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Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist Overcomes the Scarcity of High-Quality Data That Has Hampered the Study of Terrorism for Decades

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Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist Overcomes the Scarcity of High-Quality Data That Has Hampered the Study of Terrorism for Decades Schuurman How and why do people become involved in European homegrown jihadism? This book addresses this question through an in-depth study of the Dutch Hofstadgroup, infamous for containing the murderer of filmmaker Theo van Gogh, who was killed in November 2004 in Amsterdam, and for plotting numerous other terrorist attacks. The Hofstadgroup offers a window into the broader phenomenon of homegrown jihadism that arose in Europe in 2004 and is still with us today. Utilizing interviews with former Hofstadgroup participants and the extensive police files on the group, Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist overcomes the scarcity of high-quality data that has hampered the study of terrorism for decades. The book advances a multicausal and multilevel understanding of involvement in European homegrown jihadism that is critical of the currently prevalent ‘radicalization’- based explanatory frameworks. It stresses that the factors that initiate involvement are separate from those that sustain it, which in turn are again likely to differ from those that bring some individuals to actual acts Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist of terrorism. This is a key resource for scholars of terrorism and all those Bart Schuurman interested in understanding the pathways that can lead to involvement in European homegrown jihadism. Dr. Bart Schuurman is an Assistant Professor at Leiden University’s Becoming a European Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA), based in The Hague. Homegrown Jihadist ‘Schuurman finally breaks through the secrecy surrounding terrorism to write about the Hofstadgroup based on primary sources and personal interviews with perpetrators. His evidence refutes the conventional academic wisdom A Multilevel Analysis of Involvement on radicalization and terrorism that are too often based on speculation and unreliable data. A must-read for any student of political violence.’ in the Dutch Hofstadgroup, 2002-2005 − Marc Sageman, independent scholar, author of the recent Turning to Political Violence ISBN:978-94-6298-693-0 AUP.nl 9 789462 986930 Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist Becoming a European Homegrown Jihadist A Multilevel Analysis of Involvement in the Dutch Hofstadgroup, 2002-2005 Bart Schuurman Amsterdam University Press Parts of this research were supported by grants from the Prins Bernhard Cultuurfonds and the Fulbright Visiting Scholar program. Cover illustration: Ten years after the murder of Theo van Gogh by Mohammed Bouyeri, the bullet holes are still visible in the bicycle lane in front of Linnaeusstraat 22, Amsterdam. Source: Wikimedia Commons Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout Amsterdam University Press English-language titles are distributed in the US and Canada by the University of Chicago Press. isbn 978 94 6298 693 0 e-isbn 978 90 4853 830 0 (pdf) doi 10.5117/9789462986930 nur 686 / 717 / 754 © Bart Schuurman / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2018 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. For Marlies, Willem & Claire Contents Acknowledgments 11 1 Introduction 13 1.1 Studying involvement in European homegrown jihadism 15 1.2 Existing literature on the Hofstadgroup 18 1.2.1 Journalistic accounts of the Hofstadgroup 18 1.2.2 Primary-sources-based academic research on the Hofstadgroup 19 1.2.3 Secondary-sources-based academic research on the Hofstadgroup 21 1.2.4 Insights by proxy 22 1.2.5 Research on the Hofstadgroup by government agencies 23 1.3 Claim to originality 24 1.4 Research questions 24 1.5 Research method 25 1.6 Sources of information 27 1.6.1 Using police files to study terrorism 27 1.6.2 Using interviews to study terrorism 29 1.7 Ethical guidelines 31 1.8 A note on terminology 32 1.9 Outline 32 2 Studying involvement in terrorism 35 2.1 Issues in terrorism research 35 2.1.1 An overreliance on secondary sources 36 2.2 Making sense of involvement in terrorism 39 2.2.1 Structural-level explanations for involvement in terrorism 42 2.2.2 Group-level explanations for involvement in terrorism 44 2.2.3 Individual-level explanations for involvement in terrorism 45 2.2.4 Interrelated perspectives 47 2.3 Limitations 47 2.4 A definitional debate 49 2.4.1 Terrorism 49 2.4.2 Radicalism and extremism 51 2.4.3 Jihad and homegrown jihadism 52 2.5 Conclusion 53 3 A history of the Hofstadgroup 55 3.1 The emergence of homegrown jihadism in the