the use of satellite broadcasting for the free Satellite flow of information, the spread of broadcast education and greater cultural exchange ing and 1974 Brussels Convention relating to the distribution

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other of programme-carrying signals electroni transmitted by satellite 2 c media 1978 Paris Declaration on fundamental principles concerning the contribution of the mass media to strengthening peace and international understanding … 1980 Belgrade Recommendation for the safeguarding and preservation of moving images:

Source: UNESCO website

Subgroup 1: Cultural and Natural achievements of the past‖ (Unesco, Heritage 1968) In coming up with these This subgroup consists of all recommendations, some factors meetings and conferences with their were taken into consideration: recommendations as regards cultural 1. Contemporary civilization and its and natural heritages. Seven future evolution are dependent conferences were found with five of on the cultural traditions of them recorded with people all over the world, their recommendations as displayed on creative force and their the table. These conferences were socioeconomic development and held in Europe and Africa and were that the cultural property is an primarily concerned with the important element in people‘s preservation and maintenance of all personality worldwide. cultural and natural heritages. 2. That it is very important to

According to the minutes of these preserve such culture as much as conferences, the term cultural possible according to its artistic property applies to immovable, and historical importance. It historical and archaeological sites, should also be acknowledged whether religious or secular. It that preserving cultural property refers to ruins existing above the and making it accessible earth and historical remains found constitute a means of within the earth. The surroundings encouraging mutual where such structures exist also understanding among peoples, qualify as a cultural property. At the thereby promoting peace. conference on the preservation of 3. People‘s wellbeing depends a cultural property endangered by great deal on the existence of a public or private work, cultural nice environment and by property was described as the ―the preserving cultural properties, we product and witness of the different are directly contributing to the traditions and of the spiritual

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development of such an recommendations, the delegates environment considered fresh dangers at this The conferences, in coming up with level. They recognised that the loss the recommendations on cultural of any natural or cultural heritage property preservation, also item would mean an irreversible recognised the roles impoverishment of that heritage. It industrialization plays in the was decided that every country that development of people‘s spiritual had any heritage sites or items and national fulfilment. The should be chiefly responsible for however stated that a lot of safeguarding them and ensuring that prehistoric and historic monuments they were handed down to future and remains were being threatened generations. Some of the by private and public works recommendations and debates were resulting from urbanization and similar to those of 1968. However, industrial development. These the meeting of 1972 approved some conferences also agreed that it was protective measures including the primarily the duty of the following: government in whose country or 1. Regular surveillance of the territory such a heritage was situated components of the heritage sites to ensure that they were protected by means of periodic inspection. and preserved. In carrying out their 2. Any work required on the duties of socioeconomic heritage should be preceded by development which is largely driven very careful and thorough studies by industrialization, there is a need as may be required. These for government to harmonize the studies should be carried out by preservation of the cultural heritages specialists in the field. with the changes that follow from 3. Any work done on the cultural socio-economic development. heritage should be done with the Finally, it was stated that the best aim of preserving its traditional way to guaranty the preservation appearance and protecting it and protection of cultural properties from any new construction which would be by strengthening, through might impair it or its adequate measures, the feeling of surrounding. attachment and respect people have 4. Member states should investigate for those heritages. methods of protection of those In 1972 another convention with a components of the heritage sites similar theme was held concerning before adopting them. the protection, at national level, of 5. Member states should keep the cultural and natural heritage. abreast of latest technologies in While coming up with the transportation, communication

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and other appropriate areas for should also be set up to enlighten the scientific study of the sites the public at these sites.

