DOCSLIB.ORG

Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity in the Sea Urchin Lytechinus Variegatus

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity in the Sea Urchin Lytechinus Variegatus Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity in the Sea Urchin Lytechinus Variegatus by Maria Letizia Wise University Program in Ecology Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Daniel Rittschof, Supervisor ___________________________ David McClay ___________________________ William Kirby-Smith ___________________________ Mark Fonseca Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Ecology in the Graduate School of Duke University 2011 ABSTRACT Phenotypic and Genetic Diversity in the Sea Urchin Lytechinus Variegatus by Maria Letizia Wise University Program in Ecology Duke University Date:_______________________ Approved: ___________________________ Daniel Rittschof, Supervisor ___________________________ David McClay ___________________________ William Kirby-Smith ___________________________ Mark Fonseca An abstract of a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Ecology in the Graduate School of Duke University 2011 Copyright by Maria Letizia Wise 2011 Abstract Diversity in coloration is a common phenomenon in marine invertebrates, although the ecological significance of the diversity is often unknown. Patterns of geographic variability, particularly with respect to color phenotypes, are evident in many organisms and may provide visual evidence of natural selection. This dissertation examined the geographic and genetic variability of color patterns and morphology of the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus. This study had 3 objectives: 1) to describe and quantify phenotypic diversity—color and morphology— throughout the geographic range; 2) to determine the heritability of color in genetic crosses between individuals with similar and differing phenotype; 3) to assess the degree of genetic divergence between and within the regions and congruence between the phylogenetic mitochondrial COI data and color phenotypes seen in the field. The distribution of color phenotypes in the field is highly variable across the geographic range which stretches from Beaufort NC to southern Brazil and throughout the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean. Urchins in each of the 5 regions sampled (Beaufort, Gulf, Keys, Panama and Brazil) have a distinct phenotypic composition despite the presence of similar color morphs. The two regions at the extremes—Beaufort and Brazil—demonstrate the most homogeneous phenotypes, each with a single dominant color morph. The Keys has the most heterogeneous composition with all 14 color morphs present. Morphological diversity mirrors color diversity in being highly variable iv across the range. Urchins in Beaufort are significantly different morphologically from urchins in the central portion of the range, with thicker, flatter tests and longer more robust spines. The heritability of color phenotypes and morphology suggests that genes rather than environment have a major role in color phenotype and patterning as well as morphology in test, spines and lanterns. F1 and F2 offspring of Beaufort and Tavernier Key crosses resemble the parental phenotypes in both morphology and color phenotype. Hybrids from crosses between regions have a mixed color palette and intermediate morphological characteristics. The crosses establish that in L. variegatus the white phenotype is a dominant autosomal trait and green and purple are recessive and co- expressed. Patterning of the test and spines is dominant to non-patterning. Analysis of the mitochondrial COI gene in urchins from Beaufort, Gulf and Keys regions revealed two clades. Clade 1 composed exclusively of Keys urchins differed significantly (FST = 0.89, P < 0.001) from Clade 2 composed of urchins from Beaufort, Gulf and Keys. Genetic differentiation within Clade 2 was zero, indicating that urchins in these regions are genetically identical. The genetic split between phenotypically indistinguishable Keys urchins suggests cryptic species. Genetic differentiation does not concord with phenotypic and morphological differentiation. No structure was detected with regards to color phenotype in either clade or region of origin in Clade 2. v Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................xiv 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 2. Color variability in Lytechinus variegatus ............................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................. 15 2.2.1 Sample sites and urchin habitat .............................................................................. 15 2.2.2 Field surveys of in situ color morphs ...................................................................... 17 2.2.3 In situ color scoring ................................................................................................... 18 2.2.4 Color variability ......................................................................................................... 