Robots and Biological Systems: Towards a New Bionics? NATO ASI Series Advanced Science Institutes Series A series presenting the results of activities sponsored by the NA TO Science Committee, which aims at the dissemination of advanced scientific and technological knowledge, with a view to strengthening links between scientific communities. The Series is published by an international board of publishers in conjunction with the NATO Scientific Affairs Division
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Series F: Computer and Systems Sciences Vol. 102 Robots and Biological Systems: Towards a New Bionics?
Edited by Paolo Dario ARTS Lab, Scuola Superiore S. Anna 56127 Pisa, Italy Giulio Sandini OIST, Universita degli Studi di Genova 16145 Genova, Italy Patrick Aebischer Oivision de Recherche chirurgicale, Pav. 3 CHUV, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg GmbH Proceedings of the NATO Advanced Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, held al II Ciocco, Toscana, Ilaly, June 26-30, 1989
CR Subject Classification (1991): 1.2.9, J.3
ISBN 978-3-642-63461-1 ISBN 978-3-642-58069-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-58069-7
This work is subiect to copyright. AII rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1993 Originally published by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York in 1993 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1993 Typesetting: Camera ready by authors 45/3140 - 5 4 3 210 - Printed on acid-free paper Preface
Defined as a kind of applied cybernetics, bionics evolved in the 1960s as a framework to pursue the development of artificial systems based on the study of biological systems. The primary goal of bionics, as defined by one of its pioneers, Henning E. Von Gierke, was "to extend man's physical and intellectual capabilities by pros• thetic devices in the most general sense, and to replace man by automata and intelligent machines". These objectives were pursued using models from the animal kingdom. For example, the ability of owls to swoop as quietly as they do, or the ability of beetles to create topographical maps of the terrain over which they fly, were examined. Numerous disciplines and technologies (some of which were still in their infancy), including artificial intelligence and learning devices, information processing, systems architecture and control, perception, sensory mechanisms, bioenergetics, etc., contributed to bionics research. Attempts to develop intelligent machines by uncovering the principles underlying nature's examples proved to be more difficult than expected. In fact, the lack of implementation of some of the proposed models of intelligent biological systems into intelligent machines highlighted both the inadequacy of theoretical models alone, and the limitations of available technology. This book contains revised papers originating from a NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Robots and Biological Systems, held in 11 Ciocco, Italy, in June 1989, which was attended by about 60 scientists from 12 different countries. The purpose of the workshop was to explore the relationship between biological systems and robotic systems, and to discuss the question of whether the attempt to replicate the skilled behavior of biological systems in artificial systems has a better chance to be successful now than 30 years ago. The workshop was sponsored by the NATO Scientific Affairs Division, within the special program on Sensory Systems for Robotic Control. The different perspectives proposed during the presentations stimulated many fruitful discussions and identified some strategic areas and future objectives for research on "new bionics". VI
A consensus emerged on the value of the concept of "learning from nature" in order to derive guidelines for the design of intelligent machines (even if not incorporating anthropomorphic features) which operate in unstructured environments. The significant progress in basic knowledge and technology that has occurred over the past 30 years has been recognized, and the need for continuous development in both areas has been indicated as a crucial factor for the fields of bionics and robotics. This research effort should be devoted on one hand to the understanding of the functions of biological systems, and on the other to the study of artificial sensory and motor subsystems and their coordination. Experimental robotics will playa crucial role in this respect. However, the goal of designing and fabricating robotic systems with capabilities comparable to those of superior animal species remains elusive. Participants agreed that current science and technology would allow for the development of machines incorporating insect-like intelligence. Far from being reductive, this objective is significant since an insect-like autonomous robot would rely on advanced mechanical structures, sensors, actuators, control mechanisms, energy sources, etc., in order to be capable of intelligent sensory-motor behavior. Moreover, the exercise of assembling such insect-like robots as physical models of biological systems would allow for a verification of underlying design principles, as well as for an extensive testing of basic technologies and sensory-motor integration. Finally, insect-like micro-machines could have a number of useful applications in the field of advanced robotics, e.g., in monitoring and inspections. In conclusion, the idea of revisiting the bionic approach to intelligent systems seems appropriate, especially in the light of present technological achievements and scientific knowledge. The book comprises seven parts, each reflecting the objective of comparing the state-of-the-art in critical areas of biological and machine intelligence. The first three parts of the book are devoted to discussing sensory-motor aspects of vision, prosthetic hands and tactile perception, and legged locomotion. The fourth part presents a systematic comparison of intelligent motor control in biological and artificial systems, and also includes novel design concepts for actuation mechanisms. The fifth and sixth parts cover some technological aspects related to sensors, actuators, and interfaces between artificial devices and the nervous system. The final part explores the problem of cooperation among multiple units, and the emergence of collective intelligent behavior. VII
We wish to point out that the intensive work and fruitful discussions which were essential in achieving a successful workshop would have been impossible without the active and enthusiastic contribution of all participants. The environment at Il Ciocco also played a significant role in creating a relaxed and constructive atmosphere. Ms. Lucia Lilli was very helpful in the editorial work associated with the assembly of this book.