and for people‘s enjoyment These suggestions and 6. Components of the heritage recommendations were further should be protected individually reiterated in future conferences held or collectively by legislations or in 1976, 1978, and 1980. They all regulations. shared similar views on the 7. No building should be erected nor preservation and maintenance of demolition, transformation, natural and cultural heritages. modification or deforestation Although their areas of focus were carried out on any property slightly different from conference to situated on or in the vicinity of a conference, the recommendations protected site, if it is likely to and arguments generally followed a affect its appearance, without similar pattern. authorization by the officials in In 1980, the Belgrade conference charge. was concerned with the status of the 8. The government should set aside artist. It recognised that the art in its a sizeable amount in the budget broadest form and definition is an for the protection of natural and integral part of life (Unesco, 1980). cultural sites and heritages. Artist, according to the definition 9. Expenditure on these sites should given by the meeting, is taken to be borne by their users and mean any person who creates or owners as much as possible. gives expression to or recreates 10. Consideration should be given works of art; who considers his or to indemnify owners of protected her artistic creation to be an properties for any loss they might essential part of life; who incur from their protective and contributes in this way to the preservation programmes. development of art and culture and The delegates at the meeting also who is or asks to be recognised as suggested that universities and an artist, whether or not he or she is places of learning should organize bound by any relations of regular courses on the history of art, employment or association. This architecture, the environment and meeting, unlike others, was town planning with regard to basically concerned about people preservation and protection of with artistic destiny; about people cultural and natural heritages. who create cultural heritages Member states should carry out through their artistic mind and how educational campaigns to create they and their works can be awareness and public interest in and protected socially and financially. respect for the heritages. Museums

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The meeting acknowledged that operating with relevant national artists play an important role in the and international organizations growth and evolution of a society. whose activities are related to

The conference extended their the objective of promoting discussion about the artist to the artworks and artists. The areas of vocation and training. It organizations include the was recommended that artists National Commissions for should be trained and given Unesco, national and education to stimulate their artistic international artists' talent while institutions should organizations, the International develop curriculums for courses in Labour Organization and the the arts, seek incentives like World Intellectual Property scholarships and fellowships for Organization. interested artists and so on. 2. Member States should, by the most appropriate means, support The conference also touched on the the work of the above- social status of the artist. This has to mentioned bodies representing do with granting the artists the artists and enlist their public recognition they deserve, professional co-operation to ensuring that they benefit from the enable artists benefit from their rights and protection provided for in works and achieve greater legislations relating to human rights status. and recognising the rights of the trade unions and other professional Subgroup 2: Satellite broadcasting & other electronic organisations to represent and media defend their interests. On the issue The second subgroup consists of all of employment, working and living meetings and conferences on conditions of the artist, the meeting communication covering any issues recommended that measures must or recommendations as regards to be taken to support artists at the satellite broadcasting and other beginning of their careers, promote electronic media. From the data the employment of artist in their generated, there are four own disciplines as well as stimulate conferences under this category the public and private demand for from 1967 to 1983. These the works of these artists amongst conferences were held in Paris, other things. Brussels and Belgrade and were Concerning the status of the artist, concerned primarily with the laws the following were recommended: on broadcasting, the preservation 1. Member states should garner and safeguarding of moving images support for artists by co- and the roles of the media in

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 promoting peace and international to the report containing the understanding. guidelines, the objective of satellite

The first meeting held in Paris in broadcasting for communication is 1972 was convened to discuss the to ensure the widest possible principles and guidelines for the use dissemination of information among of satellite broadcasting for the free the people of the world in a fair and flow of information and the spread accurate manner. The dissemination of education, and greater cultural should be guided by the principles change. The convention recognised and rules of international law which that satellite provides a new means includes but is not limited to the of disseminating information, Charter of the United Nations and knowledge and promoting the Outer Space treaty (NASA, understanding between people, 1967). Moreover, the use of thereby establishing a new satellites for broadcasting should be dimension in international based on international co-operation communication. and account must be taken of the

UNESCO‘S guidelines on needs and rights of the audiences, as international communication well as the objectivity of narratives, emerged in line with the United peace, friendship and co-operation. Nations General Assembly With regards to education, the resolution 2733 (XXV) of objectives of satellite broadcasting December 16, 1970 (there is also a according to the Unesco report are B version) on international and to accelerate the expansion of regional cooperation in the peaceful education, extend educational uses of outer space. These opportunities, improve the content guidelines were meant to promote of school curriculums and assist in the use of satellite broadcasting for the struggle against literacy. Article the advancement of education and 6.2 of the guidelines suggests that training, science and culture, in each country has control over consultation with appropriate educational contents broadcast by satellite to its people. intergovernmental and non- governmental organisations. The next meeting regarding satellite

