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NEUROBIONICS the Biomedical Engineering of Neural Prostheses k NEUROBIONICS k k k k k k k k NEUROBIONICS The Biomedical Engineering of Neural Prostheses Edited by ROBERT K. SHEPHERD Bionics Institute & The University of Melbourne, Australia k k k k Copyright © 2016 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey Published simultaneously in Canada No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended bysales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. k k Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Names: Shepherd, Robert K., editor. Title: Neurobionics : the biomedical engineering of neural prostheses / edited by Robert K. Shepherd. Other titles: Neurobionics (Shepherd) Description: Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2016] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016002807 (print) | LCCN 2016004110 (ebook) |ISBN 9781118814871 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118816141 (pdf) | ISBN 9781118816035 (epub) Subjects: | MESH: Nervous System Physiological Phenomena | Bionics | Neural Prostheses | Brain-Computer Interfaces Classification: LCC R857.M3 (print) | LCC R857.M3 (ebook) | NLM WL 102|DDC 610.28–dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016002807 Cover image: Getty/Hemera Technologies Inset image: Inset Photo used with permission of the Bionics Institute, East Melbourne, Australia Typeset in 10/12pt TimesLTStd by SPi Global, Chennai, India 10987654321 k k This book is dedicated to my wife, Ursula, for her wonderful support, encouragement and counsel over the last 40 years; to our children Damon and Anna; their partners Jo and Junior; and our grandchildren Harley, Michaela, Jordan and Heidi who enrich our lives daily. k k k k k k k k CONTENTS LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xv k PREFACE xvii k PART I FUNDAMENTALS OF NEURAL PROSTHESES 1 1 The Historical Foundations of Bionics 3 N. Donaldson and G.S. Brindley 1.1 Bionics Past and Future 3 1.2 History in 1973 5 1.2.1 Biomaterials 5 1.2.2 Nerve stimulation and recording 6 1.2.3 Transistors 8 1.2.4 Conclusion 9 1.3 Anaesthesia 9 1.4 Aseptic Surgery 10 1.5 Clinical Observation and Experiments 10 1.6 Hermetic Packages 13 1.6.1 Vacuum methods 14 1.6.2 Welding 15 1.6.3 Glass 15 1.6.4 Glass ceramics and solder glasses 16 1.6.5 Ceramics 18 1.6.6 Microcircuit technologies 19 vii k k viii CONTENTS 1.6.7 Leak testing 20 1.7 Encapsulation (Electrical Insulation) 20 1.7.1 Insulation 20 1.7.2 Underwater insulation 21 1.7.3 Silicones 21 1.7.4 Primers 24 1.8 Early Implanted Devices 27 1.9 Afterword 29 References 35 2 Development of Stable Long-term Electrode Tissue Interfaces for Recording and Stimulation 38 J. Schouenborg 2.1 Introduction 38 2.2 Tissue Responses in the Brain to an Implanted Foreign Body 39 2.2.1 Acute tissue responses 39 2.2.2 Chronic tissue responses 40 2.2.3 On the importance of physiological conditions 40 2.3 Brain Computer Interfaces (BCI) – State-of-the-Art 41 2.4 Biocompatibility of BCI – on the Importance of Mechanical Compliance 42 k 2.5 Novel Electrode Constructs and Implantation Procedures 45 k 2.5.1 Methods to implant ultraflexible electrodes 45 2.5.2 Surface configurations 46 2.5.3 Matrix embedded electrodes 47 2.5.4 Electrode arrays encorporating drugs 49 2.6 Concluding Remarks 50 Acknowledgements 51 References 51 3 Electrochemical Principles of Safe Charge Injection 55 S.F. Cogan, D.J. Garrett, and R.A. Green 3.1 Introduction 55 3.2 Charge Injection Requirements 56 3.2.1 Stimulation levels for functional responses 56 3.2.2 Tissue damage thresholds 56 3.2.3 Charge injection processes 58 3.2.4 Capacitive charge injection 58 3.2.5 Faradaic charge injection 60 3.2.6 Stimulation waveforms 61 3.2.7 Voltage transient analysis 63 3.3 Electrode Materials 70 3.3.1 Non-noble metal electrodes 70 3.3.2 Noble metals 70 k k CONTENTS ix 3.3.3 High surface area capacitor electrodes 70 