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Wildlife in Alpine and Sub-Alpine Habitats Kathy M

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Wildlife in Alpine and Sub-Alpine Habitats Kathy M 9 Wildlife in Alpine and Sub-alpine Habitats Kathy M. Martin Introduction The landscape of western North America is defined communities inhabiting the alpine zone above natural by vast areas of striking mountainous terrain. Since treeline. I describe what is special about high settlement, humans have been fascinated and elevation communities, and what is changing. About frustrated with these imposing habitats that offer one third of the vertebrate fauna in the Pacific more vertical than horizontal relief. In the old world, Northwest is connected to alpine and sub-alpine humans have used alpine areas for hunting and habitats across one or more seasons. Alpine habitats agriculture since the beginning of recorded history. are essentially vertical islands. Some animals, such as Europeans and Asians have practiced alpine white-tailed ptarmigan, hoary marmots and mountain agriculture for over 10 centuries, cultivating crops goats, remain in their high elevation ‘islands’ year- and moving livestock up to alpine pastures in round, and leave only to travel to other alpine summer and down to lower elevations in fall (Bätzing patches. However, the majority of species move to 1991). In North America, our relationship with alpine lower elevation habitats at some life history stage. areas is much more recent. Mountains posed serious Thus, connectivity is a key ecological process to barriers to exploration and the development of maintain for alpine wildlife. Anthropogenically- agriculture in the previous century. Today, however, induced changes at both high and low elevations alpine areas are valued for their intrinsic beauty and constitute potential threats for alpine animals which wildness, for their recreational potential, and as a are well adapted for extreme conditions, but not so refuge from dense urban areas. well for increased warming, competition or The alpine zone consists of rugged, partially predation. Alpine sites have the potential to serve as vegetated terrain with snowfields and rocky ridges, natural experiments that allow ‘space for time’ above the natural treeline. Alpine ecosystems are perspectives in predicting animal responses to global structurally simple with few plant species compared climate change. to most lower elevation habitats. High elevation habitats are characterized by high winds, prolonged 1. The Nature, Distribution and snow cover, steep terrain, extremes of heat and cold, Diversity of Alpine Habitats — and intense ultraviolet radiation. With increasing Global to Local elevation, time for breeding decreases and A mountain is a landmass arising above the general environmental stochasticity increases; at the highest landscape that induces a change in climate that elevations, hypoxic conditions add additional affects vegetation and animal life (Price 1981). The energetic living costs. These factors result in short, word alpine comes from the Alps, and refers to the intense breeding seasons for wildlife, and the need zone above the natural treeline, with persistent or for seasonal movements to and from patchy breeding permanent snowfields, rocky ridges, occasional wind- habitats and wintering areas. shaped trees and continuous to scattered tundra Despite being highly valued for their intrinsic vegetation (Love 1970). The treeline, the lower beauty and wildness, alpine vertebrates and their high boundary of the alpine life zone, is often fragmented elevation habitats are a neglected area for research over several hundred meters of altitude (Körner and management. Alpine ecosystems recently have 1999). Several factors define the alpine zone, experienced large increases in amount and kinds of including elevation, aspect and high relief, but human use, and some areas now show significant climate is probably the best determinant of where deterioration. In this chapter, I describe the wildlife alpine zones begin (Price 1981, Körner 1999). Alpine Citation: K. Martin, 2001. Wildlife in Alpine and Sub-alpine Habitats In: D.H. Johnson and T. A. O’Neil (Managing Directors). Wildlife-Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington. Oregon State University Press. Pages 285-310. Also available at: http://www.forestry.ubc.ca/alpine/docs/alpecol.pdf 2—Wildlife–Habitat Relationships in Oregon and Washington Fig. 1. Sub-alpine flowers in the foreground, open montane forest with hints of tree ‘islands’, and a spectacular view of snow-capped Mt Rainier in the background. Slide by Steve Ogle (#17), mid to late August 1999. climates are characterized by high winds, low heavily glaciated. Mt. Baker, Glacier Peak and Mt. temperatures, low effective moisture and short Rainier, high ice-covered volcanoes, are the most growing seasons (Braun 1980, Billings 1989). Alpine