There are 18 guidelines for the use broadcasting was held in Brussels in of satellite broadcasting. In a 1974 and was concerned with the nutshell the guidelines promote an distribution of programmes carrying apolitical use of satellite signals transmitted by satellite. At broadcasting in a manner that the convention signal was defined as respects the sovereignty and an electronically-generated carrier equality of all countries. According capable of transmitting programmes while satellite is any device in extra-

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 terrestrial space capable of media regardless of frontiers. These transmitting signals. Distributor is freedoms, adopted by the general the person or legal entity that assembly of the United Nations in decides what programme the 1965, were designed to eradicate all emitted signals will carry (Unesco, acts of racial discrimination and 1974). prevent segregationist policies.

The contracting states were aware The convention‘s declaration states that the use of satellites for that the mass media have an broadcasting was rapidly growing in important role to play in countering volume and geographical coverage. racism and incitement of war as well They were concerned there were no as educating young people in the laws or systems in place to prevent spirit of peace, justice, freedom, transmitting the programme- mutual respect and understanding to carrying signals which were not promote human rights, leading to intended for the distributors. This socio-economic progress. With the dilemma led to their conviction that declaration, the international an international system should be community is expected to create the established to provide measures that condition for a free flow, and wide would prevent distributors from and balanced dissemination, of distributing unauthorized signals. information. Bilateral and They hoped to achieve this without multilateral exchanges of prejudice to the existing laws and information among Unesco agreements including the members shall be encouraged and International Telecommunications developed. Convention and the Radio The last conference concerning Regulations. broadcasting and the use of satellites

In 1978 another convention was during the period under review was held relating to broadcasting but, held in 1980 in Belgrade and was this time focused on the declaration concerned with safeguarding and on the fundamental principles preserving moving images. At the concerning the distribution of mass conference, moving images were media content to strengthen peace defined as any series of images and and international understanding. recorded on a support with or This convention was organised in without accompanying sound, line with the fundamental human which when projected impart and right of freedom of opinion and impressions of motion intended for expression, which includes the communication and distribution to freedom to receive and impart the public or made for information and ideas through any documentation purposes. Three categories of moving images -

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 television productions, videographic Legal and administrative actions and productions and Cinematographic procedures were also recommended, productions – were identified. including that the material deposited The following recommendations shall be preserved in officially were considered at the conference: recognised film or television 1. Moving images are an archives. Where they do not exist, expression of the cultural every effort shall be made to identity of people and form an establish such institutions at the integral part of a nation‘s national or regional level without cultural heritage. delay. Such deposits shall be made 2. That moving images provide a within a stated time as legislated by means of recording unfolding the government. Officially events. recognised archives shall be 3. That moving images is a new empowered to ask users to make form of expression. reasonable contributions to defray 4. That due to the nature of their the costs of the services provided. material embodiments and the The legal and administrative various methods of their framework suggested here is fixation, moving images are basically to protect moving images extremely vulnerable and should as a national treasure which would be maintained under specific be recognised by law. It provided a technical conditions. framework for all member states to 5. That each member state should legally protect and safeguard take measure to safeguard and moving images. preserve moving images for What is more, some technical posterity. measures to protect moving images 6. That moving images created by were recommended which included people of the world also form creating national filmographies and part of the heritage of humanity catalogues of moving images and amongst other considerations. description of their holdings; It was recommended that collecting, preserving and making appropriate measures should be available for research purposes taken to give the moving image institutional records, personal heritage the protection it needs from papers and other materials that depredations brought about by time document the origin, production, and environment. Measures should distribution and projection of also be taken to prevent loss, moving images, subject to the unwarranted disposal or agreement of those concerned. deterioration of any moving image Standards applicable to the storage, item of national importance. safeguarding, preservation,

Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 restoration and duplication of With regard to the implementation moving images must be rigorously of recommendations on cultural applied. heritage, the government of Nigeria