3.3.4 Three-dimensional noble metal oxide films 71 3.4 Factors Influencing Electrode Reversibility 71 3.4.1 In vivo versus saline charge injection limits 71 3.4.2 Degradation mechanisms and irreversible reactions 72 3.5 Emerging Electrode Materials 73 3.5.1 Intrinsically conductive polymers 73 3.5.2 Carbon nanotubes and conductive diamond 76 3.6 Conclusion 80 References 80 4 Principles of Recording from and Electrical Stimulation of Neural Tissue 89 J.B. Fallon and P.M. Carter 4.1 Introduction 89 4.2 Anatomy and Physiology of Neural Tissue 90 4.2.1 Active neurons 91 4.3 Physiological Principles of Recording from Neural Tissue 94 4.3.1 Theory of recording 94 4.3.2 Recording electrodes 95 4.3.3 Amplification 98 k 4.3.4 Imaging 100 k 4.4 Principles of Stimulation of Neural Tissue 101 4.4.1 Introduction 101 4.4.2 Principles of neural stimulator design 101 4.4.3 Modelling nerve stimulation 104 4.4.4 The activating function 106 4.4.5 Properties of nerves under electrical stimulation 107 4.5 Safety of Electrical Stimulation 110 4.5.1 Safe stimulation limits 110 4.5.2 Metabolic stress 112 4.5.3 Electrochemical stress 114 4.6 Conclusion 117 References 117 PART II DEVICE DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT 121 5 Wireless Neurotechnology for Neural Prostheses 123 A. Nurmikko, D. Borton, and M. Yin 5.1 Introduction 123 5.2 Rationale and Overview of Technical Challenges Associated with Wireless Neuroelectronic Interfaces 126 5.3 Wireless Brain Interfaces Require Specialized Microelectronics 129 k k x CONTENTS 5.3.1 Lessons learned from cabled neural interfaces 129 5.3.2 Special demands for compact wireless neural interfaces 130 5.4 Illustrative Microsystems for High Data Rate Wireless Brain Interfaces in Primates 133 5.5 Power Supply and Management for Wireless Neural Interfaces 140 5.6 Packaging and Challenges in Hermetic Sealing 143 5.7 Deployment of High Data Rate Wireless Recording in Freely Moving Large Animals 146 5.7.1 Sample Case A: Implant in freely moving minipigs in home cage 147 5.7.2 Sample Case B: Implant in freely moving non-human primate in home cage 148 5.7.3 Case C: External head mounted wireless neurosensor in freely moving non-human primates 149 5.8 Summary and Prospects for High Data Rate Brain Interfaces for Neural Prostheses 153 Acknowledgements 157 References 157 6 Preclinical testing of Neural Prostheses 162 D. McCreery k 6.1 Introduction 162 k 6.2 Biocompatibility Testing of Neural Implants 163 6.3 Testing for Mechanical and Electrical Integrity 165 6.4 In vitro Accelerated Testing and Accelerated Aging of Neural Implants 166 6.5 In vivo Testing of Neural Prostheses 171 6.6 Conclusion 181 References 182 PART III CLINICAL APPLICATIONS 187 7 Auditory and Visual Neural Prostheses 189 R.K. Shepherd, P.M. Seligman, and M.N. Shivdasani 7.1 Introduction 189 7.2 Auditory Prostheses 190 7.2.1 The auditory system 190 7.2.2 Hearing loss 191 7.2.3 Cochlear implants 191 7.2.4 Central auditory prostheses 195 7.2.5 Combined electric and acoustic stimulation 198 7.2.6 Bilateral cochlear implants 198 7.2.7 Future directions 199 k k CONTENTS xi 7.3 Visual Prostheses 199 7.3.1 The visual system 199 7.3.2 Vision loss 201 7.3.3 Retinal prostheses 201 7.3.4 Central visual prostheses 204 7.3.5 Perceptual effects of visual prostheses 204 7.3.6 Future directions 206 7.4 Sensory Prostheses and Brain Plasticity 206 7.5 Conclusions 207 Acknowledgements 207 References 207 8 Neurobionics: Treatments for Disorders of the Central Nervous System 213 H. McDermott 8.1 Introduction 213 8.2 Psychiatric Conditions 215 8.2.1 Obsessive-compulsive disorder 215 8.2.2 Major depression 218 8.3 Movement Disorders 219 8.3.1 Essential Tremor 219 k 8.3.2 Parkinson’s disease 219 k 8.3.3 Dystonia 220 8.3.4 Tourette’s syndrome 221 8.4 Epilepsy 221 8.5 Pain 223 8.6 Future directions 223 Acknowledgements 227 References 227 9 Brain Computer Interfaces 231 D.M.
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