conspicuous mountains scattered along the crest of zones increase in elevation from north to south and the Range. Below the ice, these ‘island’ mountains from coastal areas to interior. Northward across the support well-developed alpine plant communities in mid-latitudes of North America, treeline decreases moist and cool environments (Douglas and Bliss about 152 m (500 ft) in elevation per 160 km (100 1977, Billings 1989). The Cascades Range is mi, Daubenmire 1954). In the Cascades, treeline distinguished by being one of the snowiest places on increases in elevation from about 2000 m (6560 ft) on the planet. Mt. Rainier and Mt. Baker have the right the west side to 2500 m (8200 ft) on the eastern combination of winter precipitation and oceanic air continental side (Arno 1984). In this chapter, the currents, as well as steep temperature and elevational alpine zone includes two habitat types, alpine treeless gradients to generate impressive snowfall. During and partially vegetated areas at the top, and the sub- 1998-1999 winter, Mt. Baker recorded a world record alpine, which is the zone between closed upper snowfall of 28.9 m (95.0 ft, U.S. Department of montane forest and the upper limits of small trees in Commerce and the National Oceanic and open parklands. Atmospheric Administration, Press Release, August 3 The global alpine landmass comprises about 4 1999). million km2, about 3% of the global landmass Alpine and sub-alpine habitats are among the (Körner 1999), an area about half the size of the most undisturbed habitats remaining in the Pacific continental United States (~ 7 million km2, 2.98 Northwest. The amount or distribution of high million sq. mi.). About 30% of this alpine landmass elevation habitat in Washington and Oregon has is vegetated (Körner 1999). In Washington, the total changed little since pre-settlement times. Alpine area of alpine and sub-alpine habitat is about 4.4% of ecosystems, however, are sensitive to sustained and the landbase and, in Oregon, about 0.6% (Kiilsgaard heavy use. Olympic and Mt. Rainier National Parks 1999). Further north in the Pacific Northwest, 17% of show significant deterioration of alpine fellfields and British Columbia is classified as alpine (B.C. sub-alpine meadows caused by recreational activities, Ministry of Forests Database). By global and grazing, and air-borne contaminants (Houston and continental standards, the mountains in Washington Stevens 1988, Rochefort and Gibbons 1992, Brace and Oregon are modest in elevation. Mt. Everest and Peterson 1999, Kirk 1999). This region has also (8848 m; 29,029 ft) on the Tibet-Nepal border is the experienced several impressive natural disturbance highest elevation on earth. Mt. Denali in Alaska events. The Mt. St. Helens volcano in Washington (6194 m; 20,320 ft) is the highest peak in North erupted in 1980, scorching or levelling 500 km2 (200 America. In the Pacific Northwest, Mt. Rainier is the mi2) of surrounding forest up to a distance of 25 km highest mountain in Washingon at 4392 m (14,409 ft, (15 mi, Frenzen and Crisafulli 1990). Recovery of the Figure 1), while Mt. Hood is the highest in Oregon mountain flora and fauna after this natural (3426 m; 11, 239 ft). disturbance is of special ecological interest to The North Cascades Range provides a rugged set biologists. Shortly after Mt. St. Helens cooled, of young mountains, geologically complex, and wildlife species began to recolonize and, recovery 3—ALPINE/SUBALPINE continues. Species with the most complete recovery alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), and coniferous wetland tend to be associated with standing dead trees, stream habitat types. On the eastern side, it is drier, alpine ecosystems, or living beneath the soil surface habitats are at higher elevations, and these are (Manuwal et al. 1987, Crisafulli and Hawkins 1998). connected to lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and The Cascades Mountains, the major mountain high shrub Steppe habitat types (Cassidy et al. 1997). range in the region, extend from British Columbia Locally, high elevation habitats also differ in climate, south through Washington and Oregon to California. vegetation, and processes such as treeline and The Selkirk Mountains run from southern British resilience to impacts depending upon location, slope, Columbia to northeastern Washington. The Olympic elevation, and aspect. Mountains lie west, and the Okanogan Highlands lie east of the Cascades Range. The major mountain Sub-alpine Parkland habitats occur below alpine or ranges in Oregon are the Wallowa Mountains, Blue krummholz (the zone where growth of trees and Mountains, Steens Mountain, and the Siskiyous. shrubs is stunted and deformed) and above continuous sub-alpine forest. The parklands are 2. High Elevation Wildlife Habitats mosaics of patches of herbaceous or dwarf-shrub In Washington And
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