20 2.2.5 Test color after removal of spines and epidermis ................................................. 21 2.2.6 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 22 2.3 Results .............................................................................................................................. 23 2.3.1 Field surveys of in situ color morphs ...................................................................... 23 2.3.2 Color variability in live urchins ............................................................................... 30 2.3.3 Color variability after removal of spines and epidermis ..................................... 42 2.4 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 53 3. Morphological variability in L. variegatus ............................................................................ 63 vi 3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 63 3.2 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................. 68 3.2.1 Sample Collection ...................................................................................................... 68 3.2.2 Morphological measurements ................................................................................. 69 3.2.3 After removal of spines and epidermis .................................................................. 72 3.2.4 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 73 3.3 Results .............................................................................................................................. 75 3.3.1 Urchin morphology ................................................................................................... 75 3.3.2 Morphology after removal of spines and epidermis ............................................ 95 3.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 102 4. Genetic crosses....................................................................................................................... 114 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 114 4.2 Materials and Methods ................................................................................................ 118 4.2.1 Urchin collection ...................................................................................................... 118 4.2.2 Larval culture ........................................................................................................... 119 4.2.3 Juvenile cultures ...................................................................................................... 122 4.2.4 Crosses ...................................................................................................................... 123 4.3.5 F2 and F3 generations ............................................................................................... 125 4.3.6 Morphological and color variability ..................................................................... 126 4.3 Results ............................................................................................................................ 128 4.3.1 Cross color phenotypes .......................................................................................... 128 4.3.2 Cross F1
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Diets and Coexistence of the Sea Urchins Lytechinus Variegatus and Arbacia Punctulata (Echinodermata) Along the Central Florida Gulf Coast
    MARINE ECOLOGY PROGRESS SERIES Vol. 295: 171–182, 2005 Published June 23 Mar Ecol Prog Ser Diets and coexistence of the sea urchins Lytechinus variegatus and Arbacia punctulata (Echinodermata) along the central Florida gulf coast Janessa Cobb, John M. Lawrence* Department of Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida 33620, USA ABSTRACT: The basis for coexistence of similar species is fundamental in community ecology. One mechanism for coexistence is differentiation of diets. Lytechinus variegatus and Arbacia punctulata coexist in different microhabitats along the Florida gulf coast. Their great difference in morphology might affect their choice of microhabitats and diet. We analyzed diets of both species at 1 offshore and 1 nearshore site where both occurred in relatively equal numbers, an offshore site dominated by A. punctulata and an offshore site dominated by L. variegatus. Gut contents were analyzed to deter- mine the diet. A. punctulata prim. consumed sessile invertebrates except on dates when algal avail- ability was higher than normal. L. variegatus primarily consumed macroflora except on dates when macroflora was extremely limited. Electivity indices revealed no strong preferences for particular species of algae, although L. variegatus consumed many drift species. A. punctulata and L. variega- tus both fed in a random manner, although they avoided particular species of algae known to contain high concentrations of secondary metabolites. The diet of A. punctulata was correlated with algae only over rubble outcroppings at the offshore site with the highest biomass. Diets of offshore popula- tions were more similar to each other, regardless of the presence of conspecifics, than to those of populations at Caspersen Beach (nearshore site).