January 1993 PaoloDario Giulio Sandini Patrick Aebischer Table of Contents
Part 1. Vision and Dynamic Systems
Active Perception and Exploratory Robotics ...... 3 R. Bajcsy
Object Identification and Search: Animate Vision Alternatives to Image Interpretation ...... 21 M.J. Swain, L.E. Wixson, D.H. Ballard
A Model of Human Feature Detection Based on Matched Filters ...... 43 M.C. Morrone, D.C. Burr
Visualizing and Understanding Patterns of Brain Architecture . 65 A. Rojer, EL. Schwartz
Dynamic Vision . . . . 89 H. Wechsler, L. Zimmerman
A Model of the Acquisition of Object Representations in Human 3D Visual Recognition ...... , 99 S. Edelman, D. Weinshall, H.H. Biilthofj, T. Poggio
Part 2. Hands and Tactile Perception
The Perception of Mechanical Stimuli Through the Skin of the Hand and Its Physiological Bases ...... 121 R.T. Verrillo, SJ. Bolanowski, Jr.
Borrowing Some Ideas from Biological Manipulators to Design an Artificial One ...... 139 V. Hayward
Mechanical Design for Whole-Arm Manipulation 153 W.T. Townsend, J.K. Salisbury
Whole-Hand Manipulation: Design of an Articulated Hand Exploiting All Its Parts to Increase Dexterity ...... 165 G. Vassura, A. Bicchi x
Stable Grasping and Manipulation by a Multifinger Hand with the Capability of Compliance Control ...... 179 K. Tanie, M. Kaneko
Part 3. Locomotion
Mobile Robots - the Lessons from Nature 193 D.J. Todd
Quadruped Walking Machine - Creation of the Model of Motion 207 A. Morecki, T. Zielinska
Biped Locomotion by FNS: Control Issues and an ANN Implementation 223 G.F.lnbar
How Fast Can a Legged Robot Run? ...... 239 J. Koechling, MH. Raibert
Robot Biped Walking Stabilized with Trunk Motion...... 271 A. Takanishi
Part 4. Intelligent Motor Control
A New Concept of the Role of Proprioceptive and Recurrent Inhibitory Feedback in Motor Control ...... 295 U. Windhorst
Analogic Models for Robot Programming ...... 319 R. Zaccaria, P. Morasso, G. Vercelli
Structural Constraints and Computational Problems in Motor Control ...... 339 FA. Mussa-Ivaldi, E. Rizzi
Motion Control in Intelligent Machines 361 A. Meystel
Control of Contact in Robots and Biological Systems 395 N.Hogan
Motor Control Simulation of Time Optimal Fast Movement in Man ...... 411 B. Hannaford, L. Stark XI
Constraints on Underspecified Target Trajectories ...... 419 Ml.Jordan
Proposal for a Pattern Matching Task Controller for Sensor-Based Coordination of Robot Motions ...... 445 M. Brooks
Sensory-Motor Mapping with a Sequential Network ...... 457 L. Massone, E. Bizzi
Part 5. Design Technologies
Flexible Robot Manipulators and Grippers: Relatives of Elephant Trunks and Squid Tentacles ...... 475 J.F. Wilson, D. Li, Z. Chen, R.T. George, Jr.
Progress in the Design and Control of Pseudomuscular Linear Actuators .. 495 G. Casalino, P. Chiarelli, D. De Rossi, G. Genuini, P. Morasso, M. Solari
Shape Memory Alloy Linear Actuators for Tendon-Based Biomorphic Actuating Systems ...... 507 M. Bergamasco, F. Salsedo, P. Dario
CCD Retina and Neural Net Processor. 535 AM. Chiang
Retina-Like CCD Sensor for Active Vision ..... 553 G. Sandini, P. Dario, D.M. De Micheli, M. Tistarelli
Designing Artificial Structures from Biological Models 571 M. Aizawa, H. Shinohara
Design Strategies for Gas and Odour Sensors Which Mimic the Olfactory System . . . , ...... 579 K.C. Persaud, J. Bartlett, P. Pelosi
Part 6. Interfacing Robots to Nervous System
Multi-Electrode Stimulation of Myelinated Nerve Fibers. 605 PH. Veltink, J.A. van Alste, J. Holsheimer XII
The Role of Materials in Designing Nerve Guidance Channels and Chronic Neural Interfaces ...... 625 R.F. Valentini, P. Aebischer
Regeneration-Type Peripheral Nerve Interfaces for Direct ManlMachine Communication...... 637 G.T.A. Kovacs, I.M. Rosen
Integrated Bioelectronic Transducers ...... 667 M. Grattarola, A. Cambiaso, S. Cenderelli, S. Martinoia, M.T. Parodi, M. Tedesco
Part 7. Robot Societies and Self·Organization
A Robot Being ...... 679 R.A. Brooks, A.M. Flynn
Swarm Intelligence in Cellular Robotic Systems ...... 703 G. Beni, 1. Wang
A Control Architecture for Cooperative Intelligent Robots ...... 713 I.S. Albus
Cellular Robotics - Construction of Complicated Systems from Simple Functions ...... 745 T. Fukuda, Y. Kawauchi
List of Participants ...... 783