Netherlands 55 3.2 2002: The Hofstadgroup’s initial formation 56 3.3 2003: Would-be foreign fighters and international connections 57 3.4 2004: Individualistic plots and the murder of Theo van Gogh 60 3.4.1 Towards the murder of Theo van Gogh 63 3.4.2 Violent resistance to arrest 67 3.5 2005: From ‘Hofstad’ to ‘Piranha’ 68 3.5.1 Spring and summer 2005: Renewed signs of terrorist intentions 69 3.5.2 The second and third potential plots come to light 71 3.6 An overview of the court cases 74 3.7 Conclusion 75 4 The ideological and organizational nature of the Hofstadgroup 77 4.1 Drawing the Hofstadgroup’s boundaries 77 4.2 Homegrown jihadism 78 4.2.1 The Hofstadgroup’s homegrown aspects 78 4.3 Ideology and terrorism 79 4.3.1 The Hofstadgroup’s ideology 82 4.4 Defining terrorist organizations 87 4.4.1 The Hofstadgroup’s organizational structure 88 4.5 Group involvement in terrorism? 92 4.6 Conclusion 94 5 Structural-level factors: Facilitating and motivating involvement 97 5.1 Structural-level factors influencing involvement in terrorism 97 5.2 Preconditions: Providing opportunities for terrorism 99 5.2.1 The Internet 99 5.2.2 Popular support for terrorism 101 5.2.3 External assistance 102 5.2.4 Social or cultural facilitation of violence 106 5.2.5 Ineffective counterterrorism 107 5.2.6 Political opportunity structure 109 5.3 Preconditions: Providing motives for terrorism 112 5.3.1 (Relative) deprivation and intergroup inequality 112 5.3.2 Political grievances 116 5.3.3 A clash of value systems? 118 5.4 Structural-level precipitants: Submission, part 1 120 5.5 Conclusion 120 6 Group dynamics I: Initiating and sustaining involvement 123 6.1 Group dynamics and involvement in terrorism 123 6.2 Terrorist group formation 125 6.3 Social identity and the benefits of group membership 129 6.4 Socialization into a worldview conducive to terrorism 132 6.5 The underground life 133 6.6 Social learning theory 136 6.7 The influence of leaders 139 6.8 Peer pressure 141 6.9 Conclusion 145 7 Group dynamics II: Involvement in acts of terrorist violence 147 7.1 Group-level explanations for terrorist violence 147 7.2 Organizational structure and lethality 148 7.3 Group influences that lower barriers to violent behavior 149 7.3.1 Diffusion of responsibility and deindividuation 149 7.3.2 Authorization of violence 150 7.4 The rationality of terrorism 154 7.5 Terrorism as the result of strategic considerations 156 7.6 Terrorism as the result of organizational dynamics 159 7.6.1 The group as a vehicle for redemptive violence 161 7.6.2 The influence of role models on the use of violence 162 7.6.3 Interaction with the Dutch authorities 163 7.6.4 Competition with other extremist groups 164 7.7 Conclusion 166 8 Individual-level analysis I: Cognitive explanations 169 8.1 Structuring the individual-level of analysis 169 8.2 Radicalization 171 8.3 Fanaticism 177 8.4 Cognitive openings and unfreezing 181 8.5 Cognitive dissonance and moral disengagement 185 8.6 Conclusion 191 9 Individual-level analysis II: Terrorists as psychologically distinctive 195 9.1 Terrorists as psychopaths 196 9.2 Psychoanalysis 198 9.3 Significance quests and identity-related alienation 200 9.4 The terrorist personality or profile 204 9.5 The role of emotions: anger 209 9.6 Mortality salience 212 9.7 Conclusion 214 10 Conclusion 217 10.1 Key findings 218 10.2 Implications for research on European homegrown jihadism 222 10.2.1 The ‘driving force’ of involvement processes is liable to change 223 10.2.2 Involvement in extremist and terrorist groups takes various forms 224 10.2.3 The nature of the group shapes the involvement experi- ence 225 10.2.4 Fanaticism rather than radicalization 226 10.2.5 Involvement as personal expression rather than strategic calculation 227 10.2.6 Neither victims nor psychopaths 228 10.2.7 The often-overlooked role of chance 228 10.3 Policy-relevant implications 229 10.4 Limitations and future research 230 10.5 Toward a more empirical study of terrorism 232 Abbreviations 233 Bibliography 235 Index 259 Acknowledgments My research into the Hofstadgroup began in late 2011, when I was fortunate enough to come into contact with the Dutch police files on this group through a research project that my employer Leiden University had been asked to conduct. Had anyone told me at the time that this first encounter would lead to a PhD thesis and ultimately this book, I would have raised my eyebrows in considerable skepticism. These pages speak to the ability to find academic interest and challenge in unexpected places. While this book marks the end of my study of the Hofstadgroup, I hope to be able to continue exploring what drives people to become and remain involved in extremism and terrorism. The findings presented in this book, and any errors they might contain, are mine alone.
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