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Ocean Warming and Acidification on Fertilization Success and Early Larval Development in the Green Sea Urchin, Lytechinus Variegatus Brittney L
    Nova Southeastern University NSUWorks HCNSO Student Theses and Dissertations HCNSO Student Work 12-1-2017 Effects of Ocean Warming and Acidification on Fertilization Success and Early Larval Development in the Green Sea Urchin, Lytechinus variegatus Brittney L. Lenz Nova Southeastern University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/occ_stuetd Part of the Marine Biology Commons, and the Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology Commons Share Feedback About This Item NSUWorks Citation Brittney L. Lenz. 2017. Effects of Ocean Warming and Acidification on Fertilization Success and Early Larval Development in the Green Sea Urchin, Lytechinus variegatus. Master's thesis. Nova Southeastern University. Retrieved from NSUWorks, . (457) https://nsuworks.nova.edu/occ_stuetd/457. This Thesis is brought to you by the HCNSO Student Work at NSUWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in HCNSO Student Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of NSUWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Thesis of Brittney L. Lenz Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science M.S. Marine Biology Nova Southeastern University Halmos College of Natural Sciences and Oceanography December 2017 Approved: Thesis Committee Major Professor: Joana Figueiredo Committee Member: Nicole Fogarty Committee Member: Charles Messing This thesis is available at NSUWorks: https://nsuworks.nova.edu/occ_stuetd/457 HALMOS COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCES AND
    [Show full text]
  • Marc Slattery University of Mississippi Department of Pharmacognosy School of Pharmacy Oxford, MS 38677-1848 (662) 915-1053 [email protected]
    Marc Slattery University of Mississippi Department of Pharmacognosy School of Pharmacy Oxford, MS 38677-1848 (662) 915-1053 [email protected] EDUCATION: Ph.D. Biological Sciences. University of Alabama at Birmingham (1994); Doctoral Dissertation: A comparative study of population structure and chemical defenses in the soft corals Alcyonium paessleri May, Clavularia frankliniana Roule, and Gersemia antarctica Kukenthal in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. M.A. Marine Biology. San Jose State University at the Moss Landing Marine Laboratories (1987); Masters Thesis: Settlement and metamorphosis of red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) larvae: A critical examination of mucus, diatoms, and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) as inductive substrates. B.S. Biology. Loyola Marymount University (1981); Senior Thesis: The ecology of sympatric species of octopuses (Octopus fitchi and O. diguetti) at Coloraditos, Baja Ca. RESEARCH INTERESTS: Chemical defenses/natural products chemistry of marine & freshwater invertebrates, and microbes. Evolutionary ecology, and ecophysiological adaptations of organisms in aquatic communities; including coral reef, cave, sea grass, kelp forest, and polar ecosystems. Chemical signals in reproductive biology and larval ecology/recruitment, and their applications to aquaculture and biomedical sciences. Cnidarian, Sponge, Molluscan, and Echinoderm biology/ecology, population structure, symbioses and photobiological adaptations. Marine microbe competition and culture. Environmental toxicology. EMPLOYMENT: Professor of Pharmacognosy and
    [Show full text]
  • Frequency-Dependent Selection by Wild Birds Promotes Polymorphism in Model Salamanders
    University of Tennessee, Knoxville TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange Faculty Publications and Other Works -- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Ecology and Evolutionary Biology July 2013 Frequency-dependent selection by wild birds promotes polymorphism in model salamanders Benjamin M. Fitzpatrick University of Tennessee - Knoxville, [email protected] Kim Shook University of Tennessee - Knoxville Reuben Izally Farragut High School Follow this and additional works at: https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_ecolpubs Part of the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology Commons Recommended Citation BMC Ecology 2009, 9:12 doi:10.1186/1472-6785-9-12 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications and Other Works -- Ecology and Evolutionary Biology by an authorized administrator of TRACE: Tennessee Research and Creative Exchange. For more information, please contact [email protected]. BMC Ecology BioMed Central Research article Open Access Frequency-dependent selection by wild birds promotes polymorphism in model salamanders Benjamin M Fitzpatrick*1, Kim Shook2,3 and Reuben Izally2,3 Address: 1Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville TN 37996, USA, 2Pre-collegiate Research Scholars Program, University of Tennessee, Knoxville TN 37996, USA and 3Farragut High School, Knoxville TN 37934, USA Email: Benjamin M Fitzpatrick* - [email protected]; Kim Shook - [email protected]; Reuben Izally - [email protected] * Corresponding author Published: 8 May 2009 Received: 10 February 2009 Accepted: 8 May 2009 BMC Ecology 2009, 9:12 doi:10.1186/1472-6785-9-12 This article is available from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6785/9/12 © 2009 Fitzpatrick et al; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
    [Show full text]
  • The Evolution of Müllerian Mimicry
    CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by Springer - Publisher Connector Naturwissenschaften (2008) 95:681–695 DOI 10.1007/s00114-008-0403-y REVIEW The evolution of Müllerian mimicry Thomas N. Sherratt Received: 9 February 2008 /Revised: 26 April 2008 /Accepted: 29 April 2008 /Published online: 10 June 2008 # Springer-Verlag 2008 Abstract It is now 130 years since Fritz Müller proposed systems based on profitability rather than unprofitability an evolutionary explanation for the close similarity of co- and the co-evolution of defence. existing unpalatable prey species, a phenomenon now known as Müllerian mimicry. Müller’s hypothesis was that Keywords Müllerian mimicry. Anti-apostatic selection . unpalatable species evolve a similar appearance to reduce Warning signals . Predation the mortality involved in training predators to avoid them, and he backed up his arguments with a mathematical model in which predators attack a fixed number (n) of each Introduction distinct unpalatable type in a given season before avoiding them. Here, I review what has since been discovered about In footnote to a letter written in 1860 from Alfred Russel Müllerian mimicry and consider in particular its relation- Wallace to Charles Darwin, Wallace (1860)drewattentionto ship to other forms of mimicry. Müller’s specific model of a phenomenon that he simply could not understand: “P.S. associative learning involving a “fixed n” in a given season ‘Natural Selection’ explains almost everything in Nature, but has not been supported, and several experiments now there is one class of phenomena I cannot bring under it,—the suggest that two distinct unpalatable prey types may be repetition of the forms and colours of animals in distinct just as easy to learn to avoid as one.