Each conference submitted that has conferred trusteeship of the sites these recommendations, if properly to the respective state governments implemented, would successfully under the Land Use Act of 1990. create a proper way of protecting This ensures that the sites are well and safeguarding moving images taken care of and have a sizeable and invariably the cultural heritage budget for their maintenance. The of the people. Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove, for instance, enjoys some assistance Discussion of findings from the federal government which Recommendations regarding provides some administrative Cultural and Natural heritage support through a site manager who This study uses Nigeria as yardstick is an officer of the National to measure how Unesco Commission for Museums and recommendations translated to Monuments. This is without actions. Nigeria is signatory to, and prejudice to the activities of the has been a very active participant in, Osun State government as a trustee. Unesco meetings and conventions. The relevant local government It is impressive to note hat the authorities also contribute to the country has ensured that no fewer protection and management in some than two sites have been established other ways, including maintaining on the world heritage list - the Sukur cleanliness and order during Cultural Landscape in 1999 and the festivities. Osun-Osogbo Sacred Grove in 2005. The country has also On the recommendation that people submitted another 12 sites for should have a feeling of attachment tentative addition to the list. This in and respect for these sites, the itself is a welcome development, as Nigerian government has worked it means Nigeria is beginning to with traditional leaders where these place some value on its cultural cultural heritages are situated. In heritage. This is not surprising. As a Osun state for instance, traditional member of Unesco, Nigeria is laws, myths, taboos and customs expected to participate in the that forbid people from causing any discussions and implement kind of damage to heritage sites recommendations made by the have been put in place and this body. Being a signatory to the measure has been very effective in body‘s existence and activities keeping poachers, miscreants, and carries with it some responsibilities. unapproved explorers away. However, it is not clear if people

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Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 whose land is affected by these According to Adesioye (2011), the protective measures have been duly buying and collection of Nigerian compensated as recommended. It is art is on the rise as more exhibitions also important to note that museums open, on the back of growing surge or exhibition points are not visible of interest from the domestic and near these sites as recommended by international contemporary art Unesco. community. Mention should be

From the foregoing, it is viable to made of the fact that although these aver that Unesco meetings, recommendations were set forth by conferences and conventions have Unesco in 1980, significant progress helped in ensuring that Nigeria in implementation was only places the right value on some of noticeable in the late 1990s. In fact, her cultural heritages. Before the first commercially successful art Unesco intervention, these sites auction in Nigeria did not take place were characterized by disorder, until 2008. Since then, some artists decrepit buildings and low value. are believed to be laughing all the way to the bank. Indigenes of Osun and Anambra States – home to the two pioneering It should, however, be noted that sites in Nigeria are very proud of much of the progress was made these sites and the way they are possible by private individuals with being maintained. The elation is little or no support from understandable. The declaration by government. The overburdening of Unesco as heritage sites has aided the private sector is contrary to the development and encouraged many Unesco‘s recommendation that diasporic citizens to come back government should support the art home and invest. Besides that, these by creating an enabling sites organize rendezvous quarterly environment, amongst other or yearly (often with foreigners in responsibilities. Compared to attendance) to encourage family European communities where local reunions and generate revenue for artists are at the forefront of creating the authorities. some of the most dazzling

Recommendations regarding the monuments and landmarks, status of the artist Nigerian artists are hardly Nigeria, in some ways, has considered in bids for arts contracts implemented a lot of Unesco as most jobs are awarded to recommendations as a lot of foreigners at exorbitant prices. recognition is being accorded the art Local artists complain often about industry with many artists receiving being poorly paid for job well done. international awards for their craft. The Nigerian government must encourage artists by creating the

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Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 empowering environment for international understanding suggest creativity and the business that access to information should be architecture for the art value chain. guaranteed by the diversity of the