    [Show full text]
  • The Gut Microbiome of the Sea Urchin, Lytechinus Variegatus, from Its Natural Habitat Demonstrates Selective Attributes of Micro
    FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 92, 2016, fiw146 doi: 10.1093/femsec/fiw146 Advance Access Publication Date: 1 July 2016 Research Article RESEARCH ARTICLE The gut microbiome of the sea urchin, Lytechinus variegatus, from its natural habitat demonstrates selective attributes of microbial taxa and predictive metabolic profiles Joseph A. Hakim1,†, Hyunmin Koo1,†, Ranjit Kumar2, Elliot J. Lefkowitz2,3, Casey D. Morrow4, Mickie L. Powell1, Stephen A. Watts1,∗ and Asim K. Bej1,∗ 1Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1300 University Blvd, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA, 2Center for Clinical and Translational Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA, 3Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA and 4Department of Cell, Developmental and Integrative Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1918 University Blvd., Birmingham, AL 35294, USA ∗Corresponding authors: Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, 1300 University Blvd, CH464, Birmingham, AL 35294-1170, USA. Tel: +1-(205)-934-8308; Fax: +1-(205)-975-6097; E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] †These authors contributed equally to this work. One sentence summary: This study describes the distribution of microbiota, and their predicted functional attributes, in the gut ecosystem of sea urchin, Lytechinus variegatus, from its natural habitat of Gulf of Mexico. Editor: Julian Marchesi ABSTRACT In this paper, we describe the microbial composition and their predictive metabolic profile in the sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus gut ecosystem along with samples from its habitat by using NextGen amplicon sequencing and downstream bioinformatics analyses. The microbial communities of the gut tissue revealed a near-exclusive abundance of Campylobacteraceae, whereas the pharynx tissue consisted of Tenericutes, followed by Gamma-, Alpha- and Epsilonproteobacteria at approximately equal capacities.
    [Show full text]
  • Polymorphism Under Apostatic
    Heredity (1984), 53(3), 677—686 1984. The Genetical Society of Great Britain POLYMORPHISMUNDER APOSTATIC AND APOSEMATIC SELECTION VINTON THOMPSON Department of Biology, Roosevelt University, 430 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60805 USA Received31 .i.84 SUMMARY Selection for warning colouration in well-defended species should lead to a single colour form in each local population, but some species are locally polymor- phic for aposematic colour forms. Single-locus two-allele models of frequency- dependent selection indicate that combined apostatic and aposematic selection may maintain stable polymorphism for one, two or three aposematic forms, provided that at least one form is subject to net apostatic selection. Frequency- independent selective differences between colour forms broaden the possibilities for aposematic polymorphism but lead to monomorphism if too large. Concurrent apostatic and aposematic selection may explain polymorphism for warning colouration in a number of jumping or moderately unpalatable insects. 1. INTRODUCTION Polymorphism for warning colouration poses a paradox for evolutionists because, as Fisher (1958) seems to have been the first to note, selection for warning colouration (aposematic selection) should lead to monomorphism. Under aposematic selection predators tend to avoid previously encountered phenotypes of undesirable prey, so that the fitness of each phenotype increases as it becomes more common. Given the presence of two forms, each will suffer at the hands of predators conditioned to avoid the other and one will eventually prevail because as soon as it gets the upper hand numerically it will drive the other to extinction. Nonetheless, many species are polymorphic for colour forms that appear to be aposematic. The ladybird beetles (Coccinellidae) furnish a number of particularly striking examples (Hodek, 1973; and see illustration in Ayala, 1978).
    [Show full text]
  • Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation on Developing Variegated
    EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION ON DEVELOPING VARIEGATED SEA URCHINS, LYTECHINUS VARIEGATUS by Eric Cary Tauchman B.S., The University of Wisconsin—Madison, 2001 A thesis submitted to the Department of Biology College of Arts and Sciences The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science 2008 The thesis of Eric Cary Tauchman is approved: ____________________________________________ _________________ Theodore C. Fox, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Wade H. Jeffrey, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Christopher M. Pomory, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: ____________________________________________ _________________ George L. Stewart, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the University: ____________________________________________ _________________ Richard S. Podemski, Ph.D., Dean of Graduate Studies Date ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Pomory, for presenting me with the opportunity to work on this thesis. He offered teachings and advice on all things science and many things not. I also had the most knowledgeable, available, and reasonable committee members a budding scientist could ask for—something I truly appreciate Drs. Fox and Jeffrey. When one takes twice as long to complete this program as expected, focus wanders and new ideas pop up. The UWF biology and even chemistry faculty displayed wonderful patience and generosity of time and resources in abetting some less- than-entirely thought out ideas on where this research could go (some of them enough to have their names on this paper). I also did a bit of teaching during my tenure at UWF. Human Anatomy and Physiology and Cell Biology were my homes away from home sometimes.
    [Show full text]
  • Endemic Species of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean D.J
    RECORDS OF THE WESTERN AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM 34 055–114 (2019) DOI: 10.18195/issn.0312-3162.34(2).2019.055-114 Endemic species of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean D.J. James1, P.T. Green2, W.F. Humphreys3,4 and J.C.Z. Woinarski5 1 73 Pozieres Ave, Milperra, New South Wales 2214, Australia. 2 Department of Ecology, Environment and Evolution, La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria 3083, Australia. 3 Western Australian Museum, Locked Bag 49, Welshpool DC, Western Australia 6986, Australia. 4 School of Biological Sciences, The University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia. 5 NESP Threatened Species Recovery Hub, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0909, Australia, Corresponding author: [email protected] ABSTRACT – Many oceanic islands have high levels of endemism, but also high rates of extinction, such that island species constitute a markedly disproportionate share of the world’s extinctions. One important foundation for the conservation of biodiversity on islands is an inventory of endemic species. In the absence of a comprehensive inventory, conservation effort often defaults to a focus on the better-known and more conspicuous species (typically mammals and birds). Although this component of island biota often needs such conservation attention, such focus may mean that less conspicuous endemic species (especially invertebrates) are neglected and suffer high rates of loss. In this paper, we review the available literature and online resources to compile a list of endemic species that is as comprehensive as possible for the 137 km2 oceanic Christmas Island, an Australian territory in the north-eastern Indian Ocean.