Recommendations regarding sources and means. But as noted satellite broadcasting and other earlier, these rights are subjective electronic media and the process of information Noticeable progress has been made sharing is not the same in all as regards satellite broadcasting and countries, as ideology and cultural development of the mass media in makeup of those countries as well as Nigeria. However, a lot still needs ownership of the media play a to be done in the area of objectivity critical role. The crave for profit and (Omojola, 2008; 2011; Okorie, et al. hyper-competition have made the 2017; Okorie, et al. 2018). It Unesco recommendations outdated. appears that the principles guiding The body in its future meetings journalism practice in the country must put into cognizance the role of are in space and not in place. It is a the internet via the new media, well-known fact that governments, citizen journalism, media at various times, have implemented ownership, the hyper-competition policies that restrained the freedom that characterize media practice of of the press, leading to today and other critical factors victimization, harassment, before coming up with fresh imprisonment or death of journalists recommendations. Unesco must and it wouldn‘t make a difference look beyond the fundamental rights whether the government in power is and consider these foregoing factors military or civilian. This harassment in order to be relevant in today‘s hinders the practice and make world. If Unesco has already come reporters dance to the tune of their up with fresh recommendations, harassers. In May 2013, Nigeria they are not visible yet. The body was added to the list of countries should let the world know about the that are not safe for journalism latest developments concerning their practice. In certain cases, reporters activities especially in the area of are killed or harassed while the mass media and journalism perpetrators escape arrest and practice. prosecution (Armitage & Winckler, The weakness of UNESCO 2013). recommendations (which makes

Although the recommendations on implementation cumbersome or the fundamental principles on the impossible) notwithstanding, the contribution of the mass media to traditional mass media and the new strengthening peace and media have played noticeable role in Nigeria and the world. The highly

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Nkiru Comfort Ezeh & Augustine Godwin Mboso CJOC (2018) 5(2) 44-65 significant eye-opening role played but the fact remains that the during the Arab Spring (uprisings) recommendations and of 2011 (Cottle, 2011) is a case in implementation of these guidelines point. Furthermore, in spite of the are yet to form a seamless sequence. challenges, the Nigerian media are Countries would continue to censor believed to be doing all they could and control the media owing to to hold the government accountable. cultural disparities and ideological Today, the Nigerian media are being differences (Lull, 1980). More touted to be the fairest and freest in attention needs to be given to the Africa even when the concept of preservation and storage of moving ‗free and fair‘ is yet to be images and the first step would be to comprehensively defined and create an awareness and operationalized. appreciation of these images and its

accompanying technologies. With regard to the safeguarding and preservation of moving images, a lot Conclusion and of recommendations and Recommendations suggestions were made by Unesco, This article has looked at the which, if properly implemented, communication meetings held would help to preserve history for between 1967 and 1984 under the posterity. However, what obtains in communications themes organised most developing countries with by Unesco. Unimpressively, particular reference to Nigeria, is however, the various that there is hardly a central place to recommendations could not archive moving images produced in translate to significant these countries. The existence of a implementation owing to problems central archive is crucial not only and challenges that span local, for storage but also referencing, national, international and entertainment or research purposes. multilateral levels. The foregoing The Nigerian film and video census conclusion leads to the following board is being saddled with the recommendations: responsibility of vetting moving 1. Indigenes and locals where images in Nigeria before they are cultural and natural heritages released (Daramola., Hamilton, & are located should be Omojola, 2014). It is not clear yet if encouraged to participate in the the body can also pass for a credible promotion and conservation of archive for moving images. these sites. To achieve this, the

From the foregoing it is clear that government needs to carry out these Unesco guidelines were sensitization campaigns that created with the best of intentions, inform indigenes of the importance and pride in having

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these cultural and natural censor‘s board has been given heritage sites. This should be this responsibility, then the noted in subsequent Unesco body should be held recommendations. accountable. 2. Museums should be situated 4. The arts need to be taken more close to these cultural and seriously in Nigeria. The natural heritage sites. This will Nigerian government as a help provide the necessary matter of urgency should outlaw information – its history, outsourcing of art works to meaning, importance, etc.- for foreigners. Every state in visitors and tourists. Unesco Nigeria needs to be encouraged recommended this but the to organise at least one art recommendation was not given exhibition every year to the emphasis it desired. showcase local talents and 3. A physical and electronic library create an avenue to generate should be set up by the Nigerian much needed revenue for the government to store all moving country. images. Standards and 5. The same emphasis placed by benchmarks need to be set for the government on popular movie and documentary in order music should also be placed on to allow their movies to be the arts. Afterall, the arts are not archived in this way. If the only about music, they are also Nigeria‘s film and video about fine art.

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