    [Show full text]
  • The Effects of Oxygen Supply When Immersed on the Thermal Limits and Performance of the Wave Zone Echinoderm Colobocentrotus Atratus
    THE EFFECTS OF OXYGEN SUPPLY WHEN IMMERSED ON THE THERMAL LIMITS AND PERFORMANCE OF THE WAVE ZONE ECHINODERM COLOBOCENTROTUS ATRATUS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE IN ZOOLOGY AUGUST 2017 By Sean L. Wilbur Thesis Committee: Amy L. Moran, Chairperson Amber N. Wright Celia M. Smith ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank those who have provided their support and guidance during my stint in graduate school. First and foremost, I would like to thank my major advisor Amy Moran for taking a chance on me from the beginning and always providing support, both intellectual and material. The entire Moran lab played a huge part in helping me develop as a scientist and refine my research goals. I want to thank all my colleagues in both the Moran lab and at Kewalo marine lab, who both helped provide guidance and were critical in assisting in dangerous field work. I would also like to thank my committee members Amber Wright and Celia Smith for providing assistance with data analysis and intellectual input into my research. Additionally, I would like to acknowledge my undergraduate advisor, Michael Hadfield, who helped mold me as a young scientist and encouraged me to continue my intellectual pursuits. Lastly, I would like to thank my family for never doubting my resolve and always supporting me in my endeavors. I would like to thank my wife, Ashley Wilbur, for all she has sacrificed to support me and being patient with me.
    [Show full text]
  • Māhā'ulepū, Island of Kaua'i Reconnaissance Survey
    National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Pacific West Region, Honolulu Office February 2008 Māhā‘ulepū, Island of Kaua‘i Reconnaissance Survey THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………………. 1 2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY……………………………………………………..3 2.1 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………………..……… 3 2.2 Purpose and Scope of an NPS Reconnaissance Survey………………………………………4 2.2.1 Criterion 1: National Significance………………………………………………………..4 2.2.2 Criterion 2: Suitability…………………………………………………………………….. 4 2.2.3 Criterion 3: Feasibility……………………………………………………………………. 4 2.2.4 Criterion 4: Management Options………………………………………………………. 4 3 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AREA…………………………………………………. 5 3.1 Regional Context………………………………………………………………………………….. 5 3.2 Geography and Climate…………………………………………………………………………… 6 3.3 Land Use and Ownership………………………………………………………………….……… 8 3.4. Maps……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10 4 STUDY AREA RESOURCES………………………………………..………………. 11 4.1 Geological Resources……………………………………………………………………………. 11 4.2 Vegetation………………………….……………………………………………………...……… 16 4.2.1 Coastal Vegetation……………………………………………………………………… 16 4.2.2 Upper Elevation…………………………………………………………………………. 17 4.3 Terrestrial Wildlife………………..........…………………………………………………………. 19 4.3.1 Birds……………….………………………………………………………………………19 4.3.2 Terrestrial Invertebrates………………………………………………………………... 22 4.4 Marine Resources………………………………………………………………………...……… 23 4.4.1 Large Marine Vertebrates……………………………………………………………… 24 4.4.2 Fishes……………………………………………………………………………………..26
    [Show full text]
  • Echinodermata Associated with Coral Reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
    Rec. zoo!. Surv. India: 100 (Part 3-4) : 21-60, 2002 ECHINODERMATA ASSOCIATED WITH CORAL REEFS OF ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS D. R. K. SASTRY Zoological Survey of India, A & N Regional Station, Port Blair - 744 102 INTRODUCTION Coral reefs are an important ecosystem of the coastal environment. The reef ecosystem IS highly productive and provides substratum, shelter, food etc. to a variety of biota. Consequently a number of faunal and floral elements are attracted towards the reef ecosystem and are closely associated with each other to form a community. Thus the reefs are also rich in biodiversity. Among the coral reef associates echinoderms are a conspicuous element on account of their size, abundance and effect on the reef ecosystem including the corals. In spite of their importance in the coral reef ecosystem and its conservation, very few studies were made on the echinoderm associates of the coral reefs. Though there were some studies elsewhere, the information on reef­ associated echinoderms of Indian coast is meager and scattered (see Anon, 1995). Hence an attempt is made here to collate the scattered accounts and unpublished information available with Zoological Survey of India. Since the information is from several originals and quoted references and many are to be cited often, these are avoided in the text and a comprehensive bibliography is appended which served as source material and also provides additional references of details and further information. ECHINODERMS OF CORAL REEFS More than 200 species of echinoderms occur in the reef ecosystem of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. These belong to five extant classes with 30 to 60 species of each class.
    [Show full text]